RUNNING HEAD: EFFECTS OF SOUNDS IN SHORT-TERM MEMORY

Effects of Sounds in the Short-term Memory of Selected Grade 11 – ABM Senior High
School Students in Centro Escolar University Manila S.Y. 2017-2018

Trisha Mae V. Sayson, Russell Ann Marie R. Luberio, Mark Jacob C. Guevarra,

Janielle P. Villamar, Aeron Jake P. Quiambao, Iyani Izzah A. Pingad,

Patricia C. Dela rosa, Zyra Anne P. Acoba

Centro Escolar University, School of Science and Technology

Mendiola Manila, Philippines

EFFECTS OF SOUNDS IN SHORT-TERM MEMORY

Abstract

Sounds have become part of our daily lives. This study aspires to conclude whether sound has

an effect in the short-term memory of selected Grade 11 - ABM senior high school students. This

study is significant to students who are always exposed to some form of sounds and those who

want to know if what kind of sound they are most comfortable with. The researchers conducted a

stratified random sampling method to obtain the necessary data which included 75 participants,

who were asked to memorize common words. They were divided into three groups, one was

exposed to soothing sound, the other was exposed to distracting and the lastly was exposed to no

sound. The result of this study indicates that sound does have an effect on short-term memory.

Specifically, an increase in number of memorized words for soothing sound and a decrease in the

number of memorized words in the distracting sound. This means that words will be memorized

more if soothing sound is presented while lesser words are memorized with the distracting

sound.

Keywords: sound, short-term memory, students, cognitive process

EFFECTS OF SOUNDS IN SHORT-TERM MEMORY

Introduction

Problem

Memory can be defined as simple as the ability to store information so that it may be used in

the present. Memory and learning are two inseparable concepts. Learning cannot occur without

retention and recall. It is on this premise that this research becomes significant. Most people have

difficulties with their memory processes. If one has difficulty with memory retention then

learning may not be effective. One factor that may contribute to these difficulties is sound.

Others can focus and absorb materials even if there is presence of their favorite music or even if

there is a presence of noise from a big crowd while others prefer to be in a quiet place to

concentrate.

This research was conducted to determine the effect of sounds in the short-term memory of

selected Grade 11 – accountancy and business management senior high school students. Also,

this current research is focusing on two sounds: soothing and distracting sounds whether what

type of sound will promote better memory with students who are exposed to it while memorizing

a certain material.

Review of Relevant Scholarship

Memory and learning are closely related concepts as stated by Amin (2013). It involves one’s

capacity to remember things that were introduced or taught to an individual depending on his/her

senses. They are essential in our daily lives to acquire such skills needed for us to adapt in the

world we live in. Once we learn something it will be retained on our own memory so we can use

them later when we need them. According to Lacadie, et al. (2013) short-term memory is a type

of memory that can hold information for up to a minute or so after the trace of the stimulus
EFFECTS OF SOUNDS IN SHORT-TERM MEMORY

decays. Information can stay for longer periods if rehearsal strategy and maintenance is

facilitated. It is not a unitary system but consists of three distinct stages which are the encoding,

rehearsal, and recognition.

In 1968, Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin proposed a model that conceptualized

memory in terms of three memory stores which are the sensory memory, short-term memory,

and long-term memory. This model serves as the framework of this research.

In the study of Relph (2014), participants who believe that they study better with music and

those who does not yielded a result which is very close at hand, which means there is no

significant difference between the two groups. Therefore, there is no connection between an

individual’s mind notion that listening to music while studying will help them recall better and

the actual recall itself.

Sulicki (2013) found that background auditory stimuli made a significant development in

performance compared to the background silence group. Although the results were not

significant, the study suggests that music can slightly help the participant’s memory.

There are many researches that had been done on the effects of music and sounds on

performance. But there are different results about the effects of music. In Miller’s (2017) study,

all participants’ memory of the sentences was tested with a cued recall and multiple choice test

immediately after and after one week following the initial listening. The scores for participants in

the musical groups were slightly higher than those in the speech groups, but the difference was

not statistically significant. In addition, according to Konatz (2012) music does really affect

memory. It has been found that music during a study or learning stage prevented memory at a

test phase but increased mood and sports. She also mentioned a research by Mann (2008) and an
EFFECTS OF SOUNDS IN SHORT-TERM MEMORY

article by Fassbender, et. al. (2012) which says that sound in the environment not music

enhances learning.

In contrast, Ferreri, et. al. (2015) implied in their study about the argument on music as a tool

for boosting memory rather than intervene with the encoding of information, participants showed

better performance under the music condition than with the environmental sounds or silence in

the recovery of the encoded material.

Dolegui (2013) cited in her study the contrasting relationship between the study of Cockerton

and Furnham in 1997. Cockerton’s finding demonstrated that music does better cognitive

performance while Furnham’s finding demonstrated that music was found distracting to the

performance of the participants.

Distracting sounds include noise and some unnecessary sounds that may interfere one’s short-

term memory. Noises are sounds that interfere with regular human activities such as thinking,

working, talking, or listening. According to Alimohammadi, et al., (2013), noise is almost always

present in cities and urban places because of road traffic, active populations, and constructions. It

is known to be the leading source of dissatisfaction among the people. Also, it greatly affects the

quality of life and established intolerable noise in many areas that results to serious and long-

term harm to health and well-being. In DiGiovanni’s (2017) research, it was stated that noise is a

common problem among listeners. It becomes an obstacle in maintaining focus and attention

because noise inhibits the person to maintain focus. It also serves as a distraction on the auditory

processes. Another study was conducted by Rönnberg and colleagues (2014) based on the

experiment as the level of noise increases, the level of retention decreases because when there is

other sounds heard by the participants, their efforts in listening increases because they need to
EFFECTS OF SOUNDS IN SHORT-TERM MEMORY

process what they hear. Based on the study of mental cognition, a person is affected by the level

of noise given to them because there are too much cognitive resources given by the noise that

leads to the decrease of memory retention. Furthermore, Lunner, et al. (2013) added that the

removal of noise can lessen negative effects on learning processing in persons with normal

hearing. When the noise is discarded, it improves the person’s memory especially in speech and

comprehension and easily proceeds into the working memory.

In hospital settings, Dodds (2013) found out in his research that both patients and health care

providers exposed to distracting sounds such as noise will result to irritability, unproductively to

work and inefficiency of mental cognitions including short-term memory. However,

Haapangkangas (2017) implied in his study that an individual in an industrial setting may be

urged to exert more effort in their work because they were consciously bothered by the

disturbing noise. It may seem effective on the time span of a certain task but nonetheless, affects

the quality of how the individual’s work.

The research of Alt, et al. (2015) cited 2 different researches that showed that tasks performed

in the presence of background noise declines the performance on cognitive tasks. The first study

which is conducted by Rabbitt (1966, 1968) found that noise doesn’t cause any errors in

recognition but it may affect memory storage and retrieval. While the second study conducted by

Pichora-Fuller, Schneider, and Daneman (1995) concluded that as the signal-to-noise ratios

declined, the participants were less able to recall words they correctly identified and background

noise has a negative effect on recall and significant interaction with set size when background

noise was less favorable.

EFFECTS OF SOUNDS IN SHORT-TERM MEMORY

Miller (2017) stated in her study. Using different auditory materials will be one of the most

effective strategies in having a better learning. Similarly Bauch, Bunzeck and Rausch (2013)

mentioned in their study that white noises might be useful with advanced learning of people who

have deficiency in their memory. It affects human brain by stimulating our brain. It also drowns

out sounds which might prevent you from sleeping or boosting your mood. This sound blocks

out those noise that prevent people trying to fall asleep. It takes other external sound out and it is

more relaxing to hear white noise to those people who have insomnia to have better sleep.

Constant noise, gives the brain a tonic signal, it conveys information about the span of the

stimulus so that, it will moderate the brain internal systems.

Batho (2014) did the experiments in relation to noises. His conclusions where people who

participated in the white noise condition can easily read and understand different passages and

can write different words faster in their notes in less time. On the other hand, people who

participated in the babble condition had their difficulty in understanding different passages and

writing lots of different words in a short period of time.

Klemm (2012) also did an experiment on background noises if it affects the performance of

attentive and inattentive children. The results revealed that exposure to background noise

boosted performance for inattentive children while those attentive children inhibited low

performance. He further discussed that noise is interference to attentive children but not to

inattentive ones because their ability to concentrate deteriorates when the background noise is

monotonous and dull.

EFFECTS OF SOUNDS IN SHORT-TERM MEMORY

Hypothesis, Aims, and Objectives

The primary hypothesis of the research

𝐻0 = Sound does not affect short-term memory

𝐻1 = Sound affects short-term memory

The secondary

𝐻0 = Distracting sound will not have the least positive effect compared with soothing

sound on the short-term memory

𝐻1 = Distracting sound will have the least positive effect compared with soothing sound

on the short-term memory

The aim of the study is to determine the effects of sounds in the short term memory. The

objectives of the study is to measure the short-term memory of selected grade 11 – ABM senior

high school students with the three different conditions, to analyze and compare the gathered

data, to classify which condition affects the short-term memory, and to conclude if there is a

casual relationship between sounds and short-term memory.

Method

Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

The researchers’ inclusion criterion is that participants were chosen as long as they are Grade

11 – ABM senior high school students of Centro Escolar University. The researchers removed

the extraneous variable that might affect the experiment by the means of constancy and

balancing. The researchers used the constancy method to control the noise that is present in the
EFFECTS OF SOUNDS IN SHORT-TERM MEMORY

three conditions specifically the sound coming from the air conditioner and the sound coming

from the students. Additionally, balancing is used to control the volume of the sound which is in

the maximum level that was used in the experiment.

Participant Characteristics

The participants of the experiment are Grade 11 senior high school students of Centro Escolar

University who are in the ABM strand. Their age ranges from 16 years old up to 19 years old

regardless of their gender.

Sampling Procedures

An experimental method of research was used in conducting the study. The experiment was

conducted by dividing the respondents into three groups. Participants were randomly selected by

means of stratified random sampling. They were given informed consent as to show their

willingness to participate in the experiment. Afterwards, they were oriented of the mechanics of

the experiment. After the experiment, the participants received sweets, crackers and biscuits as a

token of appreciation for joining the experiment. The researchers were able to gather seventy-

five (75) students. The researchers made each class to count off and all the students that belong

to the odd numbers were chosen to be the respondents of the study. The experiment was

conducted on January 29-30, 2018 in 4th floor Maria Villaceran Hall building at Centro Escolar

University Manila.

Random Assignment Method

An article from investopedia defined stratified random sampling as a method of sampling that

involves the division of a population into smaller groups known as strata. In stratified random
EFFECTS OF SOUNDS IN SHORT-TERM MEMORY

sampling, or stratification, the strata are formed based on members' shared attributes or

characteristics. Before the stratified random sampling was executed, simple random sampling

was done to determine which of the sections are going to be the researchers’ strata. Out of 6

sections, sections 2, 3, and 5 were the chosen strata for the study. Stratified random sampling is

used in the experiment because there is an existing strata which is the different sections and

simple random sampling by fish bowl method was used in the strata to determine the

participants. In each group, the researchers made sure that every group has an equal number of

respondents which will be consisting of twenty-five (25) students each.

Sample size, Power, and Precision

The intended sample size is 72 while the achieved sample size of 75. The researchers made

the achieved sample size as 75 instead of using 72 because there are instances in which the

participant might not give the necessary information that is needed. It is better to have extra

respondents rather than having an exact number of respondents. The achieved sample size is

computed by using the finite population correction formula applied to the sample size formula to
𝑁∗𝑋
determine the sample size 𝑛 = (𝑋+𝑁−1) with the necessary sample size formula which is 𝑋 =

(𝑧−𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒)2 ∗𝑆𝑑∗(1−𝑆𝑑)
. N is 285 being the population of the grade 11 senior high students. X being
𝑒2

the necessary sample size formula. The confidence interval used is 95% and its corresponding z-

score of 1.96. Sd for standard deviation using .5. e as the Margin of Error using 10%.

Power is calculated using the SPSS with .782 as the result. This means that the researchers

have an 78% for rejecting the null hypothesis and a 22% chance of making a Type II Error.
EFFECTS OF SOUNDS IN SHORT-TERM MEMORY

Experimental Manipulations

The researchers conducted an experiment for the effects of conditioning of soothing and

distracting sounds into two groups: the experimental group and the control group. The results

from the experiment will show the effectiveness of the differences of sounds in the short-term

memory of selected Grade 11 ABM senior high school student.

The first group has 25 respondents who were classified as the control group which received

no treatment during the experiment. The second group who also has 25 respondents were

classified also as an experimental group who received the second level of independent variable

which is distracting sound particularly, loud traffic noise. The third group has 25 respondents

who were classified as experimental group who received the first level of independent variable

which is soothing sounds particularly, classical music.

Each group was given a minute and a half to memorize the words flashed during the

experiment proper. They were also given a minute and a half to write down words that they

remembered after the manipulation has been executed.

There are a total of 8 researchers who delivered the experimental manipulations. In the first

group which is the no sound, there are 6 deliverers who obtained a mean of 14.48, sd of 2.124

and a range of 9. A mean of 13.48, a sd of 2.064 and a range of 7 is achieved by the 4 researchers

present on the second condition which is the distracting sound. The final condition, the soothing

sound, conducted by 4 researchers received a mean of 15.56, sd of 2.844, and a range of 11.

The experiment occurred at the 4th floor of Maria Villaceran Hall building in Centro Escolar

University. The experiment conducted 3 sessions and the experiment proper only lasted for 3

minutes per condition.

EFFECTS OF SOUNDS IN SHORT-TERM MEMORY

Data Collection

The experimental method of research was used and free recall task was administered for

gathering the data. Seventy-five (75) students were selected as respondents through stratified

random sampling technique. In the experiment proper, they were asked to memorize twenty (20)

words with the accompaniment of the sound based on the group they were in. They were given

an answer sheet where they will write words that they were able to memorize. The answer sheets

served as the means to collect the data for the research including their name, age, gender, contact

details and scores.

Quality of Measurements

The researchers constructed an ad-hoc instrument that will measure the short-term memory of

the participants in the experiment. According to an article from twinword website, it is hard to

determine the level of difficulty of words since it has no concrete criteria and language is

changing constantly. Since the researchers are somehow proficient with English language, they

had created a self-made test which includes 20 words that are considered to be common. This

test is further checked upon and clarified by the class adviser of the selected participants as he

made sure the words used in test were not vague and were made comprehensive.

Instrumentation

The test used was an ad-hoc instrument. Ad hoc is defined as “an activity or organization is

done or formed only because a situation has made it necessary and is not planned in advance” as

stated by dictionary.reverso.net. The short-term memory was measured through a free recall task.

The participants are asked to memorize words in any order, as many as they can. The test

contains common words to be memorized by the participants. The words were made this way so
EFFECTS OF SOUNDS IN SHORT-TERM MEMORY

that it will be more difficult for the participants to memorize words that are part of their everyday

conversations. The words were put in a presentation and were presented through the television of

each classroom so that it is accessible to everyone. The 20 chosen words are the following:

Computer Shoes Pen Pillow

Chair Bag Charger Curtain

Glass Frame Aircon Folder

Mirror Socks Table Blanket

Watch Bed Lamp Laptop

Masking

The researchers carried out a single-blind experiment. They made sure that during the

orientation of the mechanics of the experiment, the participants have no clue of what particular

group they are in while the researchers are aware of the conditions assigned to the respondents.

After the experiment has been accomplished, they were debriefed and the experiment done was

further clarified to them.

Statistical Method

There are 6 assumptions that should be met before using One-way ANOVA according to

laerd statistics. The 6 assumptions are: dependent variable should be measured at

the interval/ratio level, independent variable consist of two or more categorical, independent

groups, independence of observations, no significant outliers, normality, and homogeneity of

variances. There are 2 levels of independent variable which is the distracting and soothing sound

both of which are the experimental group. On the other hand, the no sound is the control group.

Between groups design, separate groups are created for each treatment. This type of
EFFECTS OF SOUNDS IN SHORT-TERM MEMORY

experimental design is sometimes called independent measures design because each participant

is assigned to only one treatment group (Glen, 2017). The respondents will be exposed to one

condition only thus it is a between groups design. The researchers wish to compare the

differences between the no sound group, distracting sound treatment, and soothing sound

treatment with the memory of selected grade 11 senior high students. Therefore, the statistical

method used is the between groups one-way ANOVA.

Results

Participant Flow

There were 3 different groups present in the study. In the first condition, there were 25

students who participated. They receive no treatment from the independent variable which is the

sound, therefore they are in the no sound group. The second and the third group have 25

respondents who have undergone distracting and soothing treatment respectively. All of the

participants were able to complete the experiment.

EFFECTS OF SOUNDS IN SHORT-TERM MEMORY

Statistics and Data Analysis

Table 1

Descriptive Statistics for Short-term Memory in three different treatment groups

95% C.I.

N M SD SE L.B. U.B. Min Max

No Sound 25 14.48 2.124 .425 13.60 15.36 10 19

Distracting 25 13.48 2.064 .413 12.63 14.33 10 17

Soothing 25 15.56 2.844 .569 14.39 16.73 9 20

Total 75 14.51 2.490 .288 13.93 15.08 9 20

The descriptive statistics for short term memory in different condition groups are shown in

Table 1. The independent variable has three groups: No sound group (M = 14.48, SD = 2.12, n =

25), Distracting (M = 13.48, SD = 2.06, n = 25) and Soothing treatment (M = 15.56, SD = 2.84,

n = 25). The distracting treatment group has the lowest mean (M = 13.48) associated with short-

term memory and the soothing treatment group has the highest mean (15.56) associated with

short-term memory.

Table 2

Test of Homogeneity of Variances

Levene
Statistic df1 df2 p
1.486 2 72 .233
EFFECTS OF SOUNDS IN SHORT-TERM MEMORY

Levene’s test for equality of variances yielded a non significant result, F = (2, 72) = 1.49, p =

.23.

Table 3

One-Way ANOVA on Effects of Sounds in Short-term Memory

SS df MS F p

Between 54.107 2 27.053 4.814 .011

Groups

Within 404.640 72 5.620

Groups

Total 458.747 74

The independent between-groups ANOVA yielded a statistically significant effect, F(2, 72) =

4.81, p = .011,𝜂2 = .118.

EFFECTS OF SOUNDS IN SHORT-TERM MEMORY

Table 4

Post-hoc Analysis on No Sound Group, Distracting Sound Treatment, and Soothing Sound

Treatment

95% CI

(I) Condition (J) Condition MD SE p LB UB

No Sound Distracting 1.000 .671 .301 -.60 2.60

Soothing -1.080 .671 .248 -2.68 .52

Distracting No Sound -1.000 .671 .301 -2.60 .60

Soothing -2.080* .671 .008 -3.68 -.48

Soothing No Sound 1.080 .671 .248 -.52 2.68

Distracting 2.080* .671 .008 .48 3.68

*. Significant at the .05 level

Table 4 showed that there is a statistically significant result between soothing sound and

distracting sound showing .008 significance. While there is no statistically significant result

between no sound and distracting and between no sound and soothing who yielded a .301

significance and a .248 significance respectively.

EFFECTS OF SOUNDS IN SHORT-TERM MEMORY

Table 5

Test of Normality on No Sound Group, Distracting Sound Treatment, and Soothing Sound

Treatment

Shapiro-Wilk

Condition Statistic df p
Score No Sound .949 25 .235

Distracting .932 25 .099

Soothing .962 25 .463

Figure 1
EFFECTS OF SOUNDS IN SHORT-TERM MEMORY

Discussion

Support of Original Hypotheses

Given a statistically significant result yielding a .0011 as shown in table 3, the researchers

rejects the primary null hypothesis that sounds does not affect the short-term memory. Table 4

shows a statistically significant result for soothing and distracting sound. In reference to the

means shown in table 1, the researchers can say that soothing sound has a greater effect on short-

term memory than distracting sound thus rejecting the secondary null hypothesis which states

that distracting sound will not have the least positive effect compared with soothing sound on

short-term memory

Similarity of Results

The result of the study has yielded the same outcome of the different study of

Alimohammadi, et al., 2013, Dodds (2013), Rönnberg, et. al. (2014), Alt, et al. (2015) that

distracting sound has a negative effect on short term memory. The result of the study has yielded

the same outcome of the different study of Ferreri (2015) and Miller (2017) that Soothing sound

has a positive effect on short term memory. The results contradict the study of Relph (2014) and

Batho (2014) that sound has no effect on short term memory.

Interpretation

Before proceeding to use One-way ANOVA, an assumption of test normality, equality of

variances, and no significant outliers should be met. Shapiro-Wilk is used to determine the test

normality and table 5 showed that it has a non significant result that specifies that dependent

variable is approximately normally distributed for each category of the independent

EFFECTS OF SOUNDS IN SHORT-TERM MEMORY

variable. Levene’s test for equality of variances was used to determine the homogeneity of the

test. It yielded a non significant result which indicates that there is equality of variances. Figure 1

displays that there are no significant outliers and thus all the assumptions are now met.

Therefore, one-way ANOVA can be used to determine if the independent variable has an effect

on the dependent variable. Based on the table 3 result, it indicates that the sounds have an effect

on short-term memory. The memory accounts for 11.8% of the variance in the three groups

which means that it has a medium size of effect. The size of effect was computed by dividing the

SS of the between-groups with SS of the total. On the other hand, it does not indicate which

group affected the short-term memory. To determine which group is statistically different from

the other groups, a Post-hoc Analysis was performed. The soothing and distracting sounds have

an effect on memory of the senior high school students in reference to table 4. In order to classify

if soothing or distracting had a negative and positive effect on memory, the means on table 1 are

used to compare the two different treatment group.

The result of this study indicates that sound does have an effect on short-term memory.

Specifically, an increase in number of memorized words for soothing sound and a decrease in the

number of memorized words in the distracting sound. This means that words will be memorized

more if soothing sound is presented while lesser words are memorized with the distracting

sound.

Generalizability

The researcher’s findings about the relationship of sounds to short-term memory are

applicable to real life especially to students who are not used to sounds. This will be helpful for

them to determine the environment that they are comfortable with which will be considered as a
EFFECTS OF SOUNDS IN SHORT-TERM MEMORY

factor that will affect their memory process. If this matter is solved within the student, not only

his/her memory ability will improve but also his/her learning capabilities. It will also be an

indication for students who are used to sound and what type of sound they are most comfortable

with in enhancing memory process. This study is not exclusively for students but to everyone

because sound is inevitable and part of our everyday life.

Implications

This research developed numerous implications which are beneficial to students, educators,

and future researchers. It is essential for students to know how they will be able to learn easily

considering the environment. This study will pave way to create strategies for students to cope

up with the changing environment. The study is also an implication of the need to be familiar

with rehearsing to keep information lasting and to prevent memory from decaying. For the

teachers and professor, this study will give them ideas on how to improve the learning capability

of the students especially in teaching them to adapt to various situations and also, for guiding

them in their further development as they become a benefit to society. They ought to know about

their student’s strong point of memorizing and with learning. For future researchers, they may

replicate this study for their future researches which is related to matters on sound and memory.

They may also add more ideas and information to help and improve the said research.

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