COMPONENTS AND CIRCUITS

9 RESISTORS
CHECKLIST
After studying this chapter you should be able to: select an appropriate preferred value from the E l 2
• state the resistance of a resistor from the colour code or series of resistors.
printed code,
• state the tolerance of a resistor from the colour code or
printed code, and hence calculate the maximum and
minimum resistances possible, and

ABOUT RESISTORS
Basically resistors are used to lim it th e current in circuits. a
W h e n choosing one, three factors need to be considered,
apart from th e value.

(i) T h e tolerance: exact values ca n n o t be guaranteed by

m ass-production m ethods but this is n o t a disadvan­ metal film
tage because in m ost electronic circuits th e values of
resistors are n o t critical. A resistor w ith a stated
(called nom inal) value of 100 f t and a tolerance of
± 10% could have any value betw een 90 and 110 ft.
(ii) T h e power rating: this is the m axim um power w hich
can be developed in a resistor w ithout damage
occurring by overheating. For m ost electronic cir­
cuits 0.25 or 0.5 W ratings are adequate. T h e greater
th e physical size of a resistor the greater is its rating. wirew ound
(iii) h e stability: this is the ability to keep th e same
T
value w ith changes of tem perature and w ith age.

FIXED RESISTORS
T h ree types are shown in Fig. 9.1. T h e table shows their
properties.
Since exact values of fixed resistors are unnecessary in
Type C a rb o n M e tal W ire w o u n d
m ost electronic circuits, only certain preferred values are
P r o p e r t y ''" \ ^ ^ film film
m ade. T h e num ber of values depends o n the tolerance.
Maximum value 10 MO lO M ft 4 .7 kn
Fig. 9.2 shows the values required to give m axim um cov­
erage w ith m inim um overlap for tolerances of ± 5 % and Tolerance ±5% ±1% ±5%
± 1 0 % . For example, a 22 f t ± 1 0 % resistor may have any Power rating 0 .2 5 -2 W 0 .6 W 2.5 W
value betw een (22 + 2.2) ~ 24 FI and (22 — 2.2) ~ 20 ft.
Stability good very good very good
T h e n ex t higher value of 27 f t (for ± 1 0 % tolerance)
Use general accurate work low values
m ore or less covers the range 24 f t to 30 ft.

20
 9 RESISTORS

Preferred values th e first digit. T h e second band from th a t end gives the
m u ltip le x 10) second digit. T h e third band in the four band code gives
for tolerance
th e m ultiplier (or the num ber of Os to be added), b u t it
—5% ±10% ±5% ±10% gives th e third digit (often 0, i.e. black) in th e five band
E l s series) (E12 series) (E24 series) (E12 series)
code. In the latter system the m ultiplier is given by the
1.0 1.0 3.3 3.3 fourth band. T he five band code tends to be used w ith
1.1 3.6 higher precision resistors, e.g. tolerance ± 1% .
1.2 1.2 3.9 3.9
In bo th systems the colour of th e band on its own at
1.3 4.3
1.5 1.5 4.7 4.7 th e o th er end gives the tolerance. If this band is missing
1.6 5.1 on the resistor, th e tolerance is ±20% .
1.8 1.8 5.6 5.6
2.0 6.2 Printed code T he code is printed on the resistor and
2.2 2.2 6.8 6.8 consists of letters and num bers. It is also used on circuit
7.5 diagrams and on variable resistors. T h e examples in the
2.7 2.7 8.2 8.2
table below show how it works. R m eans X l, K means
3.0 9.1
X 103 and M m eans XlO 6, and the position of th e letter
9.2 gives th e decim al point.
Tolerances may be indicated by adding a letter at the
-tors w ith ± 1 0 % tolerance belong to the E l 2 series end: F = ± 1 % , G = ± 2 % , J = ± 5 % , K = ± 1 0 % ,
as 12 basic values). T hose w ith ± 5 % tolerance form M = ± 2 0 % . For exam ple 5K6K = 5.6 k fl ± 10%.
'2 4 series.
V alu e 0.27 n 3.3 a io n 220 n
RESISTANCE CODES Printed code R27 3R3 1OR 220R
: :id colour codes In this m ethod the resistance V alu e 1 kn 68 kn ioo kn 4.7 Mn
_e and tolerance are show n by either four or five
Printed code 1K0 68K 100K 4M7
- u rred bands round the resistor, th e latter giving the
j - more exactly. T h e way b o th systems work is shown

~ rr.e examples in Fig. 9.3. VARIABLE RESISTORS

. ~e first band to read is th e one at th e end of th e resis- Rotary type A rotary variable resistor is shown in
r.ere th e bands are closer together; its colour gives Fig. 9.4a, and its construction in Fig. 9.4b. C onnections
are m ade to each end of the track by term inal tags A and
_U JJJ -0 B. Tag C is connected to the sliding contact or wiper
o> °>S£ oO) w hich varies th e resistance betw een C and th e end tags
4 7 00 ± 5 % = 4 700 a = 4 .7 k ± 5 % w hen it is rotated by the spindle. For power ratings up to
\ND CODE 2 W , th e track is m ade either of carbon or of cerm et
(ceram ic and m etal oxide); above 2 W it is wirewound.
l---- <— I
' di gi t 2nd digit 3rd digit M ultiplier Tolerance
: sla c k 0 black 0 black - 1
' crown 1 brown 1 brown - 10
! red ±1% brown
2 red 2 red ~r 100 ±2% red
: : range 3 orange 3 orange ■V 1000
I .e llo w 4 yellow 4 yellow - 10000
I green 5 green 5 green — 100000
I olue 6 blue 6 blue 1000000
. iolet 7 violet I :5 % gold
7 violet
! grey 8 grey 0.1 gold : 10% silver
8 grey
; white 9 white 9 white 0.01 silver :2 0 % none

ban d code
T>
1 0 0 000 : 1% = 1 0 0 0 0 0 a = 100 k± 1%
c S) C
o JP cc O
9.3 -Q .Q -Q O _Q
Fig. 9 .4

21
COMPONENTS AND CIRCUITS

If th e track is ‘linear’ equal changes of resistance occur

w hen-the wiper is rotated through equal angles. In a ‘log’
track th e resistance change for equal angular rotations is
greater at th e end of the track th a n at th e start. C om m on
values are 10 k ft, 50 k ft, 100 k ft, 500 k ft and 1 M O.
T h e symbol for a variable resistor of this type is shown
in Fig. 9.4c.

Preset type Two preset variable resistors are show n in

Fig. 9.5a, b. T hese have carbon or cerm et tracks and
w hen adjustm ent is necessary, a screwdriver is used.
R atings vary from 0.25 to 1 W . Fig.

QUESTIONS
1. a) W h a t is th e value and tolerance of R ,, R2 and 2. a) W h a t is th e four band colour code for th e
R, show n by the four band colour code in the table following: (i) 150 f t ± 1 0 % , (ii) 10 f t ± 5%,.
below? (iii) 3.9 k ft ± 10%, (iv) 10 k fl ± 1%,
(v) 330 k f t ± 2%, (vi) 1 M ft ± 10%?
Band 1 2 3 4 b) W h a t is th e five band colour code for th e
R] brown black red silver following: (i) 160 f t ± 2%, (ii) 2.4 k ft ± 5%,
r2 yellow violet orange gold (iii) 750 k ft ± 1%?
3. W h a t is th e value and tolerance of a resistor
R3 green blue yellow none
m arked (i) 2K2M, (ii) 270KJ, (iii) 1M0K,
(iv) 15RF?
b) W h a t is the value and tolerance of R4, R5 and
R6 show n by the five band colour code in the table
4. W h a t is th e printed code for th e following:
(i) 100 f t ± 5%, (ii) 4.7 k ft ± 2%,
below?
(iii) 100 k ft ± 10%, (iv) 56 k ft ± 20%?
Band 1 2 3 4 5 5 . W h a t E l 2 preferred value would you use if you
black brown brown calculated th a t a circuit needed a resistor having a
R* brown black
value of (i) 1.3 k ft, (ii) 5.0 k ft, (iii) 72 k ft,
R5 orange orange black black gold
(iv) 350 kft?
Rb green brown black red red

1 0 CAPACITORS
I - o r g i n g W h e n connected to a battery, Fig. 10.1, the
pcs '/ r e of the battery attracts electrons from plate X and
: negative repels electrons to plate Y. Positive charge
l-n n c it of electrons) builds up o n X and an equal negative
- rge ^excess of electrons) builds up on Y. During the
. - ng, there is a brief flow of electrons round the cir-
—: m X to Y. C harging stops w hen the p.d. betw een X
i t .; : equals (and opposes) the e.m.f. of th e battery. T he
i " takes tim e, i.e. th e response of a capacitor to a
ce of p.d. is n o t im m ediate,
r th e connections to the battery are removed, the
*ze may take a long tim e to leak away from th e capac-
_rdess a conductor is connected across it.
I iD O c ita n c e T h e capacitance C of a capacitor mea-
« r- its charge-storing ability. It is 1 farad (F) if it stores a
:ge of 1 coulom b w hen th e p.d. across it is 1 volt. If
1 : charge is 6 C w hen th e p.d. is 2 V, th e n
= 6 C/2 V = 3’F. In general, for charge Q and p.d. V,
r _ Q „ breaks dow n (it is often m arked on it).
C - VC
i-ier more co n v en ien t units are:
1 m icrofarad (pF) = 10~6 F
1 nanofarad (nF) = 10-9 F
1 picofarad (pF) = 10“ 12 F
10 CAPACITORS
Fig. 10.1
C is large w hen th e area of th e plates is large, th e plate
separation is small and certain dielectrics are used.
Energy Stored A charged capacitor stores electrical
energy. For charge Q and p.d. V, the energy W stored is:
W = IQ V = h c v 1 (since Q = VC)
where W is in joules if Q is in coulombs and V in volts.
In a photographic flash unit a capacitor discharges
through a lamp and its energy is changed to h ea t and
light.
PRACTICAL CAPACITORS
W h e n choosing a capacitor two factors need to be consid­
ered, apart from its value and tolerance.
(i) T h e voltage rating: this is th e m axim um voltage (d.c.
or peak a.c.) it can w ithstand before th e dielectric
(ii) T h e leakage current: no dielectric is a perfect insula­
tor but th e loss of charge by leakage th rough it
should be small.
Fixed capacitors N on-polarized types ( H | - ) can be
connected either way round. Polarized types (+-|] | - ) have
23
COMPONENTS AND CIRCUITS

- •+••* •

m m

polyester

Fig. 10.2 alum inium

tantalum

Type N on-polarized Polarized (electrolytic)

P ro p erly Polyester M ica Ceramic Aluminium Tantalum
Values O .Q l-lO p F 1 pF-0.01 pF 1 0 p F - l pF 1 -1 0 0 0 0 0 pF 0 .1 - 1 0 0 pF
Tolerance ±5% ±1% - 2 5 to + 50% - 1 0 to + 50% ± 20%
Leakage small small small large small
Use general high frequency decoupling low frequency low voltage

a positive and a negative term inal and m ust be connected to indicate any decim al point. For exam ple, 2.2 nF is
so th a t there is d.c. through them in the correct direction shown as 2n2 and 4-7 pF as 4p7.
(to m ain tain th e dielectric by electrolytic action). In an o th er m ethod, a three digit code is used like the
Five fixed capacitors w hich use different dielectrics are resistor colour code but th e num bers are p rin ted on the
show n in Fig. 10.2. T h e table shows th eir properties, capacitor rather th a n encoded in colours. T h e first two
including th e different value ranges of th e various types. digits are th e first two num bers of th e value and th e third
T h e ‘Swiss roll’ m ethod of construction used for polar­ gives th e num ber of Os to be added to th e first two digits
ized capacitors is show n in Fig. 10.3. Som e o th er types are to give th e value in picofarads.
also m ade in this way, but a very th in m etal film is For example, a capacitor m arked ‘103’ has a value of 10
deposited on each side of a flexible strip of th e dielectric plus 3 zeros, w hich is 10 000 pF or 10 nF or 0.01 pF. T he
to act as th e plates. In m ica and ceram ic capacitors the table below gives m ore examples.
plates consist of a deposit of silver on a th in sheet of m ica
or ceramic. Code V a lu e (pF) V a lu e (nF) V a lu e (pF)
+ ve plate
(metal foil 101 100 0.1 0.0001
covered with
— l—I oxide layer 222 2200 2.2 0 .0 0 2 2
| as dielectric)
333 33 0 0 0 33 0 .0 3 3
—ve plate
\\ — \ \ (metal foil) 474 470 000 470 0 .4 7

T olerance values are shown using the same letters as in

paper soaked with electrolyte
Fig. 10.3 forms part of —ve plate th e resistor printed code (C h ap ter 9). For exam ple, a
capacitor m arked ‘102K’ has a value of 1000 pF ± 5 % .
Capacitance codes As for resistors, only certain
preferred values of capacitors are made, i.e. those of th e V ariable capacitors These are used to tune radio
E l 2 range (C h ap ter 9). Various ways are used to indicate receivers. T h eir value is varied (e.g. up to 500 pF) bv
capacitance values. altering th e overlap betw een a fixed set of m etal plates
In one m ethod, the value is m arked o n th e capacitor in and a m oving set, separated by a dielectric of air. O ften
pF, nF or pF w ith the subm ultiple abbreviation being used two or m ore are ‘ganged’, Fig. 10.4.

24
 10 CAPACITORS

to tal p.d. V = Vj + V2, it follows th a t th e com bined

capacitance C is given by:

1 1 1 C| x C2
— = m- + — or C
C C, c2 C, + C 7

Example W h a t is th e com bined capacitance of the

netw ork in Fig. 10.7?

C, 10 mF C3 5 MF

Fig. 10.4 C2 10 mF
— II—
Fig. 1 0 .7

T h e capacitance of C , and C 2 in parallel is

C , + C 2 = 10 + 10 = 20 pF.
-IK -
T his is in series w ith C 3 = 5 pF and th eir c o m b in e d '
capacitance C is:

5 X 20 100
C = = 4 pF
5 + 20 25

CAPACITORS IN A.C. CIRCUITS

Action In Fig. 10.8 the lamp lights only w hen S is in
the a.c. position, i.e. C blocks d.c. but allows a.c. to pass.
fig. 10.5
W ith d.c. there is a brief current w hich charges C. W ith
a.c., as its direction changes each h alf cycle, C is charged,
'm a ll variable capacitors called trimmers or presets are
discharged, charged in the opposite direction and dis­
-d to make fine, infrequent changes to the capacitance
charged again 50 times a second. N o current actually
r a circuit. Fig. 10.5 shows a type in w hich m etal foils
passes through C but it seems to because electrons flow to
:h a polypropylene dielectric are compressed m ore or
and fro in the wires joining the plates to the a.c. supply.
: -- ay a screw to change the value.
3V
I— I-
CAPACITOR NETWORKS
2.5 V 0.3 A
: a ra lle l In Fig. 10.6a th e p.d. across each capacitor is d.c.
c H
. -ame but th e charges are different (unless C j = C 2). a.c. s 1000 fiF
■e total charge Q = Q j + Q 2; it therefore follows th a t
: zombined capacitance C is: -o 3 V 50 Hz o -
Fig. 10.8
c = c, + c 2
Capacitive reactance T h e opposition of a capacitor
to a.c. is m easured by its capacitive reactance Xc , given by:
a ries In Fig. 10.6b each capacitor has th e same charge
■ the p.ds are different (unless Q = C 2). Since the 1
Xr =
2nfC
-W -i/2
I where Xc is in ohms if f is in hertz and C in farads. T his
o- H l- AY
I
I expression agrees w ith th e facts th a t if C is large, electron
r- -v -
flow is large and if / is high, electrons flow rapidly o n and
(b) off the plates. Large C and large / thus lead to a large cur­
: 10.6 rent, i.e. small opposition to the a.c.

25
COMPONENTS AND CIRCUITS
For example, if C = 1000 pF =• 10 3 F and / = 50 Hz,
th en - Xc = 1/(2tc X 50 X 10"3) = 3.2 ft. Xc would
decrease i f / increased (as Fig. 10.9 shows) or C increased.
Fig. 10.9
Xc is to a capacitor in an a.c. circuit as R is to a resistor in
a d.c. circuit, and if an r.m.s. voltage V is applied to a
capacitor of reactance Xc , the r.m.s. current 1 is given by:
V cycle A B (V is positive, I is negative so P is negative) the
I
Phase shift For a resistor in an a.c. circuit th e current
and p.d. reach their peak values at the same time, i.e.
they are in phase, Fig. 10.10.
Fig. 1 0 .1 0
For a capacitor, at the start of the cycle of applied p.d.
there is a ‘rush’ of current I w hich falls to zero w hen the
p.d. V across th e capacitor equals th e applied p.d., i.e. 1 is
a m axim um w hen V = 0 and vice versa, Fig. 10.11a.
T here is a phase shift of * cycle (or 90°) betw een I and V
w ith I ahead, i.e. it reaches its peak value first.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 10.11
26
Power T h e power P taken by a capacitor from an a.c.
supply can be found at any instant by m ultiplying (taking
+ and — signs into account) th e values of V and I at th a t
in stan t since P = I X V. T his can be done using th e V —t
and I - t graphs of Fig. 10.11a (rem em bering th a t
+ X + = + , + X — = — and — X — = + ) . T h e P—t
graph so obtained is show n in Fig. 10.11b. It is a sine
wave like th e V—t and I—t graphs bu t w ith twice th e fre­
quency. T h e average power taken by th e capacitor over a
cycle is zero since the graph is sym m etrical about th e t-
axis. A capacitor is said to be a ‘wattless’ com ponent.
T o explain this behaviour we consider th a t during th e
first quarter-cycle O A (V and 1 are b o th positive, making
P positive) power is draw n from th e supply and energy is
stored in th e charged capacitor. In th e second quarter-
capacitor discharges and returns its stored energy to the
supply.
COUPLING AND DECOUPLING
C apacitors are used to separate a.c. from d.c. For exam ple
if the output from one circuit, X, contains d.c. and a.c
(e.g. is varying d.c.) but only th e a.c. is w anted as th<
input to an o th er circuit Y, th e circuits can be coupled by ;
suitable capacitor offering low reactance at th e frequen
cies involved, Fig. 10.12a.
C apacitors are also used to prevent a.c. passing througl
a circuit or com ponent, i.e. it decouples them . Ii
Fig. 10.12b C has a low reactance at th e frequencie
involved and decouples R by acting as a bypass for a.c
while d.c. goes through R.
d.c.
o-»- -»-o
a.c. a.c.
+ +
d.c. d.c.
I I —►-
(a) <b>
Fig. 1 0 .1 2
USES OF CAPACITORS
(i) T o separate a.c. from d.c. by coupling or decoupling
(ii) T o control current in an a.c. circuit (p. 25).
(iii) T o sm ooth the output of a power supply by storir
charge (p. 83).
(iv) T o tune a radio receiver (p. 197).
(v) T o control th e frequency of an oscillator (p. 35).
(vi) In tim e delay circuits (p. 70).
 1 1 INDUCTOfcS

QUESTIONS
1 . a ) 'C alculate Q if V = 10 V and C = 100 000 pF.
b ) W h a t is C if Q = 12 pC and V = 6 V?
c) Find V if C = 10 pF and Q = 50 pC.
If 500 V is applied across a 2 pF capacitor,
calculate
a ) th e charge,
b ) th e energy stored.
3. W h at is th e com bined capacitance of (i) 2.2 pF
and 4-7 pF in parallel, (ii) two 100 pF capacitors
in series?
4. C alculate th e reactance of a 1 pF capacitor at
frequencies of (i) 1 kHz, (ii) 1 MHz.
A co n stan t voltage variable frequency a.c. supply is
connected to a 2 pF capacitor.
a) Draw a graph to show how the current
‘through’ the capacitor varies w ith the frequency.
b) If the supply is 6 V r.m.s. and the frequency is
100 Hz, w hat is the current?
6. W hy should a capacitor w ith a working voltage of
250 V n o t be used o n a 230 V a.c. supply?
7. a) Express the following in nF: (i) 100 pF,
(ii) 8200 PF, (iii) lOOOOpF.
b) Express the following in pF: (i) 330 nF,
(ii) 1000 nF, (iii) 47 nF.
8. a) W h a t is the value in pF of a capacitor w ith a
three digit code of (i) 821, (ii) 102, (iii) 563,
(iv) 104?
b) W h a t is the three digit code for a capacitor of
value: (i) 220 pF, (ii) 82 nF, (iii) 0.1 pF?

1 1 INDUCTORS
CHECKLIST
-~er studying this chapter you should be able to: • use the equation XL = 2nfL for inductive reactance,
• :‘ate what an inductor is and recognize its symbols, • state that there is a phase shift in an inductive circuit
• rtate that inductance is measured in henrys, and that / lags on V by 9 0 °, and
• irate what factors determine the inductance of an • state some uses of inductors.
nductor,
• 3ate that an inductor opposes a .c ., and that the higher
~e frequency and the larger the inductance, the greater
s the reactance XL to the a .c .,

- OUT INDUCTORS
r.Juctor is a coil of wire w ith a core of air or a mag-
material. Four types w ith th eir symbols are show n in
1.1. Inductors have inductance (symbol L); they
-e changing currents as we will now see.
In the circuit of Fig. 11.2, if the rheostat is first adjusted
so th a t the lamps are equally bright w hen S is closed, the
resistance of th e rheostat th e n equals th e resistance (due
to its coil) of th e iron-cored inductor. W h en S is opened
and closed again, the lamp in series w ith th e inductor

tags for multi-turn iron core

tannecting coil ferrite rod
to coif tags for
connecting
former to coil
(tube)
COMPONENTS AND CIRCUITS
N In d.C. circuits
fr
/ th e field is changing and induces an e.m.f. in th e coil itself
inductor
(1000-turn coil on
Fig. 11.2 two iron C-cores)
lights up a second or two after th a t in series w ith the
rheostat. T h e inductor opposes the rise of th e d.c. from
zero to its steady value.
If th e 3 V battery is replaced by a 3 V a.c. supply, the
lamp in series w ith th e inductor never lights, unless the
inductance is reduced by rem oving the iron core.
T o explain th e behaviour of an inductor we need to
know about electrom agnetic induction.
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
W h e n a conductor is in a changing m agnetic field, an
e.m.f. is produced in it. T his can be shown by pushing a
m agnet into a coil, one pole first, Fig. 11.3a, holding it
still inside th e coil and th e n w ithdraw ing it, Fig. 11.3b. A
centre-zero galvanom eter in series w ith th e coil shows
th a t there is a current w hen the m agnet is moving but n o t
w hen it is at rest. T h e current is in opposite directions
w hen th e m agnet enters and leaves the coil. T h e result is
th e same if th e coil is m oved towards and away from the
stationary m agnet.
Experim ents show th a t th e induced e.m .f. (w hich causes
th e cu rren t in the coil):
(i) increases w hen the rate at w hich the m agnetic field
changes also increases, e.g. it increases if the m agnet
is m oved faster — this is Faraday’s law;
(ii) always opposes the change causing it, e.g. in Fig. 11.3a
the end of the coil nearest the m agnet becomes a N
pole (due to the induced current), in Fig. 11.3b it
becomes a S pole — in both cases it tries to oppose
the m otion of the m agnet — this is Lenz’s law.
HOW INDUCTORS W ORK
A changing m agnetic field can be produced by an electric
current if th e value of th e current alters.
28
W h e n a direct current increases in a
coil from zero to its steady value, th e accom panying m ag­
netic field builds up to its final shape. D uring th e process
w hich opposes the change causing it, i.e. th e rising cur­
rent th a t is trying to establish the field. T h e opposition
delays the rise of current, Fig. 1 1.4a.
• falling
d.c.
Fig. 11.4 (b)
W h e n the current is sw itched off, th e field collapses
rapidly and induces a large e.m.f. in th e coil w hich
opposes the collapsing field caused by th e falling current.
It tries to keep the current flowing longer, so delaying its
fall to zero, Fig. 11.4b. This effect causes sparking at
sw itch contacts, the energy for w hich comes from th at
stored in th e m agnetic field round the coil.
In a.C. circuits Since an alternating cu rren t is chang­
ing all the tim e, th e m agnetic field it produces is also
changing continuously. T here is therefore always an
e.m.f. in th e coil and perm anent opposition to th e a.c. on
this account.
INDUCTANCE
A n inductor has an inductance of 1 henry (H ) if a current
changing in it at the rate of 1 ampere per second induces an
e.m.f. of 1 volt. If the induced e.m.f. is 2 V, th e inductance
is 2 H. T he millihenry (1 m H = 1CT3 FI) and the micro­
henry (1 pH = 10-6 H ) are more convenient sub-units.
In general, the inductance (also called th e self-induc­
tance) of a coil increases if:
(i) its cross-sectional area is large and its length small,
(ii) it has a large num ber of turns, and
(iii) it has a core of m agnetic m aterial.
It can be show n th a t the energy W stored in th e magnetic
field of an inductor of inductance L carrying a current 1 1<
W iL I2
where W is in joules if L is in henrys and I in amperes.
INDUCTORS IN A.C. CIRCUITS
Inductive reactance In a d.c. circuit w hen th e cur­
rent is constant, th e opposition of an inductor is due
entirely to the resistance of the copper wire used to wind

: -7. an a.c. circuit th e current is changing all th e tim e
■: opposition arises n o t only from the resistance of the
but also because of its inductance. T h e opposition
: - to th e latter is called the inductive reactance XL of the
t _ ^tto r and its value is calculated from:
XL = 2nfL
- tere XL is in ohm s if / is in hertz and L in henrys. XL
7 treases if eith er / or L increase, since in b o th cases the
r tt-f. induced by th e changing current (and m agnetic
~r.d) would be greater. Fig. 11.5 shows th e linear rela-
7.ship betw een XL and f for a given L; com pare it w ith
- t. 10.9 for Xc and /. As an example, if / = 50 Hz
z L = 10 H, th e n XL = 2n x 50 X 10 = 3.1 k fl; if
- = 500 Hz, XL = 31 k a
=g. 11.5
.71 r.m.s. voltage V is applied to an inductor of reac-
:e XL, th e r.m.s. current I is given by:
V
I =
: * a s e s h i f t T h e current ‘through’ a capacitor in an
7 circuit leads th e p.d. across it (see Fig. 10.11a). In an
7 _^ctor th e current I lags behind th e p.d. V by \ cycle (or
Fig. 11.6. T h e phase shift arises from the fact th a t
w ■m th e current starts to flow, although it is small at
it is increasing at its fastest rate, therefore so too is
m ild-up of th e m agnetic field. As a result the e.m.f.
;ed in the inductor has its m axim um value and
ses th e applied p.d.
*c. ' 1.6
•v er Like a perfect capacitor, a perfect inductor, i.e.
vith zero resistance, is a ‘wattless’ com ponent. Its
p :r against tim e (P -t) graph is obtained from Fig. 11.6
Ifc ~ a capacitor) and is the same as Fig. 10.1 lb.
. :n th e average power taken from the a.c. supply
: cycle is zero. In this case th e energy drawn from
.pply o n th e first quarter-cycle is stored in the m ag'
11 INDUCTORS
n etic field of th e inductor. During the second quarter-
cycle, the current and m agnetic field decrease and the
e.m.f. induced in th e inductor makes it act as a generator
returning the energy stored to th e supply.
In practice an inductor has resistance and some energy is
taken from the supply on this account and is n o t replaced.
CURRENT CONTROL BY AN INDUCTOR
IN A.C. CIRCUITS
If th e current in an a.c. circuit is to have a certain value,
the necessary ‘opposition’ can be provided by a resistor
but it wastes electrical energy as heat. T h e opposition of
an inductor to a.c. is due to its reactance XL and its resis­
tance R. A lthough bo th are m easured in ohm s they ca n ­
n o t be added directly (because of phase shifts) to give the
com bined opposition. T his is called th e impedance Z of
th e inductor. It is also m easured in ohm s and is given by:
z = V r 2+ XL2
For example, if th e resistance R of an inductor coil =
50 fl and the reactance XL at a certain frequency =
120 O, th e n th e im pedance Z = V 502 + 1202 =
V2500 + 14 400 = V16 900 130 fl at th a t frequency.
T h e r.m.s. current I is found from:
V V
I= — (com pare 1 = — for d.c.)
Z R
where V is the r.m.s. voltage.
If an inductor is used to control current in an a.c. cir­
cuit instead of a resistor, only part of th e required opposi­
tion is resistive and so less h eat is produced since th e
reactance is ‘w attless’.
C u rren t control in an a.c. circuit is also possible using a
capacitor, the opposition being its reactance Xc. Usually,
however, it is only used for high frequency currents. A t
low frequencies C would be inconveniently large, giving
low values of Xc .
USES OF INDUCTORS
Air-cored types These have small inductances
(e.g. 1 m H ) and are used at high frequencies, eith er in
radio tuning circuits above 2 MHz (p. 197) or as r.f.
‘chokes’ to stop radio frequency currents taking certain
paths in a circuit. T h eir reactance is large to radio fre­
quencies but small to low frequencies, enabling th em to
separate r.f. from a.f. signals.
Iron-cored types In a current-carrying coil w ith an
iron core, th e core becomes m agnetized and th e strength
COMPONENTS AND CIRCUITS
ot this m agnetic field is several hundred times greater
th a n th a t due to th e coil alone. For a typical iron-cored
inductor L = 10 H.
Iron cores are lam inated, th a t is, they consist of flat
sheets w hich are coated thinly w ith an insulator. T he
lam inations thus offer a high resistance to currents, called
eddy currents, th a t would otherw ise be produced in the
core and cause energy losses as heat. E- and I-shaped lam ­
inations are show n in Fig. 11.7.
Iron-cored inductors are used in relays.
Iron-dust and ferrite types T hese are used at
high frequencies. T h e core of the iron-dust type is in the
form of a powder, coated w ith an insulator and pressed to
give a m agnetic core of high resistance w hich reduces
eddy cu rrent losses. Ferrite cores are m ade from n o n ­
conducting, m agnetic m aterials.
B oth types are used in radio tuning circuits up to about
2 MHz. T hey enable a small coil to give th e required
1 2 CR AND LR CIRCUITS
CHECKLIST
After studying this chapter you should be able to:
• draw and interpret, in terms of the time constant,
voltage-time graphs for a capacitor charging and
discharging through a resistor,
• state that the time constant in seconds is given by
t = CR where C is in farads and R in ohms,
• state that in CR seconds the p.d. across a capacitor
has risen to 0 .6 3 of its final value if charging and
has fallen by 0 .6 3 of its initial value if discharging,
CAPACITOR CHARGING IN A CR CIRCUIT
In the circuit of Fig. 12.1, w hen S is in position 1, C
charges through R from the supply. T h e m icroam m eter
measures th e charging current I and the voltm eters record
th e p.ds Vc and VR across C and R respectively at differ-
en t times t.
30
inductance, w hich may be varied by screwing th e core
or ou t of th e coil, Fig. 11.1c. T h e aerial of a radio receiv
is often a coil on a ferrite rod, Fig. 11.Id.
QUESTIONS
1 . W h a t property do all inductors have as well as
inductance?
2. A t a certain frequency of a.c. a resistor, a capacitor
and an inductor each offer the same ‘opposition’ to
th e a.c. How does the opposition of each change (i
it does) w hen th e frequency of th e a.c. increases?
3. W h a t is th e inductance of an inductor in w hich a
current changing at th e rate of 1 A s -1 induces an
e.m.f. of 100 mV?
4. C alculate th e inductive reactance of
a) a 15 H inductor at 100 Hz,
b) a 1 m H r.f. choke at 1 MHz.
5 . W h e n 9 V is applied to an inductor th e current
through it is 3 A if th e supply is d.c. and 0.1 A if it
is a.c. w ith a frequency of 50 Hz. W h a t is
a) the resistance R,
b) the im pedance Z,
c) the reactance XL (ignore R com pared w ith Z),
d) th e inductance L of the inductor?
• state that after 5C R seconds a capacitor is fully
charged if charging and fully discharged if
discharging,
• draw voltage-time graphs to show the effect of
CR-coupled circuits on square waves, and
• describe the rise and fall of current in an LR circuit in
terms of the time constant.
R
Fig. 12.1
 12 CR AND LR CIRCUITS

G raphs like those in Fig. 12.2a and b can be plotted In general we can say th at, at any time,
rrom th e results and show that:
Vc
(i) I has its m axim um value at th e start and decreases I = — and VR = IR
R R
m ore and .more slowly to zero as C charges up;
(ii ) vc rises rapidly from zero and slowly approaches the
supply voltage V w hich it equals w hen C is fully TIME CONSTANT OF A CR CIRCUIT
charged; and T h e charging and discharging of a capacitor through a
iii) VR behaves like I. resistor do n o t occur instantaneously. T h e time constant is
a useful measure of how long these processes take in a
particular C R circuit.

Charging If a capacitor of capacitance C is charged at

a co n stan t rate through a resistor of resistance R by a
steady current I, it would be fully charged w ith charge Q
time t) time and p.d. V after a tim e t w here t = C R seconds if C is in
(b)
farads and R in ohms. T o prove this we use:
Fig. 12.2
V
Q = It = - X t (from V = IR)
All three graphs are exponential curves, I and VR being
'decaying’ ones and Vc a ‘growing’ one. In general we can
also Q = VC
say th at, at any time,
V
V - Vr therefore — x t = VC
I = V r = V - VR and VR = IR R
R
t = CR
nen charging starts, Vc = 0 : .l = V /R and VR = V.
In fact, as we have seen, th e charging current decreases
A h en charging stops, Vc = V .'.1 = 0 and VR = 0.
exponentially w ith time, Fig. 12.2a, and it can be shown
that:
CAPACITOR DISCHARGING IN
A CR CIRCUIT (i) in CR seconds, called th e time constant, th e p.d. Vc
.r. Fig. 12.1, w hen S is moved from position 1 to position across th e capacitor rises to only 0.63 of its final
2. C discharges through R. If graphs of I, Vc , and VR are value; and
■ tted as before, they are again exponential curves, like (ii) in 5CR seconds th e capacitor is, in effect, fully
•- se in Figs. 12.3a and b. charged and Vc has its final value.
For exam ple, if C = 500 pF = 500 X 10-6 F and R =
100 kid = 105 (1, th e n CR = 500 X 10“6 X 105 = 50 s.
H ence, if th e charging p.d. V = 9 V th e n after 50 s,
Vc = 0.63 X 9 ~ 2/3 X 9 = 6 V. A fter 100 s, Vc rises by
2/3 of the p.d. rem aining across C after 50 s, i.e. by 2/3 of
(9 - 6) = 2/3 X 3 = 2 V, so m aking Vc = 6 + 2 - 8 V.
A fter 250 s, Vc - 9 V. See FLg. 12.4.
Fig. 12.3

. aey show that:

i) I, th e discharge current, has its m axim um value at

th e start h u t is in the opposite direction to the
charging current (as is VR); and
ii) Vc and VR fall as C discharges and are equal and
opposite at all times. Fig. 12.4

31
COMPONENTS AND CIRCUITS
Discharging T h e tim e constant CR is useful here too
and is th e tim e for Vc to fall by 0.63 (—2/3) of its value at
th e start of discharging. For example, considering the dis­
charge of C in the exam ple above, we can say th a t after
50 s, Vc will fall by 2/3 of 9 V, i.e. by 6 V, from 9 V to
3 V. In th e next 50 s it falls by 2/3 of 3 V, i.e. by 2 V,
m aking Vc = 1 V. A fter about 250 s (5C R ), Vc = 0.
Note T h e values given for Vc in th e examples above
are based on the assum ptions th a t th e leakage current
through th e capacitor is negligible and th a t th e capacitor
has its stated value.
WORKED EXAMPLE
In th e circuit of Fig. 12.1, C = lO pF, R = lO k f t and
V = 10 V. If S is sw itched to position 1, w hat will be (a)
th e m axim um current through R, (b) th e m axim um
charge on C?
a) M axim um current I occurs at th e instant S is closed,
i.e. before the p.d. builds up across C and opposes the
voltage V of the supply. It is given by:
I = V/R = 10 V/10 kH = 1 m A
b) M axim um charge Q occurs w hen the charging current
has fallen to zero afid th e p.d. across C equals V, i.e.
Q = VC = 10 V X 10 pF = 100 pC
CAPACITORS AND P.D. CHANGES
A capacitor tends to hold co n stan t the charge and so also
th e p.d. betw een its plates. A rise or fall of potential on one
plate creates a rise or fall of potential on the other. H ence
an a.c. voltage w hich changes potential rapidly is passed on
from one plate to the other. A d.c. voltage on the other
han d gives th e capacitor tim e to alter its charge to suit the
new p.d. and is blocked. T he tim e needed to adjust to dif­
ferent p.ds depends on the time constant of the circuit.
(a) (b)
AII B A- I tB
+9 V 0V 0V -9 V
Fig. 12.5
Suppose C in Fig. 12.5a is charged to a p.d. of 9 V w ith
plate A having a p otential of + 9 V and plate B being at
0 V. If th e p o ten tial of plate A suddenly falls to 0 V, the
p.d. can n o t change instantaneously since charging and
discharging take time. Therefore th e po ten tial of plate B
m ust also drop by 9 V, to —9 V, to m ain tain th e p.d. of
9 V across it, Fig. 12.5b.
32
CR-COUPLED CIRCUITS
Parts of a circuit are often coupled (joined) by a capacitor
and resistor. T h e output of th e circuit may th e n n o t have
th e same waveform as the input, depending on th e tim e
constant of th e coupling. T h e effect can be studied w ith
an input of a square wave since this contains m any fre­
quencies (p. 17).
Capacitor coupling T h e coupling circuit is given
iin Fig. 12.6a and th e square-wave input of period T in
Fig. 12.6b. W h e n th e input rises from 0 to V (i.e. A B in
Fig. 12.6b), th e output p.d. VR, w hich is tak en from across
R, rises im m ediately to V because the p.d. across C c a n ­
n o t change suddenly, i.e. Vc = 0. C starts to charge
through R, Vc rises and VR falls and th e rate at w hich
they do so depends o n the tim e constan t CR.
c
-lh
input p.d.
(b)
input p.d.
0
(c)
+V
H AV t (CR « T)
(d)
+V i i i ,
VR
Fig. 12 .6
■ n -T -U J (CR > T)
-V
If CR is m uch smaller th a n T, C has tim e to charge and
discharge before th e input reverses again. During charge,
VR varies as in Fig. 12.2b and during discharge (C D in
Fig. 12.6b), it varies as in Fig. 12.3b. T h e com plete VR
waveform is shown in Fig. 12.6c and is very different from
the input, i.e. distortion has occurred.
If CR is m uch greater th a n T, C charges and discharges
slowly and VR more or less follows th e input. Its waveform
settles dow n to th at in Fig. 12.6d, i.e. very little distortion
occurs. T his coupling circuit is used to co n n ect th e stages
of an audio amplifier, th e tim e constan t being about 10
times greater th a n th e period of th e input waveform
(e.g. 1/100 s for a 1 kHz input).
Also note th at VR is an alternating p.d. whereas the input
p.d. is direct. If we think of the input as being steady d.c.
plus a.c., th en only the a.c. passes through C as the output.
 12 CR AN D LR CIRCUITS

Resistor coupling In this case, Fig. 12.7a, th e output W h e n S is opened, the resistance of th e circuit becomes
he p.d. Vc across C and the waveforms are as in very large, m aking L/R very small and causing th e rapidly
- _ -1.7b, c and d. W h e n CR is m uch greater th a n T, Vc collapsing m agnetic field to induce a large ‘back’ e.m.f. in L.
. not change m uch and th e input p.d. changes are
thed in th e output. T his kind of coupling is used for
~ * thing power supplies (p. 83) and for detectio n in
QUESTIONS
■ : receivers (p. 198). 1 . W h a t p.d. is reached across a 100 pF capacitor
w hen it is charged by a constant current of 20 pA
(a) for 1 m inute?
input p.d. T " Vc - output 2 . W h a t is th e tim e co n stan t of a circuit in w hich
L_ I " - - i (i) C = 1 pF and R = 1 M ft, (ii) C = 100 pF
and R = 50 kfl?
(b)
V
3. In th e circuit of Fig. 12.10, C starts to charge up
input p.d. through R w hen S is closed. W h a t is the p.d.
0 'ii . ii i (approxim ately) across
(c) i i i a) the capacitor after (i) 1 s, (ii) 2 s, (iii) 5 s,
i i i

Vc b) the resistor after (i) 1 s, (ii) 2 s, (iii) 5 s:

; ! i ! (CR < T)

(d)
c R
Vc -4 h
(CR > T ) 1 mF
=«. 12.7

E : ach case c and d in Figs. 12.6 and 12.7, the graphs
■ « t r j t Vrc + VR = input p.d. at every instant.
J CIRCUIT
|b k tre e con stan t can also be used as a measure of the
M r - : t by th e current to rise or fall in a circuit con-
bc t!£ r.ductance L and resistance R, Fig. 12.8. It is
2|w ' r. >econds by:
Fig. 1 2 .10
4. In the circuit of Fig. 12.11, C starts to discharge
through R w hen S is closed. W h a t is the p.d.
(approxim ately) across
a) the capacitor after (i) 5 s, ( ii) 1 0 s , (iii) 25 s,
b) the resistor after (i) 5 s, (ii) 10 s, (iii) 25 s?

L
t = 9 V 100 mF 50 k n
R
-o ''■
>-
rr.rvs and R in ohms.
Fig. 12.11
s
^ YYYV
L
5. A 1.5 V cell is connected to a 1000 pF capacitor in
-o^o- - o i/o - series w ith a 150 f l resistor.
S
a) W h a t is th e m axim um current w hich flows
through th e resistor during charging?
. sed the current I rises to 0.63 (about 2/3) of
value in L/R seconds. In 5L/R seconds I b) W h a t is the m axim um charge o n the capacitor?
nnal value of V/R, w hich does n o t depend on
c) How long does the capacitor take to charge to
1.0 V?
6. A capacitor is charged to 6 V so th a t one plate, A,
is at + 6 V and the o th er plate, B, at 0 V. W h a t is
the po ten tial of plate B if plate A is suddenly
connected to (i) 0 V, (ii) + 1 2 V, (iii) —6 V?
(Assume in each case th a t initially A is at + 6 V
and B at 0 V .)
COM PON EN TS AN D CIRCUITS

13 LCRCIRCUITS
CHECKLIST
After studying this chapter you should be able to: • draw resonance graphs showing the effect of resistanc
• calculate the impedance of an LCR series circuit using on LCR series and parallel circuits, and
Z = V /?2 + (XL — Xc)2, • calculate the natural frequency of an LCR circuit using
• calculate the resonant frequency of an LCR circuit usinq f = 1/(27TV Z.C).
f0 = ] / ( 2 n V L Q ,

LCR SERIES CIRCUIT

Impedance If an a.c. supply of r.m.s. voltage V and
frequency / is applied to a series circuit having com po-
- o ~ o -
n en ts of inductance L, capacitance C and to tal resistance v .f
Fig. 13.1
R, Fig. 13.1, each offers some opposition to th e current.
T h e to tal opposition is th e impedance Z of th e circuit. It
can he show n that:

Z = V R 2 + (XL - Xc )2 (1)

where XL = 2nfL and Xc = l/(2 n fC ).

T h e r.m.s. current I in the circuit is given by:

_ V
~ ~Z T he expression for f0 is obtained from XL = Xc , th at is,
1
Exam ple If L = 2.0 H, C = 10 pF, R = 100 O, 2nf0L -
V = 24 V and / = 50 Hz, calculate XL, Xc , Z and I. 2nf0C
W e have: or 4Jt2/ 02LC = 1
XL = 27t x 50 X 2.0 = 200ti ~ 630 f l 1
fo =
Xc = l/(2 jt X 50 x 10 x 10“6) « 320 f l 2tiV I C

Z = V lO 0 2 + (630 - 320)2 - 330 f l where f0 is in Hz if L is in henrys and C in farads.

T h e graph of I against / for th e circuit is shown
V 24
H ence I = — = -------= 0.073 A — 13 mA Fig. 13.2b. T h e greatest response occurs at f0 but t
Z 330
selectivity, i.e. th e sharpness of the peak, falls off as
increases.
A circuit w ith a sharp peak is said to have a h igh !
RESONANT CIRCUITS factor (Q for ‘quality’)- T he higher th e Q , th e smaller t
A resonant circuit consists of a capacitor and inductor in range of frequencies selected, i.e. th e sm aller th e bar
series or in parallel and is used for frequency selection. width (C h ap ter 77).

Series In the circuit of Fig. 13.2a, w hen the frequency
of th e a.c. has a certain value / 0, called the resonant fre­
quency, XL = Xc . From equation (1) it follows th a t Z th e n
has a m inim um value, equal to R w hich in this case is th e
small resistance of th e inductor coil. T h e current I is a
m axim um at resonance, given by V/R.
V'0
a
34
Parallel For the circuit in Fig. 13.3a, f 0 is given by -t
same expression bu t Z is a m axim um and 1 a m inim um
resonance. T h e voltage developed across th e circuit
resonance is thus a m axim um (for th e same 1 at oth
frequencies it would be smaller due to Z being smalle
Fig. 13.3b shows the response curve, this time of Z against

Fig. 13.3
Uses T uning in a radio receiver (p. 197) is done using
-rsonant circuits in w hich C (or L) is varied until f 0
- z uals th e frequency of th e w anted signal.
Note As in all cases of resonance, a ‘driving force’
■ere th e applied p.d. V) is coupled to a ‘driven system’
‘ e LC R circuit) w hich responds to th e correct driving
juency.
OSCILLATORY CIRCUIT
=c. 13.4
I 4 TRANSFORMERS
IHECKLIST
studying this chapter you should be able to:
“ sere what a transformer does and recognize its
sjpibols,
• acall the transformer turns ratio equation Vs/ V p = n j n p
and use it to solve simple problems on step-up and
^eo-down transformers, and
ZUT TRANSFORMERS
'-fo rm er changes (transform s) an alternating p.d.
ne value to another. It consists of two coils, called
■ nary and th e secondary, w hich are n o t connected
~ -illy. T h e windings are eith er one on top of the
: are side-by-side on an iron, iron-dust or air core.
Truer symbols are given in Fig. 14.1.
14 TRANSFORMERS
If a charged capacitor C discharges through an inductor L
in a circuit of low resistance, Fig. 13.4a, an a.c. of constant
frequency and decreasing am plitude, called a dam ped oscil­
lation, is produced w hich eventually dies off, Fig. 13.4b. Its
frequency /, know n as the natural frequency of th e circuit,
has the same value as the resonant frequency, th at is,
2 ji V lC
T h e oscillations occur because th e energy stored initially
in C is transferred to the m agnetic field of L w hich, w hen
C has discharged, collapses and tries to keep th e current
going. C th e n charges in th e opposite direction. T his is
repeated but energy is gradually lost due to th e resistance
of L.
T h e LC circuit is th e basis of some oscillators (p. 112)
for producing a.c. of co n stan t am plitude, i.e. undam ped
oscillations.
QUESTIONS
1 . C alculate Z if R = 6 Q, XL = 58 f l and
xc = so a.
2. W h a t is th e resonant frequency if L = 1 m H and
C = 1 nF?
• name three types of transformer,
Fig. 14
35
CO M PO N EN TS AN D CIRCUITS

A transform er works by electrom agnetic induction. A n

alternating p.d. is applied to th e prim ary and produces a
changing m agnetic field w hich passes through the sec­
ondary, thereby inducing an alternating p.d. in it. A prac­
tical arrangem ent for ensuring as m uch as possible of the 1 :4
Fig. 14.3
m agnetic field links the secondary is shown in the iron-
cored transform er of Fig. 14-2; th e secondary is w ound on a) V J V p = n5/np = 4/1
top of th e primary. ••• Vs = 4 x Vp = 4 x 2 = 8V

secondary leads b) L = V J4 = 8/4 - 2 A

But Ip x Vp = Is x Vs
.-. Ip X 2 = 2 X 8
.-. Ip = 8 A

TYPES OF TRANSFORMER
primary leads
Mains A m ains transform er is show n in Fig. 14.4a.
Fig. 14.2 T h e prim ary is connected to th e a.c. mains supply (230 V
50 Hz in the U K ). T h e secondary may be step-up or step-
TRANSFORMER EQUATIONS down, or there may be one or m ore of each. T hey have
Turns ratio It can be show n th a t if a transform er is lam inated iron cores and are used in power supplies.
100% efficient at transferring electrical energy from pri­
mary to secondary (m any are nearly so), then:
secondary p.d. turns o n secondary
prim ary p.d. • turns on primary
In symbols,

VVp n<lp (a) (b)

If ns is twice np, the transform er is a step-up one and Vs

will be twice Vp. In a step-down transformer- there are
fewer turns on the secondary th a n on the prim ary and Vs
is less th a n Vp. T h e ratio n jn p is the turns ratio.

Power If the p.d. is stepped-up by a transform er the

cu rren t is stepped-dow n in proportion and vice versa.
T his m ust be so if we assume th a t all th e electrical energy
given to th e prim ary appears in th e secondary. H ence: (c)

Vpx l p = Vs x I, Fig. 14.4

w here Ip and Is are the prim ary and secondary currents. A
transform er (unlike an amplifier, p. 98) gives no power
gain.
WORKED EXAMPLE
If th e transform er in Fig. 14-3 is 100% efficient, calculate
(a) th e p.d. V s across th e 4 f l resistor and (b ) the prim ary
cu rren t Ip.
S tep-dow n toroidal types, Fig. 14.4b, have becpm e popular
due to th eir sm aller size and w eight and are now replacing
th e lam inated type. T hey have virtually no external mag- ■
n etic field and a screen betw een prim ary and secondary
windings gives safety and electrostatic screening.
Audio frequency A n audio frequency transform er is
show n in Fig. 14-4c. T his also has a lam inated iron core

36
 T5 SWITCHES

r ; acts as a m atching transform er to ensure m axim um

QUESTION
: cr transfer from, for example, an amplifier to a loud-
. ,-cer (p. 187). 1. A 12 V lam p is operated from a 240 V a.c. mains
step-dow n transform er.
Radio frequency A radio frequency transform er is a) W h a t is th e turns ratio?
z n in Fig. 14-4d. T his has an iron-dust core and forms b) How m any turns are o n the prim ary if the
rt of th e tuning circuit in a radio (p. 197), being sur- secondary has 80 turns?
■ r.ded by a small m etal ‘screening’ can to stop radiation c) W h a t is th e prim ary current if the current in
~ m it getting to o th er parts of the circuit. th e lamp is 2 A?

1 5 SWITCHES
CHECKLIST
studying this chapter you should be able to:
• 'ecognize various types of switch and their symbols
and be familiar with their use in circuits, e.g. SPST,
5PDT, DPST, DPDT, push button.

ABOUT SWITCHES SPST DPDT

-cNo-----
: m echanical switch, m etal contacts have to he
cat together or separated to make or break a circuit.
_ qS P D T
- -witch is rated according to (i) th e maximum current 3X "o ----
-O A
■r. carry and (ii) its working voltage. These both
:r.J on w hether it is to be used in a.c. or d.c. circuits.
Fig. 15.1
: ample, one w ith an a.c. rating of 250 V 1.5 A has a
• ting of 20 V 3 A. If these values are exceeded the
: the sw itch is shortened. T his is due to overheating
TYPES OF SWITCH
„ e it carries current, or to vaporization of the contacts Push-button T h e push-button sw itch in Fig. 15.2a is
sparking as a result of the current trying to keep a ‘push-on, release-off type; its symbol is given in
i r_g in the air gap w hen it is switched off. In general Fig. 15.2b and th a t for the ‘push-off, release-on’ variety in
pr. ng lasts longer w ith d.c. th a n w ith a.c. because a.c. Fig. 15.2c. ‘Push-to-change-over’ switches are also made;
*. zero twice per cycle. th eir symbol is show n in Fig. 15.2d.
' .arches have different num bers of poles and throws.
= roles (P) are the num ber of separate circuits the (b) —o o—
SPST
b makes or breaks at the same time. T h e throw s (T )
me num ber of positions to w hich each pole can be
red. T h e symbols for various types are given in (d)- -£ _£ r-
—o o—
I s . 15.1. In a SPD T (single pole double throw ) switch, DPST
- cample, there are two positions for the switch (B or
I and only one circuit (th a t joined to A ) is switched. Fig. 15.2

37
CO M PO N EN TS A N D CIRCUITS

Fig. 15.3 TWO SWITCH CIRCUITS

Slide T h e slide sw itch in Fig. 15.3a is a ‘change-over’
SPD T type.
Toggle T his type is often used on equipm ent as a
power supply ‘on-off switch, eith er in the SPST form
show n in Fig. 15.3b or as a SPD T, D PST or D PD T type.
Tw o circuits in w hich switches are used to perform logical
tasks are given below.
Tw o-w ay control of staircase lighting See
Fig. 15.5. T h e light can be switched on or off eith er by
th e SPD T switch at th e top or th a t at th e b ottom of the
stairs.

Keyboard T he one shown in Fig. 15.3c is a SPST

bottom of stairs top of stairs
‘push-to-m ake’ (m om entary) type w hich can be m ounted
o n a p rin ted circuit board (p.c.b.).

Rotary w a fer O ne or m ore insulating plastic discs or

wafers are m ounted o n a tw elve-position spindle as shown
in Fig. 15.4a. T h e wafers have m etal co n tact strips o n one
or b o th sides and rotate-betw een a sim ilar num ber of fixed
wafers w ith springy co n tact strips. T h e contacts on the
Reversing polarity of supply to electric motor
wafers can be arranged to give sw itching th a t is 1 pole 12
See Fig. 15.6. W h e n the polarity of th e supply to the
throw , 2 pole 6 throw , 3 pole 4 throw , 4 pole 3 throw (as
m otor (a perm anent m agnet type, p. 52) is changed by
in Fig. 15.4b) or 6 pole 2 throw.
the D PD T switch, its direction of ro tatio n is reversed.

throws 4 poles

+ d .c .-
"V -
-o o— electric
DPDT
supply motor

Fig. 15.4 Fig. 15.6

38
 16 PROGRESS QUESTIONS

I 6 PROGRESS QUESTIONS
A resistor may have four coloured bands on it (a, b,
c and d in Fig. 16.1). W h a t do each of these bands
indicate? W h a t is the m axim um current (approxi-
m ately) th a t can be conducted safely by a 1 k ft \ W
resistor? (O . a n d C .)
=<g. 16.1 a b e d
2 . A num ber of 1000 f i resistors are available.
a ) State th e [four band] colour coding for a 1000 f l
resistor.
b) By m eans of diagrams, show how the resistors
could be connected to make: (i) a com bination of
resistance 3000 fl; (ii) a com bination of resistance
500 fl; (iii) a com bination of resistance 1250 fl.
c) Each of th e 1000 f l resistors will safely dissipate
.a m axim um power of 0.5 W . Show how they could
be connected to make a com bination of resistance
1000 f l and power rating 2 W . Explain. (O .L .E .)
3 . A m anufacturer’s catalogue lists capacitors as 0.1 pF,
40 V d.c. W h a t does this mean? W h a t charge is
stored by one such capacitor w hen it has a p.d. of
lO V a c ro s s it? ' (O .a n d C .)
A 2 pF capacitor is charged to a p.d. of 100 V and
immediately discharged through a 5 f l resistor.
C alculate (a) th e charge taken by the capacitor,
lb) th e h e a t generated in th e resistor. ( C .)
5 r or th e circuit in
rig. 16.2 calculate (a)
5 juF
die capacitance betw een
50 V
X and Z, (b) th e charge
on the 5 pF capacitor, 20
!c) th e p.d. betw een X
rndY . (C .)
Fig. 16.2
an a.c. signal of peak p.d. 5 V and frequency
1200 Hz is applied to th e circuit in Fig. 16.3, calcu-
m e (a) th e r.m.s. current through th e 200 fl resis-
(b) th e reactance of the 8 pF capacitor, (c) the
reak current through th e 8 pF capacitor. (C .)
7. Draw a labelled diagram to show the structure of a
low-frequency choke. W h a t is m eant by th e self'
inductance of a choke? O n w hat factors does its value
depend?
A choke (of negligible resistance) has a self-
inductance of 0.5 H. Draw a graph to show how its
reactance varies w ith frequency betw een 0 and
1000 Hz. T his choke is connected across a 2 V peak-
to-peak generator of negligible internal resistance.
T h e generator frequency is 50 Hz. Draw a graph to
show how the current and voltage in th e circuit vary
in one cycle, and explain their phase relationship to
one another.
W h a t is the r.m.s. current I in th e circuit at
50 Hz? A t w hat frequency will the r.m.s. cu rren t be
in (c.)
8 . C alculate, for the circuit of Fig. 16.4, (a) th e m axi­
m um current, (b) the m axim um charge w hich can
be stored in the capacitor, (c) th e tim e co n stan t of
th e circuit.
H ence draw sketch maps of th e curren t against
tim e and th e charge stored against time. Take t = 0
as the m om ent w hen th e sw itch is closed. Label all
axes. (L.)
-o''*’o—
X
10 V I 1 MF
10 k fi
Fig. 16.4
9. For th e circuit in Fig. 16.5 sketch a graph showing:
a) how th e voltage V across the capacitor varies
w ith tim e w hen th e sw itch is m oved from position 1
to position 2,
b) the m axim um value of V,
c) the approxim ate value of V after a tim e equal to
the tim e constant.

signal

resistor 200
9 V

6.3 i n Fig. 16.5

capacitor 8 mF

39
CO M PO N EN TS AN D CIRCUITS

1 0 . In Fig. 16.6 theej? .cirfctos are show n each w ith an 1 3 . W h a t is the tuning range in MHz of a circuit c o n ­
input waveform. Copy the input waveforms and taining a 1 pH inductor in parallel w ith a
below each’tlraw the output waveform V0. 100-500 pF variable capacitor?
l (L. part qn.)
1 4 . T h e output of an oscillator is a sinusoidal voltage
. R input .waveform
_ _ _ 0 V,
» i ...h u u
.a v c .w
whose frequency can be varied but whose am plitude
is co n stan t and equal to 1 V r.m.s. T h e ou tp u t is
(i) V-,

o-
R/2
E" AAl 0 1 f/ms
connected to a 1 pF capacitor in series w ith a 10 k fl
resistor and the frequency is varied from 1 Hz to
1 MHz.
x W h a t will be th e approximate value of (a) th e cur­
(ii) l/j Va ren t flowing from th e oscillator, and (b) its phase
o- -o
relative to th e output voltage for a frequency of
(E = peak Vt )
(i) 1 Hz, (ii) 1 MHz? (O .a n d C .)
-lh
l/i 1 5 . A supplier’s stocklist has th e following entry:
o— Transform er: prim ary 240 V 50 Hz
( R C < 1 ms) 0 1 f/ms
secondaries 20 V, 0.5 A; 20 V, 0.5 A
Fig. 16.6
Explain carefully w hat the entry means. If th e tran s­
1 1 . a ) W h a t is m eant by th e self-inductance of a coil? form er is 100% efficient, w hat is th e step-dow n ratio
Define th e henry and explain w hat one m eans by a for one of the secondary windings? (O . and C . )
self-inductance of 0.1 H.
1 6 . T h e circuit shown in Fig. 16.9 is used to investigate
4 fl 4 ft L = 0.1 H
the discharge of an electrolytic capacitor of nom inal
value 2000 pF. Initially th e switch S is closed and
th e digital voltm eter (D V M ) indicates a p otential
I- -cX o-
S difference of 10.00 V across th e resistor. T h e switch
(b) 2V
is now opened.
a ) C alculate the tim e for th e reading o n th e DVM
to fall to 3.70 V.
b) Draw a graph over a tim e scale of 1 s of the
b) (i) W h a t assum ption concerning th e capacitor
current in the circuit shown in (i) Fig. 16.7a,
did you m ake w hen carrying out th e calculation in
(ii) Fig. 16.7b, w hen the position of switch S is
part a)? (ii) W ould you expect th e experim entally
altered every 0.25 s (th a t is S is on for 0.25 s th e n
m easured tim e to differ from th e calculated time?
off for 0.25 s, etc.).
G ive reasons, excluding experim ental errors, for
How would the current variation alter in the cir­
your answer. (N .)
cuit in Fig. 16.7b if the value of the inductance were
made larger? (C .)
+ 10.00V o— o"~r>
12. C alculate the value of the capacitor C to make the
circuit in Fig. 16.8 have a resonant frequency of
1 kHz. Explain briefly w hat is m eant by th e imped-
ance o f a circuit. ( C .)
_rrv>^_
20 mH
0V o

Fig. 16.8 Fig. 16.9