Final Report

Submitted to
National Disaster Management Authority
New Delhi

National Centre for Earth Science Studies

Ministry of Earth Sciences, Govt. of India

Kerala State Emergency Operations Centre

Kerala State Disaster Management Authority
Department of Disaster Management
Government of Kerala

2016
 DOCUMENTATION PAGE
1. Report number
2. Type of report Project Report
3. Title Studies on soil piping in the highlands and foot hills of Kerala
to avoid the disaster
4 Authors G. Sankar, Dr. Ajay K. Varma, Dr. Sekhar L. Kuriakose,
Deepa C., Prasobh P. Rajan, Eldhose K.
5. Key words Soil piping, Tunnel erosion, Western Ghats, Kerala, highlands,
foot hills, dispersive soils, mitigation
6. Abstract The “Soilpiping”, also known as “tunnel erosion” is the subsurface
erosion of soil by percolating waters to produce pipe-like conduits
below ground especially in non-lithified earth materials. In Kerala
except Thiruvananthapuram, Kollam and Alapuzha all other
districts reported the occurrence of soil piping affected soils.
Subsurface tunnelling is wide spread in the affected localities and
their size varies from few centimeters to couple of meters. A
classification scheme of the tunnels based on its size was proposed
in this study. Multi electrode resistivity surveys are useful in
detecting the presence of subsurface tunnelling. Chemical and
physical characteristics of soil are responsible for soil piping. The
saprolite clay associated with laterites in the shoulder slopes of the
highlands are prone to soil piping. If the exchangeable sodium
available in the clay is more than 6% the clay tend to become
dispersive clay when associated with water. It is found that the
Kaolinite clay with gibbsite containing the exchangeable sodium is
prime target for soil erosion. Chemical amelioration and water
management are the best options for controlling or mitigating the
soil piping. The study has recommended to the Government to
declare the soil piping as a state specific hazard in Kerala.
7. Distribution statement For limited circulation
8. Institution(s) National Centre for Erath science studies
(Department of Earth Sciences, Govt. of India)
P.B.7250, Akkulam, Thiruvananthapuram 695011, Kerala

Kerala State Emergency Operations Centre (KSEOC)

Kerala State Disaster Management Authority (KSDMA)
Department of Disaster Management, Govt. of Kerala
ILDM, P.T.P Nagar, Thiruvananthapuram

2
 Project details

Financial Support National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA)

Support in kind Kerala State Disaster Management Authority (KSDMA)
National Centre for Earth Science Studies (NCESS earlier known as
Participating CESS), Thiruvananthapuram and Kerala State Emergency
institutions Operations Centre (formerly HVRA Cell), KSDMA, Department of
Disaster Management, Govt. of Kerala
Assistance Sanctioned ₹49,79,200/- (Rupees forty nine lakh seventy nine thousand two
by NDMA hundred only)
July 2012 ₹32,67,000/- (Rupees thirty two lakhs sixty seven thousand only)
February 2015 ₹4,00000/- (Rupees four lakhs only)
April 2016 ₹8,50,000/- (Rupees eight lakhs fifty thousand only)
Total funds received
₹45,17,000/- (Rupees forty five lakhs seventeen thousand only)
from NDMA
Project period July 2012 to May 2016

Project team
Principal
G. Sankar Scientist G NCESS
Investigator
Dr. Ajay Kumar Varma Scientist G NCESS Investigator
Dr. Sekhar L. Kuriakose Head (Scientist) KSEOC, KSDMA Investigator
Eldhose K Technical Assistant NCESS Investigator
Deepa C Junior Research Fellow NCESS
Prashobh P. Rajan Junior Research Fellow NCESS

3
 Acknowledgements

On behalf of the entire project team, I owe a great many thanks to a great many people who
helped and supported this team for the successful completion of the project.

My deepest thanks to the Director, NCESS Dr V.M.Tiwari for his unflinching support to
this programme and Dr N.P .Kurian former Director for extending their help and support in
the initial days of the project. The team also expresses their sincere thanks to the Director
ILDM Dr. Kesava Mohan for his valuable guidance and support.

I would like to thank Sri Nandakumar IAS former Member NDMA who evaluated and
recommended the proposal for funding. I would like to thank NDMA for funding the Project
and recognized the importance of this pilot study. All the staff members of the mitigation
team of NDMA are thanked for their sincere support and encourage given to this project.

Dr. Nivedita.P Haran IAS, former Additional Chief Secretary, Revenue & DM department is
thanked for her encouragement and support. She was instrumental in securing financial
assistance from the NDMA. The project team also thanks Dr. Vishwas Mehta IAS, Principal
Secretary, Revenue and Disaster Management for his encouragement and support. The staff
members of SEOC, Revenue and Disaster Management department are thanked for their
valuable support. The village, taluk and the district administration helped this team with data
of new events.

The local people belongs to Cherupuzha, Chattivayal in Kannur district , Banasurasagar in

Padinjarethara village in Wayanad , Sri V K Balan (late) and Britto Nelliyadukkam in
Kasaragod district and Tattekanni and Peringasserry in Idukki district are thanked for their
support and cooperation with this research programme. The Thirumeni milk producers co-
operative society has provided space for keeping automatic weather station. This team thank
them for their help.

The project team would like to thank fellow researchers and staff members of NCESS
without their cooperation it would not be able to successfully complete this work.

G Sankar
Principal Investigator

4
 CONTENT

1. CHAPTER 1 PROBLEM STATEMENT

1.1. Soil piping or tunnel erosion : definition, formation 8
1.2. Global distribution 9
1.3. Piping materials and the process 10
1.4. Forms of piping 11
1.5. Soil texture 12
1.6. Human activity and land use change 13
1.7. Chemical properties 13
1.8. Land subsidence by soil piping 16
1.9. Land subsidence in Kerala 17

2. CHAPTER 2. OBJECTIVES AND METHODOLOGY

2.1. Objective 18
2.2. Methodology 18
2.3. Study Area 19
3. CHAPTER 3. SOILPIPING IN THE STUDY AREA
3.1. Study area 20
3.2. Classification of Soil pipe 38
3.3. Major areas affected by tunnel erosion/ soil piping in Kerala. 41

4. CHAPTER 4. GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATIONS

4.1. Geophysical investigations (Electrical Resistivity Surveying) 70
4.2. Field trials using Geophones 109
4.3. Investigations with Push camera 111
5. CHAPTER 5 DETERMINATION OF CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PARAMETERS

5.1. Soil Sampling 114

5.2. Soil chemistry and Sedimentological studies 118
5.3. Hydrogeochemical analysis 149
6. CHAPTER 6 GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS

5
 6.1. Introduction 157
6.2. Sample Collection 157
6.3. Analysis of Various Geotechnical Properties 159
6.4. Discussion 166
6.5. Conclusion 170
7. CHAPTER 7 MITIGATION MEASURES

7.1. Repair and rehabilitation of tunnel-affected land 172

7.2. Mechanical techniques 172
7.3. Chemical Treatments 180
7.4. Agrostological Measures 183
7.5. Mitigation plan for Nelliyadukkam subsidence 185
7.6. Mitigation work suggested at Ranny 190
7.7. Banasurasagar, (Wayanad) 192
8. CHAPTER 8 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
8.1. Conclusions 196

8.2. Recommendations 198

REFERENCES 200

6
CHAPTER 1

PROBLEM STATEMENT

1.1 Soil piping or tunnel erosion : definition, formation

The “Soilpiping”, (figure 1.1) also known as tunnel erosion is the subsurface erosion of soil
by percolating waters to produce pipe-like conduits below ground especially in non-lithified
earth materials. Soil piping or “tunnel erosion” is the formation of subsurface tunnels due to
subsurface soil erosion. Piping is an insidious and enigmatic process involving the hydraulic
removal of subsurface soil causing the formation of an underground passage (Ingles, 1968).
During rain percolating waters carries finer silt and clay particles and forms passage ways.
The resulting "pipes" are commonly a few millimetres to a few centimetres in size, but can
grow to a meter or more in diameter. They may lie very close to the ground surface or extend
several meters below ground. Once initiated they become cumulative with time, the conduits
expand due to subsurface erosion leading to roof collapse and subsidence features on surface.
Since it happens in the underground, in many cases the phenomenon goes unnoticed. The
cavities or pipes developed below the ground grow with respect to time and affect large
extents of land in the form of subsidence thereby making it not suitable for cultivation.
Occasionally the subsurface flow of water can result in conduits (pipes) through relatively
insoluble clastic deposits. The piping results in caving and collapse of surficial conduits. This
is an important process in the head ward extension of gullies, especially in arid semi-arid
regions. The materials most subject to piping include fine- grained alluvium or colluvium,
and some rocks (especially clay stone, mudstone and siltstone). The piping process involves a
relatively weak, incoherent layer that becomes saturated and conducts water to some free face
which transects this layer. The free face could be the wall or head of a gully, the head cut of a
landslide, or a manmade excavation. Even though the pipe may be small when it first
develops, it forms a conduit more permeable than the surrounding material.

7
 a. land subsidence b. tunnel formation c. outlet of a pipe
Figure 1.1 Soil piping effects

. As a result, the pipe will draw the subsurface flow from the weak, incoherent layer. The
more flow that it carries the faster it will grow by enlarging its diameter and by head ward
sapping. As the increased flow rates through the pipes further corrodes this conduit, the walls
and roof may collapse. This produces a line of sinks, which then act as tunnel to convey
surface runoff in to the developing pipes. The downstream portions of the pipe will be
completely collapsed leaving an open gully .The general similarity of this process to karst
formation (involving mainly solution) has led to “pseudokarst” being used for landforms that
originate by piping.

1.2 Global distribution

Piping is far more widespread than has often been assumed, forming in virtually all climates,
in organic and mineral soils, on undisturbed and agricultural land and in certain
unconsolidated sediments and bedrock (Jones, 1981; Dunne, 1990; Bryan and Jones, 1997).
Soil pipes have been reported in a wide range of environments on every continent except
Antarctica, from the tropical rain forest (Elsenbeer and Lack, 1996; Putty and Prasad, 2000)
to periglacial regions with permafrost (Gibson et al., 1993; Quinton and Marsh, 1998; Carey
and Woo, 2000; 2002). Piping appears to be of greatest geomorphological and hydrological
significance in three environments: in organic soils on humid uplands, in badland areas in
arid and semiarid environments, and in degraded semiarid rangelands (Bryan and Jones,
1997). Piping in Histosols and Gleysols seems to require a humid temperate climate. In a
literature review, Jones (1994) found that 60% of the studied sites with piping occurred in
humid regions (Figure. 1.2). On the other hand, dispersive-type pipes occur in a
Mediterranean or semiarid context. In a wetter climate, sodium is lost so rapidly from the
materials by leaching that the dispersive role on the clay complex does not persist
(Churchman and Weissman, 1995; Faulkner, 2006). Also, in humid climates, the organic

8
matter remains a structuring agent within the topsoil. In drier climates, clay is frequently the
only structuring agent, so its dispersion has a dramatic impact (Faulkner, 2006). Both a
reasonable water supply and some desiccation effects are needed, which gives peaks in the in
the occurrence of piping in the semiarid and temperate marine environments (Bryan and
Jones, 1997).

Figure 1.2 The global distribution of published reports of Piping according to Jones 1994

1.3 Piping materials and the process:

Tunnel erosion results from a complex interaction of chemical and physical processes
associated with clay dispersion, mechanical scouring, entrainment and mass wasting. The
tunnel erosion process was first described by Downes (1946) and more recently by Boucher
(1990) and Vacher et al. (2004b). Occasionally the subsurface flow of water can result in
conduits (pipes) through relatively insoluble clastic deposits. The piping results in caving and
collapse of sacrificial conduits (Figure 1.3). This is an important process in the head ward
extension of gullies, especially in arid semi–arid regions .The materials most subject to
Piping includes loess, tuff, volcanic ash, fine- grained alluvium or colluviums, and some
rocks (especially clay stone, mudstone and siltstone).
Field tunnel erosion may be initiated by a range of processes including loss or
disturbance of vegetation resulting in the development of soil cracks and generation of
surface runoff (Downes 1946; Crouch 1976; Laffan and Cutler 1977), formation of gully
erosion which provides an outlet for water flow (Boucher and Powell 1994), increased
infiltration due to ponding (Vacher et al. 2004a, 2004b), or disturbance and poor
consolidation of dispersive clays (Ritchie 1965, 1963; Richley 1992). Overland flow with low
electrolyte concentration enters the soil via desiccation cracks, resulting in the dispersion of
sodic clay subsoil’s (Crouch 1976; Laffan and Cutler 1977). Provided the soil matrix has
sufficient permeability to minimise pore blockages (Vacher et al. 2004b), dispersed soil
material moves down slope through soil cracks, leaving behind a small tunnel or cavity

9
(Richley 1992). Further rainfall events entrain and translocate more dispersed soil material,
resulting in both head ward and tail ward linking of cavities into a continuous tunnel system
(Laffan and Cutler 1977; Boucher and Powell 1994; Zhu 2003). Tunnel expansion enables
flowing water to scour the base and undercut sidewalls, resulting in tunnel expansion through
mass wasting (Laffan and Cutler 1977; Zhu 2003). Eventually undermining reaches an extent
where complete roof collapse occurs and gullies form (Laffan and Cutler 1977). The general
similarity of this process to karsts formation (involving mainly solution) has led to
“pseudokarst” being used for landforms that originate by piping.

Figure 1.3 Diagram illustrating the process of piping (Boucher, 1990)

Piping most commonly occurs where dams and dikes, or deep ,pumped ,excavations
below the water table have created large hydraulic head differentiate over relatively short
distances .Such differences in head can become competent to transport disaggregated clastic
rock particles ,such as sand grains ,in suspension through the more permeable parts of a
permeable formation. By this kind of subterranean erosion pipes are formed ;the surficial
expression of this process is commonly called “ boiling”(Jumikis,1962).Such pipes usually
develop called in sand ,sand –and- gravel ,or in fine grained materials such as silt and clay.
They will, unless controlled, undermine foundations and cause collapse of overlying
structures. Piping with which engineers are most familiar is a direct result of man –made
changes in hydraulic head in the ground water system at a construction site. However, exactly
the same kind of piping can develop in nature without man’s interference or help.

Piping occurs on hillside slopes (figure 1.3), on the crowns and the sides of
miniature Badlands Mountains, and in bad land ravine or gully channels, valley floor, flood
plain, terrace etc. However in all cases ,the basic essentials are all the same : (1) Water
enough to saturate some part of the soil or bedrock above base level;(2)hydraulic head to

10
move the water through a subterranean route;(3) presence of a permeable ,erodible soil or
bedrock above the base level ;and (4)an outlet for flow.

1.4 Forms of piping

Piping takes many forms and performs a variety of functions. But most fundamentally
for both geomorphology and hydrology it provides a rapid means of subsurface flow, erosion
and runoff generation. Ritchie (1963) describes 3 forms of tunnel erosion (i) field tunnelling,
(ii) tunnelling in earthworks i.e. ‘piping’ in dams, and (iii) tunnelling in strongly self-
mulching clays. The first 2 forms of tunnelling are regarded as ‘true’ tunnelling, which result
from the dispersion of sodic subsoils, while the third form of tunnelling is thought to be a
purely mechanical process associated with water movement through large soil cracks. United
States Department of the Interior (1960) and Vacher et al. (2004a, 2004b) have also reported
the existence of tunnel erosion process in non-dispersive material resulting from the
liquefaction of non-cohesive soils and mine spoil containing high silt and sand content.

Figure 1.4 Schematic of subsurface piping as a mechanism of gully formation (Billard et al., 1993)

In the highlands of Kerala soil piping affects the lateritic areas. The saprolite clay is usually
affected by this process. Depending on the size of the clay layer the resultant tunnel is
formed. This is described in detail in subsequent chapters.

1.5 Soil texture

Considerable emphasis has been placed upon textural analyses in literature, despite the fact
that properties such as structure, porosity, erodibility and drainage are of more direct
relevance to the development of piping (Jones, 1981). Nevertheless, the best developed

11
piping occurs in soils with high silt-clay content, which may favour piping by providing
cracking potential, easily eluviated particles and stronger roofing to prevent destruction
(Jones, 1981). Furthermore, the clay mineralogy plays a role in the susceptibility to piping of
dispersive material. The specific mineralogy and the particular arrangements of the clay
platelets will determine how ‘active’ they are in terms of physical changes (e.g.
deflocculating) (e.g. Sumner, 1992; Sumner and Naidu, 1997; Faulkner, 2006; Impermeable
soil layer Decreasing water permeability in the subsoil is an important factor for piping as
pipes are often reported to develop at significant subsurface textural discontinuities in so
called ‘duplex’ soils or texture-contrast soils (e.g. Rooyani, 1985; López Bermúdez and
Romero Díaz, 1989; Fitzpatrick et al., 1995). Soil horizons with slightly differing clay
content will experience differential swelling and shrinkage (Imeson and Kwaad, 1980). This
differential swelling causes stresses and creates macropores, hence focusing through flow and
pipe enlargement in particular horizons (Faulkner, 2006). Additionally, the occurrence of a
highly permeable stratum underlain by impermeable strata is often reported as a requirement
for piping (e.g. Parker and Jenne, 1967; Bryan and Yair, 1982; Farifteh and Soeters, 1999).
Fletcher et al. (1954) stated that for piping to occur, a surface infiltration capacity greater
than the subsoil permeability is needed, unless rodents or ploughing break the less permeable
surface.

1.6 Human activity and land use change

Human activity has been blamed for the development of piping erosion in many parts of the
world. According to Jones (1981), the problematic human activities can be divided into two
categories: those which affect soil stability and those which affect the local water balance.
The most commonly cited elements of human interference have been clearing land for
agriculture and overgrazing, but also irrigation and construction works (Jones, 1981).
Reduced protection of the soil by vegetation loss and livestock trampling leads to Irregular
infiltration, which favours piping erosion (Downes, 1946; Parker, 1963; Bryan and Jones,
1997).

1.7 Chemical properties

Structural stability of a soil is affected by its salt and sodium content. In addition,
cementing agents in sands and silts are lime (CaCO3) and sesquioxides (Al- and Fe-oxides).
Assessment of the risk of mineral clogging of drainpipes as a result of the chemical
composition of the soil requires knowledge of the cation exchange capacity, and the salinity

12
and sodicity of the soil.

The pH of soil is the measure of hydrogen ions activity and depends on relative
amounts of the absorbed hydrogen and metallic ions. It measures the acidity and alkalinity of
a soil water suspension and provides good information about the soil properties such as
phosphorous availability, base status and so on. Most of the soils that are prone to soil piping
have pH values lying between 4 and 8.

The most significant effect of piping appears to be in the acidification of surface streams.
Piping reduces the buffering of acid rainfall by reducing residence times and by directing
flow through the upper organic horizons, reducing contact with weathering mineral surfaces
(Jones and Hyett, 1987; Gee and Stoner, 1989). It may also encourage the release of sulphates
and organic acids from the peaty horizons by draining and aerating sections of the hillside
(Jones, 1997b).

Electrical conductivity of the soil is a numerical expression of the ability of a soil-water

mixture to carry an electrical current which depends on the total concentration of the ionized
substances dissolved in the soil-water mixture. In soils, most of the focus has been on the
effect of ESP and electrolyte concentration (EC) on excessive swelling and dispersion, and on
the subsequent effects on hydraulic conductivity and crust formation on drying. Quirk and
Schofield (1955) and many others since that time (Quirk 2001) have used plots of ESP
against electrolyte concentration to define regions of stable versus reducing hydraulic
conductivity or soil flocculation versus deflocculation / dispersion. They investigated the
permeability of a soil to solutions of different SAR and EC.

Where comparatively low EC water is allowed to move through potentially dispersive soils,
the leaching of salts out of the profile may produce spontaneous dispersion leading to the
formation of tunnels. Hence, Hosking (1967, quoted by Crouch, 1976) concluded that the
only practical way of preventing tunnel development is to divert water away from the
catchment areas of the tunnels.

Soils may contain slightly soluble salts such as lime and gypsum and highly soluble
salts such as sodium chloride and sodium sulphate. The anions predominantly present in salty
soils are Cl- and SO42-, yet some HCO3- at pH values of 6-8 and CO32- at pH values higher
than 8.5 may be found. Na+, Ca2+ and Mg2+ are the predominant cations. The total
dissolved solids (TDS) can be accessed from measuring the electrical conductivity (EC). The

13
EC-value and TDS are linearly related (Richards, 1954).

Dispersive soils, or sodic soils, collapse or disperse to form dissolved slurry when in
contact with fresh water (rain).These soils are highly prone to erosion often leading to tunnel
or gully erosion .Unlike other forms of erosion, dispersion and tunnel erosion result from an
imbalance in soil chemistry.

1 Tunnel erosion results from a combination of both chemical dispersion and physical
transport of dispersed clay particles.
2 Soils with greater than 6% exchangeable sodium are prone to dispersion. The
investigating team shall carry out physical, chemical and geotechnical analysis of the soil
in the affected areas to understand the causes of piping. The subsurface mapping
/investigation would require equipment such as, imaging resistivity meters and vibration
sensing equipment. Tracer studies will also be conducted to determine the pipe layout and
GPR studies shall be initiated wherever required. Also come up with site specific
mitigation measures to minimize/ arrest the process.
Soil piping is not an instant or as sudden process; it takes years depending on the area and
type of soil present over there. Rosewell (1970) identified two preconditions that required for
the formation of piping erosion (1) the soil must disperse into the water that moves through
the soil and (2) the soil must have sufficient permeability in either the soil matrix or macro
pores to enable the movement of dispersed clay particles without blockage. The physical
properties which favors for the cause of piping are slope, elevation, rate of flow of
underground water, structure, texture, porosity, and permeability of erodible material,
chemical properties of soil like, clay mineralogy, pH, sodic soils, and electrical conductivity
of soils. Until and unless these factors are not favorable, the soil may not be eroded and
piping may not occur.
No single factor or group of factors is universally responsible for the development of piping
(Jones, 1981), but the initiating factors vary in different situations. The conditions essential
for piping listed by Parker (19630) are
 Sufficient water to saturate some part of the soil or rock above base level.
 Sufficient hydraulic head to remove the water through the subterranean route.
 A susceptible medium (Sacrificial deposit or rock) to convey the water
through the subterranean route.
 An outlet for the flow.

14
Added to this in Kerala highlands soil piping is observed only where thick laterite cover is
there. Dispersive clays associated with the saprolite layer below the laterite column is the
ideal loci for soiling piping processes. The input of water may be from animal burrows or
wilted region of long tap roots or infiltration pits etc.

1.8 Land subsidence by soil piping

Land subsidence is a gradual settling or sudden sinking of Earth’s surface due to removal of
earth materials.
Land subsidence causes many problems including:
 Changes in elevation and slope streams, canals and drains
 Damage to bridges, roads, railroads, storm drains, sanitary sewers, canals, and
levees
 Damage to private and public buildings
 Failure of well casings from forces generated by compaction of fine-grained
material in aquifer systems.
 Permanent inundation of land, aggravates flooding, changes topographic
gradients and ruptures the land surface.
 Reduces the capacity of aquifers to store water.

Due to its ability to destroy property on a large scale, subsidence is a very expensive type of
mass wasting that also poses some risk to human lives.

Usually Land subsidence occurs naturally and artificially. Natural subsidence occurs due to
many factors. Land subsidence can occur over a large area and smaller areas. Subsidence is a
global problem. Lowering of the land surface of large areas has been a major unintended
consequence of ground water and petroleum withdrawal by humans. In the limestone terrains
the subsidence occurs due to development of solution cavities underground. Land subsidence
can also occur in underground mining localities especially coal mines. Subsidence due to soil
piping is mainly due to loss of subsurface support. Water percolating through pervious
surficial materials gets diverted to weak pervious portions and the dispersive soils also carries
out with this water leading to huge cavities. In order to produce surface subsidence, the
erosion mechanism is believed to require three conditions (Aalen, 1969): (1) an impermeable
stratum at the top of pervious easily erodible material to form as a roof for the tunnel formed,
(2) water must have access to the erodible material with sufficient head to transport grains of

15
silts or sand and (3) proper outlets available for the disposal of flowing water and carrying
sediments.

1.9 Land subsidence in Kerala

During the last decade many piping incidences were reported by the Revenue department
from different places in Kerala. In the beginning it was believed that this process is also due
to landslides. In 2005, NCESS (then CESS) has investigated (Sankar 2005) land- subsidence
in the Chattivayal locality of Thirumeni village, Kannur, Kerala. It was found out to be due to
soil piping process. This was the first major incidence reported by NCESS on soil piping.At
that time it was thought that it may be an isolated incidence. But subsequently such
incidences were reported from many places in Kannur, Kozhikode and Idukki. After
investigating the incidences reported from places like Chattivayal (Taliparamba taluk,
Kannur district), Palakkayam (Mannarkkad taluk, Palakkad district), Pasukkadavu (Vadakara
taluk, Kozhikode district), Padinjareathara and Kunnamangalam Vayal (Vythiri taluk,
Wayanad district), Venniyani mala (Todupuzha taluk, Idukki district) Perngasseri ,
Tattekkani and Karuppilangad (Thodupuzha Taluk, Idukki district) Udayagiri (Udumanchola
taluk, Idukki) it was confirmed this process needs detailed studies. The recurrence of the
phenomenon of soil piping during every monsoon in Thirumeni and Pulingom villages of
Cherupuzha the matter was brought to the notice of the State Disaster Management
Authority. Realizing the gravity of situation NDMA based on a proposal submitted by
NCESS through SDMA sanctioned funds for this study. Subsurface soil erosion due to piping
often results in land degradation. The cavities and pipes developed below the ground grow
with respect to time and affect large extents of land in the form of subsidence, thereby
making it not suitable for cultivation and related activities. In short erosion due to piping in
an area is like cancer affecting the human body. If unattended, it will spread and destroy vast
amounts of valuable land in the State.
In India there are not much work in this subject especially from a hazard point of view. Not
much literature was also not available on India especially Kerala incidents. This handicap
might reflect in this work. However an attempt has made here to bring out different aspects of
soil piping problem in the highlands and foot hills of Kerala.

16
CHAPTER 2

OBJECTIVES AND METHODOLOGY

The objectives and methodology as projected in the project proposal is as follows;

2.1 Objectives
2.1.1 Document the areas affected by tunnel erosion/ soil piping in Kerala.

2.1.2 Determine the extent of the underground pipes using geophysical and
geological methods.

2.1.3 Determine various physical and chemical processes taking place in the
affected area in order to understand causative factors of piping.

2.1.4 Suggest mitigation measures to minimize or arrest this process.

2.2 Methodology
2.2.1 Creation of a data base with primary and secondary data:

Data regarding soil piping affected regions of the state is non-existent since this feature is not
subjected to any studies in the state or for that matter in the country itself. Most primary
surveys were done for data collection. Field surveys were carried out to collect the details of
the piping affected locality. Tunnels surveys are extremely dangerous because of lack of
oxygen at certain tunnels, improper lighting and chances of roof collapse. The tunnels which
are old are relatively safe but they are infested with bats and at times reptiles. The secondary
data was collected from Revenue department, Village and Taluk offices. The newspaper
reports were also helpful in this study. As such no background data on soil piping in the state
was available except the investigations carried out by the CESS since 2005. Data on soil
piping affected places were tabulated in an excel format incorporating various aspects such as
location, Lat/long, Village name, Panchayat, Taluk, District, type of pipes present, slope,
geology etc. The locational data was correlated with different themes such that Geology,
lineaments, drainage, administrative areas etc. on a GIS format to understand any locational
affinity of these occurrences.
2.2.2 Determination of Chemical characteristics responsible

Soil piping or tunnel erosion is the combined result of chemical as well as mechanical
processes. In order to understand the processes happening here samples collected from

17
different soil horizons were subjected to chemical analysis. XRF analysis were carried out at
NCESS to determine the major minor and trace elements and XRD analysis were also
conducted at NCESS to determine the clay mineralogy. Wet chemical analysis were carried
out in various labs including NCESS.
2.2.3 Determination of physical, geotechnical properties

Geotechnical investigation had been done on the piping affected regions to find out the
various geotechnical properties of soil. Geotechnical properties of the soil affect the soil
piping phenomenon are well understood. Undisturbed soil samples were collected from
various regions and geotechnical properties (texture, Attenborough limits, shear
strength/factor of safety etc.) evaluated from geotechnical lab of NIT Calicut and NIT-
Kurukshetra.
2.2.4 Determination of the extent of the underground pipes

This study involved the study of the tunnels and cavities formed by soilpiping process. Since
these tunnels and cavities are situated underground, indirect methods were used for detecting
and mapping them. This study has depended on the geophysical tools to understand the
subsurface features. Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) was not available to this team so,
electrical resistivity methods were used for field surveys. Standard four electrode aqua meter
as well as multi electrode resistivity meter were used to study the underground cavities and
tunnels.
2.2.5 Mitigation trials.

Since the soil piping is the result of both chemical and hydrological processes, any method to
neutralise this process should address to these two aspects. Chemical field trials require large
quantities of chemicals to be applied in the field, so laboratorary trails were conducted. The
hydrological interventions in the field also requires huge funds for intervention work so
designs based on filed data were made for implementation by the Government agencies.
2.3 Study area
This project documented and studied the areas affected by piping in the Western Ghats and
its foothills in the state of Kerala. Out of the 14 revenue districts in the State , excepting
Thiruvananthapuram, Kollam, Alappuzha Kottayam and Malappuram were found to be
affected by soil piping. This study covered the entire highlands and foot hills of the Kerala
state as mentioned in the proposal.

18
CHAPTER 3

SOIL PIPING IN THE STUDY AREA

3.1 Study area

This project documented and studied the areas affected by piping in the Western Ghats and
its foothills in the state of Kerala. This study covered the entire highlands and foot hills of the
Kerala state as mentioned in the proposal. Kerala State, bounded by north latitudes 8º17'30"
and 12º47'40" and east longitudes 74º51'57" and 77º24'47" covers an area of 38,864 sq km
and is located in the southwestern part of the Indian Peninsular shield. The state is divided
into 14 districts. This linear strip of land is bounded by the Western Ghats on the east and the
Arabians ea on the west. The state is divisible into four broad physiographic units. They are:
(i) the low-level coastal strip fringing the Lakshadweep sea ranging in altitudes between 0-30
m, (ii) the landforms marked by laterite cappings between altitudes of 30m and 200 m, (iii)
the foot hills of Western Ghats ranging in altitude from 200m to 600 m and (iv) the steeply
rising Western Ghat hill ranges with altitudes reaching upto 2500 m.

3.1.2 Areas affected by soil piping

Data base on soil piping indicate that this phenomenon occurs in many areas in the Western
Ghats of the Kerala region. Many of piping are located at Idukki and Kannur, Kasaragod and
then followed by Kozhikode, Palakkad, Ernakulam, Pathanamthitta, and Wayanad. Data base
prepared is being updated incorporating newer incidents. Data in the excel format (table 3.1)
also in the GIS format (figure 3.1) are being stored.

19
 Figure 3.1 Areas affected by soil piping in Kerala
3.1.3 Geology

Geologically, Kerala is occupied by Pre Cambrian crystalline, acid to ultra-basic intrusives of

20
Archaean to Proterozoic age, Tertiary (Mio Pliocene) sedimentary rocks and Quaternary
sediments of fluvial and marine origin (GSI,2005), where major units of the Archaean
continental crust, such as granulites, granites, gneisses and green stones are preserved.
Southern part of the State, south of Achankovil shear zone, exposes an assemblage of
migmatised meta sedimentary and meta igneous rocks ( Khondalite- Charnockite assemblage
From north of the Achankovil shear zone upto the southern flank of the Palaghat Gap, the
rocks are predominantly charnockites, charnockitic gneisses and a variety of other gneisses
with occasional assemblages of metasediments in the Idukki-Munnar region representing the
western continuation of the Madurai block in Tamil Nadu. Within the southern part of the
Palaghat Gap, charnockite patches and hornblende biotite-gneisses are predominate. Towards
the central and northern part of the Gap, migmatitic gneisses (hornblende biotite gneisses)
and occasional patches of amphibolites, calc-granulite and granites are observed. Northern
flank of the gap consists of a meta sedimentary sequence of khondalite and calc-granulite
with crystalline lime stone bands. Granulites, schists, and gneisses, intruded by acid and
alkaline plutons constitute the northern most part of the State (Soman, 2002; Figure 3.2).
Khondalites are essentially garnet silliminite gneisses containing varying amount of graphite.
These group of rocks are in abundance in areas south of Achankoil shear zone in the
Thiruvananthapuram and Kollam districts. The data base indicates that the piping incidents
rare in areas south of Achankovil where Khodalites are in abundance. Where as in areas
dominated by Sargur group in Wayanad and Southern Karnataka soil piping incidences are
prominent. The incidences are reported from areas where there are thick formation of laterites
over the base crystalline rocks. Such incidences are reported from Idukki, Kozhikode
districts. Soil piping incidences are not reported from Tertiaries or recent sediments in
Kerala.

21
Figure 3.2 Areas affected by soil piping in Kerala (Geology map: Courtesy GSI)

22
 Types of Pipe*

with small pipe

Small pipe in a

Mature pipe in
combination

Mature pipe

Mature pipe
subsidence
well like

23

Loose soil on the near

Deep well drained soil with Deep well drained
Deep well drained soil with surface layer and the
strongly acidic, gravelly sand soil with strongly
strongly acidic,gravelly sand and botton layer contain
and gravelly clay subsoil layer acidic,gravelly sand
Soil

gravelly clay subsoil layer with 30 fine grained red

with 30 to 60 percent gravel, and gravelly clay
to 60 percent gravel, lateritic soil coloured clay rich
lateritic soil lateritic soil
lateritc soil.
Mostly rubber
Landuse

Mostly rubber platation, also Rubber, Cacao, Coffee

platation, also Mostly rubber platation
coffee and cocoa and Pepper
coffee and cocoa
Elevation

271

270

492

653
m

This unit is on slope of 15 to This unit is on slope the general slope is

Slope

the general slope is +30degrees

25 per cent of 15 to 25 per cent +30degrees
Table 3.1 The places affected by soil piping in Kerala

Charnokite (massive)
Charnokite (massive) with mafic
Geology

Charnokite (massive) with Hornblend biotite with mafic granulite

granulite and Hornblend biotite
mafic granulite gneiss and Hornblend biotite
gneiss
gneiss

subsidence,
subsidence

occurred in
and tunnel

tunnelling
across the

across the

Stabilized
Remarks

Well like

highway

highway

Loose soil
Mature

Well like
state

state

pipe
E 76º51'28.4”

E 76º53'18.3”

E 76º51'16.8”

E76°58'59.7"
Co-ordinates

N 9º52'02.9”

N 9º59'49.2”

N 9º51'39.3”

N9°50'55.26"
Venniyani Mala
Peringassery

Thattekanni
Location

Mariyapuram
Peringassery

Mariyapuram
Panchayat

Kanjikuzhi

Kanjikuzhi

Mariyapuram
Thodupuzha

Thodupuzha
Elemdesam
Taluk
District

Idukki
Idukki

Idukki

Idukki
 Hornblend biotite gneiss
Charnokite (massive) with mafic granulite and

Loose soil on the near surface layer and the botton

layer contain fine grained red coloured clay rich
Widespread
Idukki Udumbanchola Udayagiri Udayagiri N 9º50'39.3” E 77º03'36.7” Mature pipe
occurrence
973

the general slope is +30degrees

Mostly rubber platation

Widespread
Mature pipe
occurrence

lateritc soil.
Idukki Udumbanchola Udayagiri Udayagiri N 9º50'31.7” E 77º03'34.5”

972 Mature pipe

Widespread
Idukki Udumbanchola Udayagiri Udayagiri N 9º50'30.8” E 77º03'36.7” 970 Mature pipe
occurrence

Widespread
Idukki Udumbanchola Udayagiri Udayagiri N 9º50'31.7” E 77º03'35.7” 973 Mature pipe
occurrence

mafic granulite
Charnokite (massive) with

This unit is on slope of 15

Mostly rubber and tea

nature, easily erodable.

Loose unconfined soil

layer, and is in acidic
to 25 per cent

platation
Well like
Idukki Kattapana Upputhara Nalaam Mile N9º39'34.0" E76º59'29.4" 810 Mature pipe
subsidence

forest loamy soil -They are generally acidic and dark reddish
The

Mostly rubber platationand some part covered with forest

brown to by a surf, Lateritic soil- which is the weathered

product detivered under humid tropical conditions, they
Mature pipe,
Type area upper
associated with
Kannur Thaliparamba Cherupuzha Kottathalachimala N 12º15'36.1” E 75º26'08.7” for soil slope is 492

Charnokite (massive) with mafic granulite

small and
piping high

range from sandy loam to red loam.

Juvanile pipes
slopes
(+310)
Type area where as
Kannur Thaliparamba Cherupuzha Kottathalachimala N 12º16'16” E 75º25'48.8” for soil the 485 Mature pipe
piping lower
slopes
Type area are
Kannur Thaliparamba Cherupuzha Kottathalachimala N 12º16'22.5” E 75º25'21.8” for soil about 233 Mature pipe
piping 240.most
of the
Type area piping
Kannur Thaliparamba Cherupuzha Kottathalachimala N 12º16'23.2” E 75º25'02.2” for soil occuere 415 Mature pipe
piping d in
break in

24
Kannur Thaliparamba Cherupuzha Chattivayal N12º15'34.1" E75º26'08.7'' piping slope 414 Mature pipe

Medium 505 Mature pipe

sized tunnel
affecting
Kannur Thaliparamba Cherupuzha Tabore N12º15'37.9" E75º27'00.2"
the
foundation
of house

in the area is porous, pitted, with red yellow, brown-gray and mottled colour
Duricrust layer on the top of the land and underlined by lateritic soil, Laterite
Mature pipe

453

First major

The slope terrain is less than 15degree

cashew trees and rubber plantation

Kannur Thaliparamba Thirumeni Thirumeni N 12º15'36.0” E 75º26'45.7” occurrence Over size
reported

Mature pipe
Oversized
Kannur Thaliparamba Peringom Padiyottuchal N12º14'59.21" E75º20'33.7" 186 with lot of
tunnel
branching

A complex
oversized
Kannur Thaliparamba Peringom Vayakkara N12º04'42.1" E75º47'15.9" tunnelling 195 Over size
in a habitats
area

Mature pipe
180 with lot of
Oversized
Kannur Thaliparamba Peringom Ummrampoyil N12º14'23.7" E75º19'33.6" branching
pipe

colour
dThe
mottle
and
-gray
brown
w,
yello
red
with
pitted,
s,
porou
nt
conta
clay
highl
is
area
the
soil in
tic
Lateri
is less
degre

slope
Over size

than
15
areca
es

25
 with typical and
Mature pipe

combination
Mature pipe

Mature pipe

Young pipe
small pipes
Over size

occurs in

26

Duricrust layer on the top Brown hydromorhic soil

Duricrust layer on the top of the Laterite in the area
of the land and underlined are confined to solids are
land and underlined by lateritic is porous, pitted,
by lateritic soil, Laterite in brown in colour and the
soil, Laterite in the area is with red yellow,
the area is porous, pitted, surface texture varies from
porous, pitted, with red yellow, brown-gray and
with red yellow, brown- sandy to clay. Erodable clay
brown-gray and mottled colour mottled colour
gray and mottled colour rich laterites
plantation
palm and

trees and
cashew
rubber

rubber
plants

Cocanut aracanut plants

148

125
37

24

The slope of the

The slope is less than 15 The slope is less than 10
The slope is less than 15 degrees locality is more
degrees degrees
than 25 degrees
Charnokite (massive) with mafic granulite
Mature and
long tunnel
A complex

way in the
tunnelling

tunnelling

State high
Stabilized
beneath a

oversized

Affected
Massive

lowland
affected

coastal
mature

houses
above
well

pipe
E75 45' 7.19"

E75°11'22.9"

E75º17'37.6"

E75º02'39.2"
E75º13.042

N12º27'09.3"

N12º23'15.8"
N12 2' 9.39"

N12º17.965
N12°29'12"

Nelliyedukkam
Niranganpara

Erinjilakodu

Pallikara
Kuttikol

Karinthalam
Ayankunnu

Panathadi

Pallikara
Kuttikol

Vellarikund

Kanhangad

Kanhangad
Kasaragod
Iritty

Kasaragod

Kasaragod

Kasaragod

Kasaragod
Kannur
 associated with

Juvanile pipes
Mature pipe,
Mature pipe

small and

27

Lateritic soil is derived from the

forest loamy soil -They are generally Virgin Forest Soil are rich in
laterite under tropical climate with
acidic and dark reddish brown to by a humus and organic matter and
alternate wet and dry conditions. It is
surf, Lateritic soil- which is the Black Cotton Soil is used for
reddish in colour and well drained
weathered product detivered under the cultivation of cotton. They
gravelly to clayey. The organic
humid tropical conditions, they range exhibit mud cracks and have
matter in the soil is very less with
from sandy loam to red loam high water retaining power.
moderate
cashew trees and rubber plantation Mixed crops rubber
180

356

The slope of the locality is more than

foot slope Slope +25
25 degrees
Charnokite (massive) with mafic
Hornblend biotite gneiss granulite and Hornblend biotite gneiss
and granite intrusion are seen
tunnelling

landslide
localised

Younger
small &

affected
Mature

feature
tunnel

young
Very

area
in a
E76° 33' 9.82"
E75º23'24.8"

E75º50'18"
N12º20'50.5"

N11º 39' 53"

N10° 57'
42.55"
Mattankadavu

Palakkayam

Pasukadavu
Maruthomkara
Thachampara
Karinthalam
Vellarikund

Mannarkad

vadakara
Kozhikode
Kasaragod

Palakkad
 28

Forest loam is the product of weathering of the

country rock under forest cover in major parts of
Ranni blocksand also Lateritic soil is the most Loose soil on the near surface layer, it is highly
widely occurring in tis area This soil is the erodable, permeable in nature,
product of lateralization of the crystallines and
sedimentaries under humid tropical conditions.
Mostly rubber platation Mostly rubber platation Mostly rubber platation
736

817
60

The slope of the locality is

slope of

degrees
locality

than 25
is less

Slope +25
The

the

less than 25 degrees

Charnokite (massive) Charnokite (massive) with
Charnokite (massive) with mafic granulite with mafic granulite and mafic granulite and
Hornblend biotite gneiss Hornblend biotite gneiss
subsidence

Tunnelling

Associated
Earth dam

Landslide
near to an
Well like

affecting

location
houses,

with a
E76º46' 55.2"

E75°49'52.7"
E75º54'16"

N11°43'52.9"
N 9º22' 22.8"

N11º41'33"
Banasurasagar
Pampa valley

Valamthode

* Explained towards the end of this chapter

Padinjarethara

Valamthode
Kollamula

Mananthavady
Vythiri
Ranni
Pathanamthitta

Wayanadu

Wayanad
 Figure 3.3: Piping events in various Panchayats

The data reveals that from the southern districts of Kollam and Trivandrum there are no

29
reports of piping incidents. There are no reports of piping from the coastal districts of
Alleppy coastal areas of the state. Incidents are reported from only highlands and foothills of
the state. Even incidents of piping is reported at the time of writing this report from Kannur
and Palghat districts. The piping events are severe in Kannur and Kasaragod districts. The
Cherupuzha panchayat in the Kannur district is the most affected Panchayat in the state with
the available database.The piping process is found to be extending into the nearly Coorg
region of Karnataka state also.

3.1.4 Geomorphology

Geomorphologically the state can be divided into four main domains from east to west, ie., the
Western Ghats, the foothills, the midland and the coastal low- land.

Western Ghats- The hill ranges of the Western Ghats rise to an altitude of over 2500m above the MSL
and the crest of the ranges marks the inter-state boundary in most of the places. A breach in the
continuity of the ranges marks the Palghat Gap with a sinistral shift of 50 km between the shifted
crests. The Wayanad plateau and the Munnar upland fall within this zone.

Foothills- The foothills of the Western Ghats comprise the rocky area from 200 to 600m.above MSL.
It is a transitional zone between the high -ranges and midland.

Midland region- This forms an area of gently undulating topography with hillocks and mounds.
Laterite capping is commonly noticeable on the top of these hillocks. The low, flattopped hillocks
forming the laterite plateau range in altitude from 30-200m and are observed between coastal low-
land and the foothills.

Coastal low- land- Coastal low-land is identified with alluvial plains, sandy stretches, abraded
platforms, beach ridges, raised beaches, lagoons and estuaries. The low- land and the plains are
generally less than 10m above MSL.

30
 Figure3.4: Geomorphology of Kerala with piping points

Soil piping is observed mainly in the highland and its foothills of the state. However micro and small

31
pipes (pipe types are described in the subsequent chapters) are observed in the lateritic cutting in the
midlands. The toppling and other failures occurring in the laterite cuttings along the railway lines are
classic examples of this. The failure of the railway cutting near Mulanthuruthy is associated with
water saturation of the laterite cutting due to micro and small pipes.

3.1.5 Soil type

The soil survey department of Kerala has come out with the following types for the Kerala
soils.The topo-lithosequence of Kerala along with variation in rainfall, temperature and
alternate wet and dry conditions particularly from the western coast to high ranges in the east
and swift flowing rivers lead to the development of different types of natural vegetation and
soil. The soils of Kerala can be broadly grouped into coastal alluvium, mixed alluvium, acid
saline, kari, laterite, red, hill, black cotton and forest soils (Figure 3.5).

Coastal alluvium

These soils of marine origin are identified along the coastal plains and basin lands as a
narrow strip. The elevation of the coastal area is generally below 5m MSL. The area has high
water table and in some areas it reaches above the surface during rainy season. The soils of
the coastal plains are very deep with sandy texture. The texture generally ranges from sand to
loamy sand with greyish brown to reddish brown and yellowish red colour. Sand content
ranges from 80% and clay up to 15%. Even though these soils have high water table, the
water holding capacity is poor due to the predominance of sand. Coconut is the major crop in
the area. Cashew and other fruit trees are also grown

a. Mixed alluvium
These soils are developed from fluvial sediments of marine, lacustrine and riverine sediments
or its combinations. They occur below 20m MSL in the lowland plains, basins, valleys and
along the banks of major rivers. The mixed alluvium is mainly noticed close to coastal
alluvium, Kuttanad and adjacent area and kole lands of Thrissur district. The soils are
frequently flooded and submerged. The soils of depressions and broad valleys are subject to
occasional flooding and stagnation. The ground water table of these soils is generally high
and it reaches above the surface during rainy season. A wide variation in texture is noticed in
these soils. Sandy clay loam to clay is the predominant texture. Sandy loam soils are also met
with. Light grey to very dark brown is the common colour of the soil. Paddy, other annuals
and seasonal crops like banana, tapioca and vegetables are grown here.

b. Acid saline soils

Acid saline soils are present throughout the coastal area in patches with very little extent.
Major area of this soil is identified in the coastal tract of Ernakulam, Thrissur and Kannur
districts. The area under these soils comprise of low-lying marshes, waterlogged and ill
drained areas near the rivers and streams, which are subject to tidal waves. Sea and backwater
tides make these soils saline. During monsoon season, when rainwater and fresh water from
rivers enter the fields, salinity is partially washed off. The area under these soils occurs

32
mostly on plains at or below sea level. A wide variation in texture from sandy loam to clay is
noticed with dark grey to black colour. Paddy is the only crop that can be cultivated.

c. Laterite soils
Laterite and laterite soil are the weathering products of rock in which several course of
weathering and mineral transformations take place. This involves removal of bases and
substantial loss of combined silica of primary minerals. In laterite and laterite soils, over
acidic rocks, induration and zonation are more pronounced. This induration is greater if the
iron content is higher. These soils mainly occur in the midlands and part of lowlands at an
elevation of 10 to 100m above MSL as a strip between the coastal belt and hilly mid-upland.
The area comprises of mounds and low hills with gentle to steep slopes. Laterite soils are
generally suitable for most of the dryland crops. It is mainly cultivated with coconut,
arecanut, banana, tapioca, vegetables, yams, pepper, pineapple, fruit trees etc. The percentage
of gravel content in the soil and reduced soil depth limits the choice of crops. In laterite
outcrop area with shallow soils, only cashew can be grown with vegetables.

d. Black cotton soils

These soils are identified in alluvial plains, terraces and undulating plains of Chittur taluk in
Palakkad district in patches. The elevation of the area ranges from 100 to 300m above MSL
with gentle to moderate slope. These soils are developed on Khondalite suite of rocks
traversed by lenticular bands of crystalline limestone and calc-granulites. These soils are very
deep, black and calcareous. The texture of the soil ranges from clay loam to clay. They
possess high shrink-swell capacity and hence exhibit the characteristic cracking during dry
periods. A variety of crops such as coconut, sugarcane, cotton, chilly, pulses and vegetables
are grown here.

e. Red soils
These are found mostly in the southern parts of Thiruvananthapuram district and in pockets in
catenary sequence along the foot slopes of laterite hills and mounds. These soils are identified
in undulating plains of lowland with a general slope of 3 to 10%. These are mostly very deep
and homogeneous in nature. The texture of the soil generally ranges from sandy clay loam to
clay loam with red to dark red colour. Gravels are rarely noticed in these soils. A variety of
crops such as coconut, arecanut, banana, yams, pineapple, vegetables, fruit trees etc., can be
grown under proper management.

f. Hill soils
The hill soils mostly occur above an elevation of 80m MSL. The area is hilly and has highly
dissected denudational hills, elongated ridges, rocky cliffs and narrow valleys. The general
slope range is above 10%. The texture of these soils generally ranges from loam to clay loam
with average gravel content of 10 to 50%. In addition, stones and boulders are noticed in the
subsoil. These soils have reddish brown to yellowish red/strong brown colour. Generally,
increase in clay content is noticed down the profile. The depth of the soil varies considerably
from 60 to 200 cm depending on the lie of the land, erodibility of soil and past erosion. These
soils are mostly friable and subject to heavy soil erosion. The area is suitable for all dryland
crops like rubber, coconut, arecanut and fruit trees based on the topography. Crops such as

33
banana, pepper, pineapple, vegetables can be grown in foot slopes.

g. Forest soils
These soils are developed from crystalline rocks of archaean age under forest cover. They
occur along the eastern part of the State, generally above an elevation of 300m above MSL.
The area is hilly and mountainous with steep slopes, escarpments, elongated rocky summits
and narrow ‘V’ shaped valleys. The depth of the soil varies considerably depending on
erosion and vegetative cover. The soils are generally immature due to slow weathering
process. Rock outcrops and stones are noticed on the surface. Gneissic boulders under
different stages of weathering are noticed in the subsoil. The texture of the soil ranges from
sandy clay loam to clay with reddish brown to very dark brown colour. Forest trees, shrubs
and grasses are grown here.

34
 Figure 3.5: Soil map of Kerala with Piping locations
(source: Soil survey department, Kerala)
The soil types are important for the development of soil pipes or initiation of piping. A clayer
rich horizon with well drained upper soil layers with poorly drained lower strata are the ideal
scenario for pipe development. That is the reason why such incidences are more in lateritic
areas.

3.1.6 Drainage network of Kerala

Kerala is drained by 44 rivers, many of which originate from the Western Ghats (figure 3.6).
Except Kabini, Bhavani and Pambar which are east- flowing, the rest of rivers are west-

35
flowing and join the Arabian Sea. A few of them drain into the backwaters. Most important
rivers (with their length in km in paranthesis) of the state, are Chandragiri(105), Valapatnam
(110), Achankovil (120) Kallada (121), Muvattupuzha (121), Chalakudy (130),
Kadalundi(130), Chaliyar (169), Pampa (176) ,Bharathapuzha (209) and Periyar (244).

Figure3.6: Drainage map of Kerala with piping points

The soilpiping process is closely associated with the surface and subsurface hydrology. Also this
process requires sufficient hydrologic head to remove the clay particles to down slope regions. Like
landslides in the Western Ghats, the soil piping also initiates in the topographic hollow regions where
the first order streams exist. The subsurface configuration usually develops like the dendritic pattern
of the surface drainage with higher and lower order streams. The entire surface and subsurface
hydrology is thus affected by this process. This is indicated by the non-recharging characteristics of

36
the open wells in the affected localities.

3.1.7 Landuse

According to 2011 census, the population density of the state of Kerala is very high (
859/km2) when compared to the national average (382/ km2) . The landuse in general by and large
controlled by the topography of the region. In The eastern highland region is characterised by the
forests and plantations. In plantation type tea, rubber and coffee dominates. There is teak plantations
associated with the forests. The foot hills and midlands are dominated by the rubber plantations and
mixed crops. Whereas the coastal areas are mostly urbanised and supports coconuts and mixed crops.
Coastal areas are dominated by wetlands such as coastal lagoon and estuaries.

Figure 3.7: Landuse map of Kerala with piping locations (NRSC, ISRO, 2012)

The highland lands and its foot hills are the areas dominated by the plantations and deforested areas .
The replanting of rubber plants takes place after 20-22 years, the taproot remains and it acts as
conduits for transmitting water to the lower clay horizons. Cultivation of tuber crops attracts
borrowing animals which in turn makes conduits on the ground to promote quick water inflow to the
lower layers of the weathered horizon. Since the pH and the exachangeable sodium play an important
role in soil piping processes, the role of fertilizers need detailed review. So far the piping incidences
are widely reported from plantations and deforested areas.

3.2 Classification of soil pipes

In nature, soil pipes are formed by the process of subsurface erosion; these kinds of pipes are stable or

37
unstable, which depend upon, geomorphology, soil type, hydrogeology etc. Most of them often goes
unnoticed because of the subsurface process. Different types of pipes are observed in the high lands
and each pipes having its own characteristics. The classification is mainly depending on the size of
common soil pipes observed in the state. In many places these pipes are exisiting in combination.
Many places it is like underground drainage network like dendritic network. Based on the size pipe
are classified in to four stages of formation. The following classification has been arrived. This
classification has been arrived based on the samples from Kerala occurrences.
3.2.1 Micro pipes (Juvenile pipe)
Micro pipes or juvenile pipe (figure 3.8a) are the initial stage of piping. The diameter of pipe
is <5cm. Clayey and lateritic soils are favourable for the formation of juvenile pipes.
Juvenile pipes often found in the laterite cutting made for railways and roads. These pipes
often saturate the laterite cutting Mulanthuruthy (figure 3.8b). These pipes are responsible for
saturating the during factor of safty causing topplings. The failure of the railway cutting
occurred during 2012 near Mulanthuruthy near Ernakulam is a typical failure affected by
such juvenile pipes. The juvenile pipes when present in large numbers in an area indicates
the susceptible nature of the soil to soil piping.

Figure 3.8: Micro (Juvenile) pipes.

3.2.2 Small pipes (Younger pipe)

Small pipes (Figure 3.9a) are the second stage of development of the soil pipe. The diameter
of pipe is ranges from 5cm - 30cm; It may combine together or individually developed as the
formation of small pipe. Often road cuttings topple in the lateritic area after being saturated
during monsoon rains. This type of pipe is seen nearby Banasurasagar dam in Figure 2.7b, is
indicative of the dispersive soils occurring in that area. The presence of these pipes indicates
that the terrain is very susceptible to piping.

38
 a b

Figure 3.9: Small (Younger) pipes

3.2.3 Typical pipes (Mature pipe)

Mature pipe (Figure 3.10) is the third stage of development of pipe. The diameter of pipe
ranges from 30cm to 5m. It may have an outlet; it acts as an underground drainage. This is
the common pipes seen in the Western Ghats. The land subsidence is often caused by the
growth of these pipes. This often branches in to smaller pipes giving an appearance of
dendritic pattern. The size of the tunnel reduces towards the outlet attaining an overall shape
of a funnel. The outlet of these pipes is often located in the lower side slopes or the valley.
Here the water comes out as a fountain rather than a spring. These type of pipes are common
in the affected localities. In Kerala Kottathalachimala (Kannur) , Iritty, Tattekanni (Idukki )
are typical examples.

Figure 3.10: Typical pipes (Mature pipe)

3.2.4 Oversized pipes (Huge pipe)

It is next stage of pipe after development of a typical pipe. The diameter of huge pipe (Figure
3.11) is >5m. It will also have an outlet. It acts as an underground drainage, it has no definite
shape. These pipes often associate with their lower versions such as typical / matuare pipes.
These pipes are almost stable, the water erosion is very less and the walls of pipes are so hard

39
Huge pipes are located in the Kasaragod (Kuttikol / Nelliyadukkam) and Kannur
(Umrampoyil) districts

Figure 3.11: Oversized pipes (huge pipes)

3.3 Major areas affected by tunnel erosion/ soil piping in Kerala.

Field surveys were conducted in all the major affected localities in the state. A brief description of the
geo environmental aspects of these sites is given here.

3.3.1 Kasaragod
Kasaragod is the northern district of Kerala, bordering Karnataka State. It lies between 12º 02’ -12º
48’N latitude and 74º 51’ - 75º 25’E longitude. The population is mainly agrarian and the major crops
raised are coconut, arecanut, cashew, rubber, paddy, pepper etc. Kasargod district is divided into two
taluks (Kasargod and Hosdurg) and 75 villages. The district has one revenue division, 6 Block
Panchayaths (Manjeshwar, Kasargod, Kanhangad, Nileshwar, Karadka and Parappa) and 38
GramaPanchayaths and three Municipalities (Kasargod, Kanhangad and Nileshwar).

a) Geology

The major rock type noticed in the district comprise of Charnokite, granites Hornblende biotite
gneiss, Laterite, Alluvium and gneisses of Archean age, schistose rock of Sargur metamorphic
complex, tertiary sedimentary rock and recent to sub recent deposits (figure2.12).

40
 Figure 3.12: Geology of Kasaragod district

b) Soil types
There are four major soil types encountered in the district. They are Lateritic Soil, Brown
Hydromorphic Soil, Alluvial Soil and Forest Loam. Lateritic soil is the most predominant soil type of
the district and it occurs in the midland and hilly areas and it is derived from laterites. Laterite is the
most wide spread and extensively developed aquifer in the district. They widely vary in their physico-
chemical characteristics. The laterite is generally underlain by thick lithomargic clay which is the
preliminary lateralization front. The thickness of lithomargic clay varies from about 0.5m to 5.0m at
places. Laterite is more ferruginous, porous and hard in northern parts of the district compared to
those in the southern parts of the district. Due to its porous nature the dug wells tapping laterite get
recharged fast and also the water escapes as sub-surface flow and water level falls quite fast especially
in wells located on topographic highs and hill slopesBrown hydromorphic soil is confined to the
valleys between undulating topography in the midlands and in the low lying areas of the coastal strip.
They have been formed as aresult of transportation and sedimentation of materials from adjoining hill
slopes. The alluvial soil is seen in the western coastal tract of the district. The coastal plain is
characterised by secondary soils which are sandy and sterile with poor water holding capacity. The
width of the zone increases towards the southern part of the district. Forest loamy soil is found in the
eastern hilly areas of the district and are characterised by a surface layer rich in organic matter.

41
 c) Hydrogeology

Four hydrogeological units encountered are Alluvium (including valley fills) laterites
weathered crystalline and fractured crystalline. Coastal Alluvium occurs as narrow strips parallel to
the coast south of Kasargod. The width of alluvium increases to the south and attains about 5 km.
around Trikaripur. North of Kasargod (in Kasargod and Manjeshwar blocks), the alluvium occurs as
isolated patches close to the coast and have limited thickness. In the Kanhangad and Nileshwar blocks
even though the width of alluvium is more, potential zones are seen in the top portion only followed
by Tertiary sediments at deeper levels which does not contain potential granular zones. Valley fills
occur in between laterite hills which are composed of colluvium and alluvium. The water level ranges
from 2.93 m to 5.63 m bgl in pre-monsoon period and 1.20 to 3.20 m bgl in post monsoon period. The
water level fluctuation is in the range of 0.98 to 2.68 m

d) Geomorphology
The district can be divided into three Physiographical units viz. the coastal plains, the
midlands and the eastern highland regions. The coastal plains with an elevation of less than 10m occur
as narrow belt of alluvial deposits parallel to the coast. To the east of coastal belt is the midland
region with altitude ranging from 10 to 300m above msl. The midland area is characterised by rugged
topography formed by small hillocks separated by deep cut valleys. The midland regions show a
general slope towards the western coast. To its east is the high land region. The midland and hill
ranges of the district present a rugged and rolling topography with hills and valleys. Along the
midlands the hills are mostly laterite and the valley are covered by valley fill deposits.

3.2.1.1 Location of the affected area

a) Nelliyedukkam
A new incident of land subsidence has occurred in the Nelliyedukkam locality
(N12°17’58.0”, E75°13’02.5”) in Kinanoor village, Vellarikund taluk in the Kasaragod district (ref.
figure: 2.13). The incident has occurred in 2014 August 2nd. The affected locality is in the side slope
region of the laterite mesa. The pipe is in mature type and diameter of the entrance is around 5m,
inside diameter is in 20m. This is an example of combination of mature and huge pipes. The
subsurface pipe was partially filled by subsided earth materials (figure3.13c). The soil is in thick and
underlying the well-developed laterite. The slope of the terrain as well as the tunnel orientation is
towards NE-SW direction.

42
 Figure: 3.13 Land subsidence and tunnelling, Nelliyadukkam

Field investigations revealed that the entire locality is affected by soil piping. Piping process has
affected the Saprolite clay of the laterite. Ground fissures indicative of ground movement are seen at
few places. The initial investigations have established the presence of more than one subsurface
erosional channel. Pipe outlet (Figure 3.14) is located at 50m north of this area. In this area a huge
tunnel shaped pipe in combination with a typical pipe was formed here. Sudden collapsing of the top
surface of the tunnel has happened due to the continued erosion. Surface fissures were also identified
in the premises of the tunnel. The entire Nelliyadukkam region is prone to soil piping. Most of the
wells in this region doesn’t properly respond to high rainfalls. The water table remain stable even
during monsoon rains. The open mine pit of the nearby clay mine also revealed the presence of
underground tunnels. The chemical characteristics and the mitigation etc. are described in the
subsequent chapters.

43
 Figure 3.14: Land subsidences due to soilpiping in Nelliyadukkam, Kasaragod

b) Kuttikol
The other locations are Kuttikol panchayath at Kasaragod taluk; Muttonkadavu at Karindalam village
(Figure 2.15, Loc. E12°20’54.1”and N75°23’16.3”), the pipe occurs in lateritic terrain at gently
sloping area;the size of pipe is around 30m diameter therefore it included to the oversized / huge pipe
in the piping classification.

Figure3.15: Piping in Kuttikol, Kasaragod district

c) Erinjilakodu
The another Piping occurs in the Erinjilakodu in Kolichal village (Figure 2.16, Loc. 12°27’11.3” and
N75°17’35.7”) is of mature piping category, and also the terrain is lateritic.

44
 Figure 3.16: Piping and affected well in Erinjilakodu, Kolichal village

d) Pallikara
The piping occurs in Pallikara (subsidence in Kanhangad - Kasaragod State Highway, (Figure 2.17) is
in lowland area and also in lateritic terrain, in this pipe comes under typical pipes category in
Kasaragod district.

Figure 3.17: Soilpiping incidence occurred in state highway Pallikara, Kasaragod district

3.3.2 Kannur District

Kannur district lies between latitudes 11° 40' to 12° 48' North and longitudes 74° 52' to 76°
56' East. The district is bound by the Western Ghats in the East (Coorg district of Karnataka State),
Kozhikode and Wayanad districts, in the South, Lakshadweep Sea in the West and Kasaragod district
in the North. Kannur district is divided into 3 taluks (Taliparambu, Kannur and Thalassery), 5
municipalities (Payyanur, Taliparambu, Kannur, Azhikode and Koothuparambu), 9 blocks (Payyanur,
Kannur, Thalasserry, Taliparambu, Edakkad, Irikkur, Iritty, Peravur and Koothuparambu), 81
panchayats and 129 villages.

3.3.2.1 Geology

The geological formations in the district are of Archean and recent age. Archean formations
comprise of gneisses and charnokites. Quaternary formations are alluvium and laterite. Archaeans
occupy the midland and highland regions of the district having rock types of basic charnokites and
hornblende-biotite gneiss. The remaining portions in the coastal area are covered by laterite, alluvium,
lime-shies, lignified woods, etc. Archaean formations like foliated hornblende-biotite gneiss (grey or

45
white in colour) are one of the main rock types in the northern portion of the district. Recent
formations like laterite are developed on a limited scale along the coastal areas (Figure3.18).

Figure 3.18: Geology of Kannur district

3.3.2.2 Hydrogeology

Kannur district is underlain by charnockites, pyroxene granulites, garnetiferous gneisses,

hornblende biotite gneisses and schistose rocks overlain by Tertiaries and coastal alluvium along the
coast ranging in age from Archaean to Recent. These rocks have undergone weathering and
lateritisation. The hydrogeological units encountered in the district are (i) consolidated formations
(weathered and fractured crystallines) (ii) Semi consolidated sediments equivalent to Warkalies of
Southern Kerala and Laterite formations and (iii) unconsolidated formations (Recent alluvium
occurring along the coast).

3.3.2.3 Geomorphology

Kannur district can be divided physiographically into three distinct geomorphologic units viz
the coastal plains and lowlands in the western part, the central undulatory terrain comprising the
midland region and eastern highland region. The coastal plains occurs as a narrow belt of alluvial
deposits running parallel to the coast with a maximum width of about 15 km. Midland region forms a
plateau land at certain places covered by a thick cover of laterite. The hilly tract in the eastern part
consists of highly rugged terrains. The Ezhimala peak (259.69m) with the characteristic N-S
alignment is a distinct physiographic unit in the coastal plains. Minor cliffs of laterite generally rising
to an elevation of 50 to 60 m above mean sea level are found at Mahe, Thalasserry and Bekal coast.
The midland region presents a plateau land covered by a thick cover of laterite. This is immediately to
the east of the coastal strip, rising from 40 to 100 m above msl. The valleys in the plateau are gorge
like and V shaped cut by youthful streams. The hilly tract along the eastern part of the district
constitutes the highland region and is highly rugged. Development of bad land topography along the

46
margins of the valley is a common feature observed in the district. (Source : Ground water
information booklet - Kannur district, GWD, Kerala)

3.3.2.4 Soil Types in the district

Important soil types in the district can be classified as forest loam, lateritic soil,
riverine alluvium, brown hydromorphic soil, Hydromorphic Saline soil and coastal alluvium
soil. Forest Loam are restricted to the eastern part of the district and are developed over the
crystalline rocks of the Western Ghats. These are shallow immature soils occurring under
canopy of vegetation mantling the gneissic/charnokite parent rocks in various stages of
chemical weathering. These are dark reddish colour to black in colour with a loam to silty
loam in texture and have wide variation in depth. These are mainly seen in Panoor, Iritty,
Alakkode, Kannavam and Aralam area of the district. Lateritic soil is the most predominant
soil type found in the midland area of the district. These are mostly reddish brown to
yellowish red in colour. The texture of the soil ranges from gravelly loam to gravelly clayey
loam. Extensive structures of indurate laterite with hard surface are very common. The soil is
formed as a product of residual weathering under tropical climatic conditions. The depth of
weathering changes from 5 to 20m. Riverine Alluvium Soil occur mostly along the banks of
Valapattanam and Kuppam rivers. This soil shows a general predominant of sand fraction.
They show wide variation in their physiochemical properties and arrangement of layers
depending on prominence features. Brown Hydromorphic soil occurs quite extensively
occupying valley bottoms. These are found in Chalode, Vengad, Ancharakandy, Kankol and
Karimbam regions. They exhibit wide variation in physiochemical properties and
morphological structures resulting from transportation and deposition under varying
conditions. These are generally deep brown in colour. Surface texture varies from sandy loam
to clay. Hydromorphic Saline soil are seen in the coastal tract of the district especially at
Cheruthazham, Kannapuram, Dharmadam area and are generally deep brownish in colour
and poorly drained. The profile shows wide variation in texture and these soil show
characteristic aquatic properties. Salinity is due to the inflow of tidal water in to this area
through the network of the back waters and estuaries. During rainy season these areas are
almost free of salts. Coastal Alluvium Soil are seen along the coastal tract of the district and
they are developed from the recent marine deposits. Sand is the prominent fraction of this
formation. The surface structure observed is loamy sand and sandy loam.
3.3.2.5 Landuse and Vegetation
Kannur district is very rich in vegetation. Natural vegetation, except in some coastal

47
regions, consists of forests. But, in spite of generally favorable climatic conditions, vegetation
is not uniform. Thus, plant communities, ranging from mangroves to evergreen forests are
seen.
The coastal region is a comparatively narrow zone, characterised by secondary soil
which is rather lose and sandy. The sterile sandy tract supports only a poor vegetation of the
psammophyte type. Plants are few and mostly prostrate. Erect species are small and short.
Owing to very poor water holding capacity of the soil, these plants are provided with special
xerophytic adaptations. Another conspicuous feature of this area is the mangrove vegetation,
found at the estuaries of rivers and backwaters, and often extending to the interior along their
banks.
Major part of the district comes under midland region with numerous hills and dales
and it presents an undulating surface gradually ascending and merging into the slopes of
Western Ghats. Soil is secondary and lateritic with underlying rock of laterite or disintegrated
gneiss. Typical flora of this area is deciduous forest consisting of a mixture of evergreen and
deciduous trees. Undergrowth consists of a variety of annuals and perennials.
The mountains are a continuation of the midland region, gradually ascending to the
main ridge of the Western Ghats. Soil in the western slopes is a ferruginous red, sandy loam.
Vegetation over the whole area is of the forest type, irregular distribution of teak, localized
areas of bamboo and landuse rubber, areca palm and coconut trees dominance, change of
good quality forest into open grass lands.
3.3.2.6 Reported incidences in Kannur

a) Kottathalachimala
Soil piping was first observed in the Thirumeni region of Kottathalachimala. This area can be
considered the type area of soil piping in the state. The entire hill rages are affected by different types
of soil piping. There are more than six piping incidences have been occurred in Kottathalachimala at
Kannur district. The Piping affected locality is Kottathalachi Mala situated in the Thirumeni village in
the Taliparamba taluk of the Kannur district (Figure3.19). The area falls in the ward 2 (Chattivayal
ward) of the Cherupuzha Grama Panchayat. Chattivayal is located in the S-E side slopes of
Kottathalachi mala which is 801meters in elevation above msl, there are two incidence reported in this
area. More than four incidences reported in the S-W side of the Kottathalachi mala. The area is
approachable by road from Cherupuzha via Thirumeni and Pulingom.

48
 Figure 3.19: Soil piping in Kannur district

The affected locality is situated in the highland region with elevations reaching up to 801m in the
Kottathalachi mala is a dome shaped hill located in the highland region of Kannur district in Kerala.
The upper slope is characterized by s high slopes (+310) where as the lower slopes are about 240. The
Kottathalachi mala is characterized by radial drainage indicating its shape. Many lower order streams
of originate from this hill jointed in Thejaswini River. Thirumeni chal a Third Order Stream and its
tributaries drain through the locality. Charnokites rocks dominates Precambrian crystalline basement
of the area. The rock type seen in the area is pyroxene granulite. The overburden material above the
basement is clay rich loamy soil. The side slope of the Kottathalachi mala is characterized by thick
soil cover especially the area where the incidents (subsidences) occurred. The average overburden
thickness is about 15m. The soil column is unconformably lying over the hard crystalline rock.
Piping is located in this area having lateritic soil. Since groundwater follows the topography, the
steeply sloping terrain produces high hydraulic gradient in the region. The area covers moderate
vegetation, some part covered by forest and the main landuse of the piping occurred areas are rubber
plats, areca palm and coconut trees are the land use.

b) Subsidence in Chattivayal
The study conducted in the locality revealed that there are two such depressions due to
subsidence in the eastern hill slope and the three more incidences occurred in the western
slope and the locality indicating that the area is prone to such incidences.

49
 a b c

a. Piping Inlet, b. Middle opening of pipe, c. Piping Outlet

Figure3.20: Subsidence associated with Piping in Chattivayal

The field survey conducted in the locality revealed that there are two such depressions in
Eastern Slope of the Kottathalachimala due to subsidence in this locality indicating that the
area is prone to such incidences (Figure3.20a, b and b). This indicates that there are
underground pipes present in this locality, many of them falls in the small to typical category
pipes. Quick draining of water through these depressions proves the presence of the pipes.
There are a number of dug wells in the area. But none of them sustain water even during high
rainfall times such as monsoons. The locals have complained that water level never gains
after certain level even during rains. This indicates that there is considerable loss or leakage is
occurring in the wells.

The subsidence due to piping had occurred very close (within 10m) to the house where Smt. Lisy
Francis used to stay. The field examination of the subsided area indicated that severe soil erosion is
taking place due to water flow through the underground pipes. The soil erosion is responsible for
enlargement of the conduits followed by subsidence. The conduits show caving on the side walls of
the conduit which resulted in the subsidence. Since the caving is still going on it shall definitely affect
the stability of the basement of the house, which is located nearby. The area receives good rains
during monsoons. Good discharge of ground water through the pipes shall make the area vulnerable
for further subsidence.

In the western side slope of the Kottathalachimala there are three main piping reported at different
nature.In the side slope of the hill there are three main pipes are seen at different characteristics, the
orientation pipes are in NE- SW direction. It’s occurred in lateritic terrain, the lateral extension of the
pipe is almost 50m and 5m diameter, also horizontal pipe convey the terrain slope. The slope gradient
ranges from 8 to 24%. The site is located (Figure. 3.21, 3.22 and 3.23) at a 435 elevation. The
lithologicaly of the site consists of clayey coarse silt to fine sand with clay layers, overlain by

50
heterogeneous mixer of soil and boulders are seen in the area. The soil map (bench mark of Kerala)
indicates silty clay loam soils with minor gleyic colour patterns and argic horizons. Soil textural
analysis of samples taken at the study site (depth of10to 200 cm) showed a silt loam texture with silt
fractions (2-63 m) ranging from 66 to 77%. The hydrology of the region is characterized by many
springs with a high drainage density.

a b c

Figure: 3.21 Stable Soilpipes in Kottathalachimala, Kannur

A recently occurred pipe, pipe occurred in fine clay soil in Kottathachimala

d f e

Figure 3.22: Unstable Soilpipes in Kottathalachimala, Kannur

g h

Figure: 3.23 Soilpipes in weathered rock in Kottathalachimala, Kannur

51
 c) Piping in Cherupuzha
The newly reported incidents are in Kannur are [Padiyottuchal(Figure 3.24, Loc.
N12°14’59.2” and E75°20’33.7”), Ummrampoil(Figure 2.25, Loc. N12°14’23.7” and E75°19’33.6”),
Vayakkara (Figure 3.26, Loc. N12°14’58.0” and E75°19’50.7”) and Malankadavu in Palavayal
village (Loc: N12°18’5.6” and E75°23’48.5”) in Peringom village are in Kannur district and soil
samples were collected. From the field observation the tunnels are old and the area is dominated by
the laterites. Field investigations revealed that the entire locality is affected by soil piping. Piping
process has affected the Saprolite clay of the laterite.

a b c

Figure: 3.24 The newly reported incidents in Padiyottuchalat Kannur district

a b

52
 Figure 3.25: Inlet and out let of the Pipe in Umrampoyil, Kannur

a b c

Figure 3.26: Oversized Piping in Lateritic terrain by erosion of clay layer in Vayakkara, Kannur

d) Piping in Iritty

The piping incident occurred in Iritty during July 2014 in the Niranganpara locality in
Ayyankunnu panchayat, Thalasseri taluk in the Kannur district has evoked lot of media attention. A
subsidence has occurred inside a well (GPS location is N12°02’09.4”E75°45’07.2”). The affected
locality is in the foot hills and surrounded by hilly area. Piping has affected the saprolite portion of the
laterite. Piping outlet is located at 120m north of this area. The soil is 1.5m thick and overlying the
well-developed laterite. The slope of the terrain as well as the tunnel orientation is towards North
West direction. The underground tunnels formed are found to be affecting the affecting the ground
water storage of the wells in this area.

a b

Figure: 3.27 Soilpiping affected well at Niranganpara, Kannur

53
3.3.3 Idukki district

a) Geology
Idukki district comes entirely under the Western Ghats region and the main rock types seen
granite, charnokite, biotite gneiss, and granite gneisses in Archaean age. Granitic plutones are seen in
north eastern part of Idukki district. Granite are characterised by the presence of quartz, orthoclase,
plagioclase and various accessory minerals like biotite hornblende etc., which are massive and bad
aquifers. Granites are igneous rock with pink or grey colour. Pink granite gneisses are exposed along
the intrastate boundary of Idukki district. The charnokites are seen commonly in Thodupuzha,
Peerumedu, Kumily and Nedumkandam areas and they possess characteristic of both igneous and
metamorphic rock they exhibit intrusive relation with country rocks and are distinctly foliated. The
colour of rock is bluish grey. Biotite gneiss is metamorphic rock, characterised by their gneissic
structure. Gneissic structure is a composite structure due to the alteration of schistose and granulose
band and tentacles. Colour of the rock is generally grey. Central part of Idukki district mainly
comprises of gneisses.

Figure 3.28 Piping points in Idukki district with Geology (GSI, 1995)

b) Soil series
There are four major soil types encountered in the district. They are forest loams, lateritic
soils, brown hydromorphic soils and alluvial soils. About 60 % of the district is covered under forest
loams which are the product of weathering of the rock under forest cover. They are characterized by a
surface layer very rich in organic matter. They are generally acidic, high in nitrogen and poor in
bases, due to heavy leaching. They are dark reddish brown to black with loamy to silty loam texture.
In denuded areas leaching and deposition of humus in the lower layer is common.

The lateritic soils are derived from laterites and are encountered mainly in Elamdesam and

54
Thodupuzha blocks of the district. They are well-drained and are low in plant nutrients and organic
matter. The fertility of the soil is generally poor with low available nitrogen and phosphorous.

Brown hydromorphic soils are confined to valley portions in undulating terrain. These soils
are formed as a result of transportation and sedimentation of materials from adjoining hill slopes and
are brownish black in colour. The surface texture varies from sandy loam to clay.

Alluvial soils are seen as narrow strips along the banks of rivers in the district. They are more
common along the banks of Thodupuzha River. The surface texture of these soils range from sandy
loam to clay and they are fertile.

c) Geomorphology
A major part of the district falls in the hill ranges of Western Ghats except for Thodupuzha
block and western part of Elamdesam block which fall in the mid land region of the State. The
average elevation of the mid land region ranges from 40 –60 m amsl. The mid land area is
characterizedby rugged topography formed by small hillocks separated by deep valleys. The general
slope of the area istowards west. The hill ranges can be subdivided into foot hills, plateau region and
high ranges. The foot hill region is a narrow strip of land where midland region grades into the plateau
regions. Theelevation of this region ranges from 80 to 500 m amsl and slope is very steep, ranging
from 30 to 50% and occasionally up to 80%. The width of the foot hill ranges from 2 to 8 km. Plateau
region is the most important physiographic unit of the district and is characterizedby moderately
sloping large land mass with a slope of less than 30% and an elevation of less than 1500 m amsl.
Major part of the district fall in this region. The region is incised by a number of deep cut streams.
The area in the north eastern part of the district is characterizedby high mountains with elevation more
than 1500 m amsl. The highest peak in South India, Anamudi (2693 m amsl) is in the north central
part of the district. There are several steep falls within the region.

d) Hydrogeology
The important hydrogeological units encountered in the district are laterites, weathered
crystallines and fractured crystallines.

Laterites constitute aquifers in the mid land regions of the district. Laterites are generally underlain by
lithomargic clay, the thickness of which varies from about 0.5 to 4.0 meters.

The weathered crystalline rock forms important aquifers throughout the district. The thickness of
weathering ranges from less than 2.0 to around 20 meters. In the steep slopes and high ranges, where
the weathered mantle is very thin or absent perennial phreatic aquifers are virtually non-existent. The
thickness of weathered zone is more in weathered granitic terrains especially in parts of Devikulam,
Adimali and Nedumkandam blocks.

55
 The deeper fractured crystalline aquifers are under semi confined to confined conditions.
They are tapped through bore wells for domestic, agriculture as well as for water supply. Potential
fractures are encountered to depth varying from 10 to 120 m bgl, but generally they are encountered
within 75 m depth. The depth to water level ranges from 4to 40m bglin pre monsoon period and from
2to 33m bgl in post monsoon period.

3.3.2.7 Reported incidence in Idukki

Figure: 3.29 Piping Location map of Idukki district

a) Peringassery
The Piping affected locality is Peringassery in the Udumbanoor and Kanjikuzhi village in the
Thodupuzha taluk of the Idukki district. Peringassery is located on the Paramada - Udumbanoor road.
The expose cavity of the subsidence has a diameter of about 2.5m. (Younger pipes) It is about 12
meters deep. The cavity is believed to be interconnected by underground pipe like features. The soil
type is mainly lateritic on the top and clayey in the bottom. The landuse is mainly mixed crops with
rubber. A spring is seen emerging about 200m north of the collapsed section. This could be an outlet
of the pipe. This pipe is ferrying water beneath the main Paramada - Udumbanoor road. The figure
2.31 shows a schematic section of the piping affected locality that indicating pipes cut across the road.

56
 Figure:3.30 Soilpiping in Peringassery, Idukki district

Figure:3.31 landsubsidence due to soilpiping in Peringassery, Idukki district

b) Thattekanni
Another land subsidence has occurred at Thattekanni on the Neriyamankalam- Idukki road (Figure
10b). The subsidence vent has a diameter of 1m. It is about 6-7 meter deep. The cavity is
interconnected by typical pipes which are little more than 5m in combination with younger pipes. The
soil column is unconformably lying over the hard crystalline rock. Piping is located in this area having
lateritic soil. Since groundwater follows the topography, the steeply sloping terrain produces high
hydraulic gradient in the region. Piping can affect materials ranging from clay- size particles to
gravels, but is most common in fine grained soil such as fine- grained soils such as fine sand silt and
coarse clay.

57
 Figure:3.32 Soilpiping in Thattekanni, Idukki District

c) Udayagiri

A series of land subsidences had occurred in the Udayagiri locality (figure 2.38) of
Thankamany Village in the Udumbanchola taluk on 18.8.2010. The affected locality (N 090
50’ 30.8”, E 770 03’ 36.7”) is situated in the Udayagiri in the Thankamoni village of
Udumbanchola taluk in the Idukki district. It is also forms part of the Kamakshi Grama
Panchayat. The affected area is located in Gothambu road which in turn joins the
Chembakappara to Thankamoni main road.

Figure 3.33: location of the affected area.

The area is situated on highland region of the state. A dome shaped hill of 1072 meters dominates the
landform and because of this radial type drainage is seen in this area. The affected is located in the
east facing slope of this hill. In this region the general trend of the major drainage and landforms is
NW–SE. This locality falls in the Chinnar sub-basin of the Periyar drainage basin. The area receives
copious rainfall but a reliable rain gauging was not available for the study. Precambrian crystalline
such as Charnockites and gneisses form the bedrock of the area. The soil thickness or overburden
material rather thick in many places. Clay size sediments which is red in colour predominates the
sediments in the overburden followed by sand sized sediments derived from the weathered horizon.

58
At places the weathering thickness is rather high. The slope where the incident has occurred is 25
degrees. The general landuse of the area is coffee, cardamom, arecanut etc.

The underground pipes in this area are generally occurring in combination with different
types of pipes. The commonly occurring types are mature pipes in combination with small
pipes. There are indications of discharge of water through the bottom of this subsidence
caves. The underground water flow is free flow indicating that the water is flowing through a
void or fee space. The in situ inspection of the site also revealed the existence of an
underground channel. The discharge of ground water through the underground tunnel is
located about 250 meters down-slope in a valley (figure a). It is observed that the sidewall of
the cave is gradually collapsing due to the erosion of the flowing water. The water which is
flowing through the caves (figure b) finally emerges out in a valley head (figure c) located
about 250meters downslope. This effluent system of underground drainage causes subsurface
erosion by a process known as “Piping” or Tunnel erosion. Usually these tunnels are funnel
shaped and when it finally emerges out the outlet is rather very small in diameter in
comparison to the upslope area.

a. roof collapse b. inside tunnel c. outlet

Figure 3.34: Tunnel formations in Udayagiri area
Another prominent subsidence (N 090 50’ 31.3” E 770 03’ 34.7”) has occurred in the same Udayagiri
locality on 14.8.2010 at 5.30pm (figure 3.35). The subsidence crater has a diameter of 3meter and
depth of 7meters to the top of the debris of the roof which is accumulated on the floor. The material of
the roof is fine red clay and overlying the weathered basement. Piping has taken place at this contact.
Piping has taken all the weathered coarse material and it was found deposited in the valley head
located downslope in the NW direction. (N 090 50’ 33.6” E 770 03’ 34.0”) and (N 090 50’ 33.3” E 770
03’ 37.1”). It is suspected that there are a number of outlets. The tunnels are of mature type in
combination with small and micro pipes. These out lets are small in dimension and it is observed that
the weather coarse sediments are found deposited in this locality. The outlet (figure 3.35c) locality is
marsh with constant input of water through these pipes (figure 3.35b).

59
a View from inside the subsidence crater b 7 Branching of tunnels c One of the pipe outlets
Figure 2.35 Different types of pipe in Udayagiri area

Udayagiri locality has experienced land subsidence in the earlier years also. The first
subsidence (N 090 50’ 31.7” E 770 03’ 34.5”) occurred in 2002 along a wide foot path off the
Gothampu road. (Figure 3.36). At the time of inspection the subsidence crater is filled with
sediments and debris material. Signs of subsurface water could be seen on the bottom walls.
The diameter of the crater is about 2m and the depth is about 2m. The inlet pipe and outlet
pipes are blocked due to debris from the collapsed material.

Figure 3.36: One of the old subsidence crater observed in Udayagiri

Another subsidence (N 090 50’ 30.8” E 770 03’ 36.7”) also occurred along the banks of the
path during the same period (figure 3.37). This crater has a depth of about 2.65 m and has a
diameter of about 3.25 m. Both these subsidence craters are situated on side slopes of the

60
1072 hill which is conical in shape. The slope where these incidences had occurred is sloping
towards W-NW. There are subsurface pipes present which are like to run in NNE-SSW
direction. However more investigations are required to determine the exact direction of pipe
pathways.

Figure 3.41: A subsidence crater formed along the path way

Apart from the land subsidence occurred during SW monsoon of 2010 the other specific indications
about soil-piping are available in two wells located in the area. infact one of the visible signs of soil
piping was the stable water level in wells despite copious rain. This shows that the water is getting
lost somewhere in the subsoil. Another indication was the mismatch between the quantity of rain
received and the water flowing through the stream/nalas present in the area especially in the
downstream side. In most cases large quantities of water is being lost through sub soilpipes.

One such well (figure 3.42) is located (N 09 0 50’ 31.7” E 77 0 03’ 35.7”) near Mrs. Jolly’s
0 0
residence (N 09 50’ 31.3” E 77 03’ 35.8”). This well was collapsed in 2002 and in
unusable in the present condition. The depth of the well at present is 9meters up to the top of
the filled material.

61
 Figure 3.42: opening of a subsurface tunnel within the well

The pipe (figure 3.42) is oriented in NE- SW direction. Mrs Jolly Moolayil (Kamakshi
Panchayat No IV/25) house is situated about 8m from this collapsed well. The inhabitants of
the house complained to this team of noise of water flow and rumbling sounds associated
with that from the basement, especially during rainy seasons. This indicates that there are
chances of pipe formation beneath this house. Eventhough the formation of subsoil pipe
formation is a slow process but once it reaches closer to the ground subsidence may occur
suddenly. There are indications of settling seen as indicated by a number of cracks (figure
3.43) on the wall of Mrs Jolly’s house. During high rains and when the discharge through the
pipes is high the chances of erosion is rather high. So this area should be subjected to detailed
investigations. It is recommended that the family should be relocated to a safer locality
during high rains. The other houses in this locality are not showing any visible indications of
instability at the time of inspection

62
 Figure 2.43: Cracks on the wall (Mrs. Jolly’s house)

The water levels in deep wells in this area are also not responding to inputs from the rainfall.
This well is situated at an elevation of 973m and the general slope is +30degrees.The well
located (N 09 0 50’ 29.8” E 77 0 03’ 32.5”) has very little water at the time inspection which
happened to be a rainy season. This deep well is resting on basement hard rock. Piping
indicated by caving is observed in the NE- SW direction just above the basement. Water is
escaping through this pipe. As per local enquiry the piping was observed during 2004.
Nalaam Mile
The area is situated on highland region, the landform is contain dendritic type drainage is
seen in this area. The affected is located in the east facing slope of this hill. In this region the
general trend of the major drainage and landforms is NW–SE. This locality falls in the sub-
basin of the Periyar drainage basin. The area receives copious rainfall but a reliable rain
gauging was not available for the study. Piping occurs in very fine and loose soil area. It is
very close piping

Out let

Figure 3.44: inlet and outlet of Piping in Nalaam mile, Idukki district

63
3.3.5 Wayanad district

Geomorphology

The district may be divided into three physiographic zones- Wayanad plateau (WP), Central
Sahyadri High land (CH) and Mountainous regions of Central Sahyadri (MR) as per Soil Survey
Organisation. On the basis of topographic features the area can be divided into different physiographic
zones like high ranges with rugged topography, high ranges with moderately rugged topography,
intermontane valley and flood plains.

High ranges with rugged topography include hill ranges in the west, northwest and
southwestern part of Wayanad district and elevation ranges from 1400 to 2100 m amsl. This area is
occupied by dense mixed jungles and is having rugged topography with steep slopes and narrow
valleys. Hill ranges along the eastern part and isolated hills come under high ranges with moderately
rugged topography. The altitude of the physiographic zones ranges between 1000 and 1400 m amsl
with moderate slope.

Intermontane valleys are the valleys between high ranges. These areas are occupied by
colluvium formed by depositional processes. Erosional intermontane valleys are also reported. The
flood plains with apparent alluvial thickness of more than 10 m are quite common and form
productive aquifers.

The landform units identified in Wayanad are alluvial plain, flood plain, valley fill, linear
ridge, hillcrest, sloping terrain, rocky slope (scarp face) and hilly terrain. The flood plain and Ground
Water Information Booklet of Wayanad District valley fill are the major fluvial landforms whereas
moderately sloping terrain (S2), highly sloping terrain (S3), rocky slope (scarp face), linear ridge and
hillcrest are major denudational landform units. Flood plains are relatively smooth valley floors
adjacent to and formed by rivers, which are subject to overflow. There is no lithological control over
land use in the area. Landform unit with highest slope (90⁰) identified in the study area is scarp face
(rocky slope). Landform studies and data from well inventoried in different landform units of the
study area indicate that fluvial and gently sloping terrains are promising zones of groundwater.
Denudational landforms are unproductive zones.

Soil Characteristics

In the study area there are four types of soil viz. laterite soil, brown hydromorphic soil, forest

64
loam and riverine alluvium.

Laterite soil seen in some areas of Wayanad is reddish brown in colour, formed under tropical
monsoonal climate with alternate wet and dry seasons. The organic matter in the soil is very less with
moderate nitrogen, phosphorous and potash. The pH of soil ranges between 5.5 and 6.5 and texture is
clayey loam to silty loam with 5 to 20 % coarse fragments. Laterites on high grounds are more
compact when compared to the low-lying areas. Forest soil is found in Mananthawady, Kalpetta and
Sulthan Bathery blocks. They are rich in organic matter, nitrogen and humus. Forest loam is dark
reddish brown in colour formed by weathering under forest cover with loamy to silty loam texture.
The pH of the soil ranges between 5.3 and 6.3 and is slightly acidic in nature. Brown hydromorphic
soil (BHS) is mainly seen between undulating topography in Wayanad district. The BHS is very deep
brownish in colour with sandy loam to clayey texture. The BHS is formed by transportation and
sedimentation of material from hill slopes. The pH of this soil ranges between 5.2 and 6.3 and is
slightly acidic in nature. Alluvial soils are found along the banks of Kabani, Chaliyar and its
tributaries. Riverine alluvium is very deep with sandy loam to clayey loam texture. Majority of the
area under riverine alluvium was once occupied by paddy. Those areas are now utilized for the
cultivation of various crops especially plantain. The riverine alluvium contains moderate organic
matter, nitrogen, phosphorous and potash.

Figure:3.45 Geological map of Wayanad district

65
Hydrogeology

All the four blocks in the district are having similar hydrogeological conditions. The major
water bearing formations in the district are weathered/fractured crystallines, alluvium and valley fills.
Alluvium and valley fills are seen along the river courses and broad valleys. The alluvial aquifers are
better represented in Kalpetta and SulthanBathery blocks and considerable thickness of this formation
are seen in and around Muttil, Kainatti, and Varadur and in different parts of Panamaram Watershed.
The thickness of alluvium varies from 3 to 9m and that of valley fills from 2 to 9m. In these
formations groundwater occurs under phreatic condition. Dug wells are suitable abstraction structures
for this formation with depth range varying from 3.5 to 7.8 mbgl. The depth to water level varies from
2.6 to 3.7 mbgl during pre-monsoon (April) and from 0.70 to 2.60 during post monsoon (November).
The yield of dug wells in this formation ranges from less than 500 LPH to about 10,000 LPH with
pumping duration ranging from less than 1 to 4 hours in a day. The hard rocks (crystalline) cover the
entire district with thin deposits of alluvium and valley fills over it as mentioned above. Groundwater
occurs under phreatic condition in weathered crystallines. Semi confined to confined conditions exists
in deep fracture system, which forms potential aquifers and is developed by bore wells. The depth of
wells and water levels in the weathered crystallines varies with respect to the parent rock formation as
depicted in the hydrogeological map.

The weathered granite and granitic gneisses in Kalpetta and SulthanBathery Blocks form
potential phreatic aquifers along valleys and topographic lows. The depth of dug wells in this
formation generally varies in the range of 6 to 9m with water levels ranging from 4 to 8 mbgl during
pre-monsoon and from 3 to 5 mbgl during post monsoon. The weathered charnockites seen in
Kalpetta block and along the hill ranges of the Western Ghats form poor aquifer and can sustain only
domestic wells. The depth of wells in this formation generally varies in the range of 7 to 10 m with
water levels ranging from 4 to 9 mbgl during pre-monsoon and from 3 to 7 m during post monsoon.

The weathered migmatite and gneiss seen along the central portion of the district form
moderately potential aquifers and cover a major area of all the four blocks. The depth of dug wells in
this formation generally varies from 14 to 20 m with water levels ranging from 10 to 15 mbgl during
pre-monsoon and from 8 to 11 m during post monsoon. The weathered gabbro and diorite rocks are
seen in the northern portion of Mananthavady block form moderately potential aquifers. The depth of
wells in this formation generally varies from 8 to 12 m with water levels ranging from 5 to 12 mbgl
during pre-monsoon and form 3 to 11 mbgl during post monsoon.

66
Banasurasagar, Vythiri taluk Wayanad:

During 2006, a portion of the land belonging to Mr Mamooty a resident of the Padinjarethara
village (Figure 3.47, Loc: N 11°41'33" / E75°54'16") subsided and water started gushing out with
huge force. The water pressure was enormous and the discharge continued for months together. This
indicates that the water is flowing under a very high hydraulic head. Interestingly this area is located
very near to the Banasurasagar dam. Investigations revealed that this subsidence is also caused by soil
piping. This locality is connected by an underground pipe downstream and emerges out as a spring.

Figure:3.46 Piping location in Vythiri taluk, Wayanad

The process continued for few months and the dischrge stopped leaving behind a subsidence
pit connected upstream and downstream by small tunnels.The mitigation work was carried out by
filling up by stones and earth. This is the practice carried out by the locals. This area will be under
obersation and if required chemical amelioration techniques will be adopted to prevent new erosion.
In the down stream locality wall cracks have been observed in few houses located in the down slope
side indicating land subsidence. Since the whole area is affected by soilpiping the SDMA is alerted
for a detailed investigation of Banasurasagar dam site .

67
 Water overflow

Subsidence

Figure 3.47. Subsidence at Banasurasagar, Vythiri taluk Wayanad district

Detailed geophysical work was carried out to differentiate the water conduits present in the area. This
is decribed in deatiled in the chapter detailing the geophysical surveys. A mitigation plan is suggested
for this area in the chapter dealing with mitigation.

68
CHAPTER 4

GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATIONS

4.1 Geophysical investigations (Electrical Resistivity Surveying)

Electrical resistivity surveys are carried out to measure the earth resistivity by driving a
direct current (DC) signal into the ground and measuring the resultant potentials
(voltages) generated in the earth. The earth resistivity so measured is a physical
characteristic of the geological formation and indicate the resistance offered by the
medium to the flow of electric current. Resistivity varies with texture of the rock,
nature of mineralization and conductivity of electrolyte contained within the rock. It
changes from formation to formation as well as within a particular formation. It
increases with grain size and tends to be maximum at the grains are coarse and
compact. The resistivity drastically reduces with increase in clay content. The clay is
commonly dispersed throughout the medium as coatings on grains or disseminated
masses or as thin layers or lenses.
An electrical resistivity survey will be effective only if the target of interest has
a resistivity contrast with the surrounding medium. For example, underground void
spaces, buried rock boulders, hard rock basements etc. exhibit high resistivity values
and therefore will be in contrast with the surrounding medium. Similarly, water
saturated sub-surface layers, filled pot-holes; metallic objects etc exhibit lower
resistivity values and hence offer a contrast with the surrounding medium. In such
circumstances, electrical resistivity method could succeed in delineating the
subsurface structures. This is the basis of selecting electrical resistivity methods for the
present study. However, it is to be understood with caution that a resistivity contrast
could be similar for different features and therefore, the inferences from geological
evidences or multiple geophysical methods are extremely important for the clarity
and confirmation of the results.
4.1.1 Types of electrical methods by Using Analogue Resistivity meter
Electrical resistivity surveys are carried out by sending current into the earth using two
electrodes (current electrodes) separated by a specific distance, measuring the potential

69
generated in the subsurface due to the current field using another set of electrodes (potential
electrodes), estimating the resistance offered by the subsurface medium to the flow of
current and determining the resistivity of the medium based on the resistance and the
electrode configuration constant. Generally, electrical resistivity surveys are carried out
using two techniques, namely Electrical Resistivity Profiling (ERP) and Vertical Electrical
Sounding (VES).

A) Vertical electrical sounding (VES)

In a VES, the distance between the current electrodes are increased with
respect to a fixed point, known as the sounding point. Here, the measured
resistance values at the surface reflect the vertical distribution of resistivity values
in the subsurface earth medium and the depth of investigation depends on the
distance between the two current electrodes.

B) Electrical Resistivity profiling (ERP).

In an ERP, the set of electrodes are shifted from one point to the other along a preferred
line/profile without changing their relative configuration and the resistivity value is measured at each
point to get an idea of the lateral variation of resistivity within a certain level of depth. The ERP data
are generally plotted as X-Y graph with apparent resistivity values on the Y-axis and ERP stations of
the profile on the X-axis. It shows the apparent resistivity variation along a specified profile for
different current electrode separation. It indicates the lateral variation of apparent resistivity at
different depth levels (www.geovision.com/pdf/5.06.2015).

4.1.1.1 Electrical resistivity instrumentation

Electrical resistivity instrumentation systems (Figure4.1) basically consist of a
transmitter and receiver. The transmitter supplies a low frequency (typically
0.125 to 1 cycles/second or “Hertz”) current waveform that is applied across
the current electrodes. Either batteries or an external generator, depending
on power requirements can supply power for the transmitter.

70
 Figure: 4.1 Earth resistivity meter (M/s. Anvic Systems - Resistivity meter)

Instrumentation consists of following:

 Energy source, (Battery).
In this current single long direct current or low frequency square wave
with commutator. Low frequency alternate current also used
 Potentiometer
The voltage between the measuring electrodes in usually measured
through voltmeter may be used.
 Two potential and current electrodes.
Generally steel or copper clad steel stakes driven in a few inches in to
the ground

4.1.1.2 Electrical resistivity Survey at Kottathalachimala

Geophysical investigations in the study area are planned to characterize the subsurface
geological features, in general, and soil pipes in particular. It is proposed to experiment with
electrical resistivity Characterization of the near-surface layers for studying the geo-electric
quality of the subsurface earth and describing the relative disposition of soil pipes.
Accordingly, six electrical resistivity profiles (ERP) are laid across three suspected soil
pipes. Subsequently, Vertical Electrical Soundings (VES) are conducted at five locations,
selected at random, in Kottathalachimala area of Cherupuzha. The locations of these studies

71
are depicted in Figure 4.2. The locations of the VES are selected based on their tentative
nearness to the soil pipes. Further, 21 VES are conducted across four profiles over a soil
pipe of which the inletand outlet locations are known. The layout of these VES locations is
given in Figure 4.4. A detailed description of the studies and their tentative results are given
hereunder.

Figure: 4.2 Electrical resistivity surveys in progress in Kottathalachimala

Six ERPs are laid in the study area at locations selected at random considering the nearness
to three suspected soil pipe locations to capture a preliminary idea of the lateral variation in
resistivity at different depth domains. It was carried out using Schlumberger array for four-
different current electrode separation, that of AB/2=5m, AB/2=10m, AB/2=15m, and
AB/2=20m. The station interval selected for the ERP was 10m (5m near the suspected soil
pipes).Subsequently, two VES are carried out using Schlumberger configuration at two spots
selected at random based on tentative nearness to the soil pipes. The stations have been
located using a hand held Global Positioning System (GPS) and brought to a base map
(Figure 4.4). The VES are carried out with a maximum current electrode spread of150m
(AB/2=75m). Further, near to the Location1of Figure 4.4, 21VES are carried out with
prefixed and closely spaced stations (Station interval=2.5m) along 4profiles across a known
soil pipe of which the inlet and outlet of the pipe are known. The VES are carried out with a
maximum current electrode spread of 70m (AB/2=35m).The layout of the four profiles and
the inlet and outlet locations of the soil pipe are depicted in Figure4.4.

The electrical resistivity measurements have been carried out using Resistivity Meter
namely Aqua meter manufactured by M/s. Anvic Systems, Pune (figure 4.3). It has a
maximum output of 300 V and 500 mA using a rechargeable battery as power source. It

72
measures resistance with a precision of ±0.001ohms.

The VES data has been interpreted using a forward modelling programme (Zhody, 1993)
and the result has been used in a reverse modelling programme (IPI2WIN, 2003) to estimate
the layer thickness and layer resistivity values of the subsurface.

Figure 4.3: Aquameter (M/s. Anvic Systems - Resistivity meter)

4.1.1.3 Constraints of the study
The study area is part of the Western Ghat region of Kerala and hence, highly
undulating. The soil thickness is restricted at places with intermittent exposure of
crystallines and laterites. The undulating ground with bench-cut terrain, rock
boulders, duricrust formations etc pose problems for the smooth conduct of the
electrical resistivity studies. The duricrust, at places, enhances the contact resistance
leading to ambiguous resistivity values. Generally, in an electrical resistivity survey,
the subsurface layers are to be characterized from the resistivity data based on
reference to the geological inference obtained from geological maps, stratigraphic
information, litho-log from drill data or information on litho-sequence from open
wells, depth to water table etc.

73
 Figure 4.4: Location of Geophysical investigations (ERP & VES)

4.1.1.4 Analysis and Results

a) Vertical Electrical Soundings at two piping locations
The data obtained for the two VES conducted at two piping locations that have been
interpreted using a forward modelling program method find out the layer resistivities, layer
thickness and domain depth (Table 4.1). It provided a pseudo resistivity section which is
further used for reverse modelling to generate a geo-electric section (Table 4.2).

Table 4.1 Layer parameters of the pseudo-resistivity section at the two VES locations

LR- Layer resistivity in ohm-m; LT- Layer thickness in meters; D-Depth in meters

VES
No Parameter L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6 L7 L8 L9 L10 L11 L12
LR 524 678 579 383 402 721 1064 889 552 506 837 1596
1 LT 0.54 0.25 0.37 0.54 0.79 1.16 1.71 2.50 3.67 5.39 7.91
D 0.54 0.79 1.15 1.69 2.48 3.65 5.35 7.85 11.53 16.92 24.83 99999
LR 571 544 485 532 644 564 354 298 432 635 668 509
2 LT 0.54 0.25 0.37 0.54 0.79 1.16 1.71 2.50 3.67 5.39 7.91
D 0.54 0.79 1.15 1.69 2.48 3.65 5.35 7.85 11.53 16.92 24.83 99999

Table 4.2. Geo-electric section deduced from the two VES data

TR- True Resistivity (ohm-m); H- Thickness (m); TD- Total Depth (m)

RMS error for best-

VES No. Parameter L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6 L7 L8 TD
fit(%)
TR 657 1457 333 2790 268 3025 -- -- --
1
H 0.45 0.67 1.17 2.99 5.73 -- -- -- 11.01 3.89

TR 479 1296 315 1758 128 839 1833 833 --

2
H 0.31 0.40 0.79 1.53 3.33 2.64 8.12 -- 17.12 1.71

The VES data indicates 6-8 layered near-surface geo-electric section. The depth to bedrock
exhibits significant variation. The bedrock at VES-1 was encounter data depth of around 11m

74
below ground level where as it was not encountered even at a depth of around 17m at VES-2.

a. vertical electrical Sounding 1 b. vertical electrical Sounding 2

Figure 4.5: 1D inversion of apparent resistivity data from soundings VES-1 and VES-2

(Labelled as VES-1and VES-2 in modelled curves and cross-sections).

Two resistivity 1D graph were generated from IPI2win software, the calculated layered models and
estimated smooth model (Figure 4.5, red lines) grouped by apparent resistivity (black line) shown in
Figure 4.5a and 4.5b, is a program for 1D automatic and manual interpretation of VES curves. From
the graph (Figure 4.5a) the given section comprise 4 geoelectrical discontinuities, (ρ1˂ ρ2˃ ρ3< ρ4)
the lowest apparent resistivity value at a depth of 2 to 5m and increase the resistivity at a depth of 7m
and it is again decreasing. The actual piping position is 4 to 6m bgl., that means the resistivity
variation in the 1D graph gives the details slightly shifting from the actual point. From the second
graph gives the same resistivity at different depth. The depth at which 5m, sudden increase in the
resistivity is possibly due to piping.

b) Electrical Resistivity Profiles

The apparent resistivity data obtained for four different AB/2 values at each station interval
of th e four profiles have been plotted in surfer as 2D apparent resistivity contour Graph,
which is given below.

75
 Figure 4.6: Apparent resistivity section along Profile A, B, C and D,

The Layer resistivity and thickness of the pseudo-resistivity section generated

based on forward modeling for Profile A, B, C and D are given in Table 4.3,
4.4, 4.5 and 4.6respectively and the true geo-electric section based on
reverse modeling are given in Table 4.7, 4.8, 4.9and 4.10.

76
 Table 4.3Layer parameters of the pseudo-resistivity section- VES of Profile A

LR- Layer resistivity in ohm-m; H- Layer thickness in meters

VES
Parameter L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6 L7 L8 L9 L10 L11 L12
NO
LR 414 299 234 254 323 371 387 383 292 113
1 D 0.54 0.79 1.16 1.7 2.5 3.66 5.38 7.9 11.59
LR 427 209 80 82 184 371 593 616 289
2 D 0.68 0.99 1.46 2.14 3.14 4.61 6.77 9.93
LR 360 401 434 471 526 592 648 694 746 810
3 D 0.48 0.71 1.04 1.53 2.25 3.3 4.84 7.11 10.43
LR 377 430 481 519 534 541 562 600 647 696
4 D 0.4 0.71 1.04 1.53 2.25 3.3 4.84 7.1 10.43
LR 8
480 880 1292 1325 973 659 538 540 616 734
5 D 0.48 0.71 1.04 1.53 2.25 3.3 4.84 7.11 10.43
LR 897 854 1724 1251 1089 592 469 508 596 694
6 D 0.48 0.71 1.04 1.53 2.25 3.3 4.84 7.11 10.43

Table 4.4.Layer parameters of the pseudo-resistivity section- VES of Profile B

LR- Layer resistivity in ohm-m; H- Layer thickness in meters

VES
Parameter L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6 L7 L8 L9 L10 L11 L12
NO

LR 479 616 642 542 414 350 369 466 634

B1 D 0.56 0.83 1.22 1.78 2.62 3.84 5.64 8.28
LR 520 412 357 385 383 297 268 354 583 1045
B2 D 0.54 0.79 1.16 1.7 2.5 3.66 5.38 7.9 11.59
LR 626 752 636 457 442 505 436 361 485 974
B3 D 0.54 0.79 1.16 1.7 2.5 3.66 5.38 7.9 11.59

Table 4.5. Layer parameters of the pseudo-resistivity section- VES of Profile

C

LR- Layer resistivity in ohm-m; H- Layer thickness in meters

VES
Parameter L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6 L7 L8 L9 L10 L11 L12
NO
LR 539 646 704 883 878 572 312 586
1 D 0.54 0.79 1.16 1.7 2.49 3.65 5.36
LR 665 629 676 728 702 605 513 472
2 D 0.6 0.87 1.28 1.88 2.77 4.06 5.96
LR 1397 399 448 715 729 559 457 465
3 D 0.54 0.79 1.16 1.7 2.49 3.65 5.36
LR 766 718 678 657 627 574 519
4 D 0.54 0.79 1.16 1.7 2.49 3.65 5.36
LR 1128 1049 920 938 707 511 440 402
5 D 0.6 0.87 1.28 1.88 2.77 4.06 5.96

77
 LR 772 804 808 778 725 637 528 444
6 D 0.6 0.87 1.28 1.88 2.77 4.06 5.96
LR 852 869 901 857 715 557 455 412
7 D 0.6 0.87 1.28 1.88 2.77 4.06 5.96

Table 4.6.Layer parameters of the pseudo-resistivity section- VES of Profile

D

LR- Layer resistivity in ohm-m; H- Layer thickness in meters

VE
Paramete L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6 L7 L8 L9 L1 L1 L1
S
r 0 1 2
NO LR 950 100 911 81 75 63 451 36 451 71
1 D 0 0 2 6 1 4
0.5 0.7 1.1 1.7 2.5 3.6 5.3 7.9 11.5
LR 4 9 6 6 8 9
109 104 969 86 74 61 525 47 444
2 D 8 3 6 0 6 1
0.5 0.8 1.2 1.7 2.6 3.8 5.6 8.2
LR 6 3 2 8 2 4 4 8
108 119 114 89 64 55 499 43 460 60
3 D 8 7 6 2 8 0 8 8
0.5 0.7 1.1 1.7 2.5 3.6 5.3 7.9 11.5
LR 4 9 6 6 8 9
954 127 133 97 61 52 539 44
4 D 6 9 3 8 9 9
0.6 0.9 1.4 2.0 3.0 4.5 6.6
LR 6 7 3 9 7 1 2
115 801 696 72 74 73 585 38 389 70
5 D 9 8 8 2 7 7
0.5 0.7 1.1 1.7 2.5 3.6 5.3 7.9 11.5
4 9 6 6 8 9

Table 4.7.Geo-electric section deduced along Profile A

TR- True Resistivity (ohm-m); H- Thickness (m); TD- Total Depth(m)

VES Parameter L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6 L7 L8 TD RMS error for best-

NO fit(%)
TR 368 141 796 136 771 31.8 2.53
1 H 5.76
0.87 1.04 1.12 2.09 4.81 2.14 12.07
LR 204 557 29 2934 4225 104 6.59
2 LT 10.85
0.28 0.51 0.75 0.71 1.97 4.56 8.78
TR 271 1657 219 2689 227 85311
3 H 0.39 0.47 0.99 2.56 9.03 13.44 2.87

TR 259 1379 305 1431 393 5760

4 H 2.41
0.46 0.31 1.22 1.93 17.7 21.62
TR 266 3176 215 2626 181 8873
5 H 0.45 0.54 2.66 3.23 10.5 17.38 2.96

TR 885 1888 495 537 812

6 H 0.88 0.82 0.47 12.9 15.07 2.77

78
 Table 4.8.Geo-electric section deduced along Profile B

TR- True Resistivity (ohm-m); H- Thickness (m); TD- Total Depth(m)

VES
Parameter L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6 L7 L8 TD RMS error for best-fit(%)
NO
TR 476 1742 227 754 191 21457
1 H 0.64 0.45 1.19 4.29 7.27 13.84 2.61
TR 692 326 1309 400 3360
2 H 0.83 0.97 0.54 14.90 17.24 3.64
TR 400 1326 169 1163 252 140000
3 H 0.37 0.6 0.97 2.48 10.5 14.92 3.97

Table 4.9.Geo-electric section deduced along Profile C

TR- True Resistivity (ohm-m); H- Thickness (m); TD- Total Depth(m)

VES
Parameter L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6 L7 L8 TD RMS error for best-
NO
fit(%)
TR 626 923 905 204 2053
1 H 0.96 1.09 2.23 4.16 8.44 1.75
LR 903 404 1603 420 1530
2 H 0.50 0.62 0.89 14.98 16.99 1.75
TR 1072 211 1150 303 574 330
3 H 0.64 0.43 0.93 1.93 5.65 9.58 2.95
TR 833 434 1136 170 770
4 H 0.82 1.12 2.12 3.21 7.27 2.49
TR 1210 294 978 502 285 985
5 H 0.42 0.22 0.55 3.39 13.43 18.01 1.89
TR 748 1741 461 1122 128 5815
6 H 0.73 0.38 1.09 2.76 5.02 9.98 1.27
TR 899 1370 571 319 4747
7 H 1.31 0.56 3.95 11.3 17.12 2.49

Table 4.10.Geo-electric section deduced along ProfileD

TR- True Resistivity (ohm-m); H- Thickness (m); TD- Total Depth(m)

VES
Parameter L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6 L7 L8 TD RMS error for best-fit(%)
NO
TR 721 1608 347 939 317 1090
1 H 13.07 2.24
0.38 0.58 0.67 2.4 9.04
LR 1019 931 541 308 1242

79
2 LT 17.61 2.5
0.63 1.42 5.06 10.5
TR 995 2188 304 874 133 32998
3 H 14.35 3.76
0.79 0.56 1.53 4.65 6.82
TR 3417 432 2433 158 1244 22.3
4 H 9.30 2.11
0.29 0.35 0.88 1.34 6.44
TR 1386 396 1644 257 1304 216 30630
5 H 0.53 0.39 0.83 1.32 2.58 10.93 16.58 1.97

The layer resistivity indicates tentative correspondence with geological

layer, which need to be investigated and confirmed further.

4.1.2 DIGITAL MULTI ELECTRODE RESISTIVITY METER

Multi-function Digital DC Resistivity/IP Meter- WDJD-4
The WDJD-4 Multi-function Digital DC Resistivity/IP Meter is a new
generation instrument with 32 single-chip and 24 bit A/D technology. It can
carry out Resistivity and IP survey at the same time. This system can be widely
used for metal and non-metal mineral resources exploration, geotechnical
investigations, as well as in hydrogeology and engineering geological
prospecting, such as searching for groundwater, identification of soil pipes,
investigating dam base, studying flood protection levee for incipient faults and
conducting geothermal survey. It can conduct not only general electrical
resistivity/IP survey but also multi-electrode 2D Resistivity imaging. It features
high accuracy, fast sounding speed, mass memory capability and easy
operation, in association with flexible multi-electrode converter. Its self-check
function can even locate each converter. WDJD-4 system can connect many
multi-electrode converters in series to compose cascade connection by
communication cable. The measured data of WDJD-4 can be processed by
other multi-electrode resistivity software, which makes the interpretation more
convenient (new.wtsgeo.com/wdjdj-3.html/3.05.2015).

4.1.2.1 Components
A multi-function Digital DC Resistivity/IP Meter (figure: 4.7), is having a
WDJD-4main frame, WDZJ-4 switcher box (Multiplex Electrode Converter), 12V
rechargeable battery as a transmitting power source developed by BTSK/WTS
Limited, electrodes, multi-electrode cables etc. It features multiple functions,

80
high accuracy, fast speed, high reliability and excellent expandability. In
order to conduct multi-electrode2D electrical resistivity survey, the instrument
system will automatically select current electrodes and potential electrodes
according to a specific electrode array, and gives measured results of all the
data points of a cross-section. The data so gathered is processed and
interpreted using RES2DINV Software.

Figure 4.7: Digital multi electrode resistivity meter (WDJD-4 Multi-function Digital DC
Resistivity/IP Meter)

4.1.2.2 Methodology

There are mainly three types array, Schlumberger, Wenner and dipole-
dipole array used for investigation of soil pipes.

(a) Schlumberger array:

The Schlumberger array (figure 4.8a) consists of four collinear electrodes.
The outer two electrodes are current (source) electrodes and the inner two
electrodes are the potential (receiver) electrodes. The potential electrodes are
installed at the center of the electrode array with a small separation, typically
less than one fifth of the spacing between the current electrodes. The current
electrodes are increased to a greater separation during the survey while the
potential electrodes remain in the same position until the observed voltage
becomes too small to measure.

81
 Figure 4.8a: Schlumberger array configuration

(b) Wenner array

In Wenner array the electrode configuration (figure 4.8b), in which four
electrodes are deployed in a line, with equal spacing between the two potential
electrodes, and between each current electrodes and its nearest potential
electrode. Its geometric factor (Kg) is 2πa, where a is electrode spacing .The
Wenner array has five variations, three referred to as the tri potential method
with α, β, and γ configurations.

Figure 4.8b: Wenner array configuration

(c)Dipole – dipole
The Dipole-Dipole array is a type of electrode configuration for a Direct
Current Resistivity Survey and is defined by its electrode array geometry. The
dipole-dipole array (figure 4.8c) is one member of a family of arrays using dipoles
(closely spaced electrode pairs) to measure the curvature of the potential field.
This array is especially useful for measuring lateral resistivity changes and has
been increasingly used in geotechnical applications. (Environmental geophysics
/resistivity methods, Dr M.H Loke 1997) (Figure: 4.8a, 4.8b, 4.8c)

Figure 4.8c: Dipole – dipole configuration

82
4.1.2.3 The 2D Electrical Resistivity Imaging

The electrical resistivity profiles were laid almost perpendicular to the suspected alignment of
the soil pipes with the probable location of pipes as the centre point. The maximum length of the
profile was depending on the electrode separation; 60 electrode was using with aWDZJ-4 switcher
box (figure 4.9)i.e., the profile length achieved is 150m when the electrode separation is 2.5m and the
same is only 60m for the electrode separation of 1m. GPS co-ordinates were marked at certain
electrode positions such as at 1, 11, 21, 31, 41, 51, 60 to label the position and apply the elevation
correction. In order to nullify the contact resistance, if any, at the electrodes, Grounding Resistance
(Rg) was initially measured for the set of electrodes by setting the desirable maximum limit of Rg to 5
K. Ohms considering the requirement of improving the signal to noise ratio. On switching on for Rg
measurements the instrument automatically highlight the electrode number where the Rg is higher
than 5 K. Ohms. For such electrodes, corrective measures have to be taken to improve the ground
contact by tight pegging of the electrode and/or by pouring saline water. After ensuring that all the
electrodes are well grounded without contact resistance beyond the desirable limit, the switcher box is
connected and measurement mode initiated.

Figure 4.9: Survey Layout sketch for 2D ERT of WGMD-4 Model

The instrument is facilitated to measure Wenner, Schlumberger & Dipole-Dipole array. The
instrument generates the resistivity data for various combinations and layers and is stored in the
WDJD-4 mainframe which could be transferred to an external computer facility. The data so gathered
is interpreted using a RES2DINV Software. In order to do the interpretation using this software, the
data gathered and stored is converted to a compatible format using WDAFC.EXE program and
subsequently interpreted. The depth of Penetration of digital electrical resistivity imaging was shown

83
in the figure 4.10.

a) A, B Current Electrodes; b) M, N Potential Electrodes, c) O is Mid-point

Figure 4.10: Model for depth of Penetration of Electrical Resistivity Imaging

4.1.3 Electrical resistivity survey at Idukki district

Field investigations were carried out using Electrical Resistivity Imaging

technique at piping affected localities of Tattekanni and Peringassery in
Idukki district, during 27/1/2014 to 31/1/2014, and Cherupuzha locality during
17th to 22 March 2014 with the WDJD- 4 instrument. This was to locate and
map the alignment of ‘Soil Pipes’. Four resistivity profiles were laid across
suspected soil pipes at Peringassery where the inlet and outlet locations of
the pipes are known. Similarly, three resistivity profiles were laid at Thattekanni
across the suspected alignment of the soil pipe nearer to the inlet portion.
The layout of these Electrical Resistivity Profile (ERP) locations is given in Figure
4.11 and Figure 4.16.

84
 Slope direction

Figure 4.11: The Electrical resistivity survey layout in Peringassery

The resistivity data obtained along each of the ERP were retrieved to a
computer and converted for interpretation by RES2DINV software. The
interpretation of each ERP data gathered in specific array system provides
the measured apparent resistivity pseudo section, calculated apparent
resistivity pseudo section and inverse model resistivity section. The location
wise details of the study are given hereunder.

4.1.3.1 ERP Survey at Peringassery

The interpreted ERP images of the four profiles 1, 2,3,4 and 5 using
Schlumberger array are given as Figure 4.12, 4.13, 4.14, 4.15 and
4.16respectively. The resistivity inverse model sections so deduced are
qualitatively interpreted as follows.

Profile 1
The figure 4.12 shows the 2D true resistivity model using Schlumberger
array along Profile 1. This profile is laid 25m east of the inlet spot of the soil
pipe on its upper slope portion and oriented in the N - S direction. The inverse
model resistivity section, prima facie indicates a highly anisotropic near-
surface layers. There are high resistivity patches, near-surface, extending all
along the profile with varying thicknesses. In general, the resistivity section
covering up to a depth of 33m indicate moderate resistivity values except for
the patchy high resistivity zones. The moderate resistivity with lateral and

85
vertical variation may be indicative of differential weathering. Within this zone
there are two horizontally stratified layers of highly saturated zone, the one
between the northern tip and central point is at a depth of 6m and the other
at a depth of 17.5m located between the central point and southern side of
the profile. The central portion of the profile exhibits relatively lower resistivity
in comparison to the nearby zones which is indicative of more promising
recharge zone. Within this zone, a conspicuous low resistivity round-shaped
feature is seen at a depth of 5m almost in the middle of the profile probably
a higher saturated zone.

N S

Figure 4.12: Profile 1 Schlumberger array at Peringassery

Profile 2 and 3

Two profiles are laid across the suspected soil pipe and 4m west of its
inlet on the downslope side; the first (figure 4.13a) with an electrode spacing
of 2m (Profile length 120m) and the second (figure 4.13b) with an electrode
spacing of 1m (Profile length- 60m). The Profiles are laid in NS direction with
the midpoint near the suspected soil pipe. The inverse model resistivity section
indicates a differential section on the southern and northern portion the soil
pipe. The southern section exhibits a very thick weathered/fractured horizon
beyond 12 m at the central portion of the profile. On the northern portion, the
weathered/fractured horizon indicates around 3m thickness. The weathered
zone on the northern side, the thickness which is almost uniform, indicates
vertical patches of moderate resistivity and the zone above the suspected
soil pipe indicates relatively the lowest resistive patch. The horizon also
indicates surficial patches of saturated soil zones especially on top of the
location of soil pipe. In and around the soil pipe location, below the

86
weathered zone, a very high resistive strata is exhibited which could be
suspected as a fluvial barrier. Hence concentration of a fluvial force over the
high resistive zone could be suspected.

N S

Figure: 4.13a Profile 2 Schlumberger arrays (120m stretch) at Peringassery

N S

Figure: 4.13b. Profile 3, Schlumberger arrays (60m stretch) at Peringassery

Profile 4
This profile was of length 60m and electrode spacing of 1m was laid
parallel to the Profile 2&3 and 15m to its west. It was laid such that the
midpoint of the profile falls on the top of the suspected soil pipe considering
its interpolated orientation and that it is linear. The inverse model resistivity
section prima facie indicates highly anisotropic near-surface layers with high
resistivity patches seen all along the profile with varying thicknesses. The
thickness of the highly anisotropic resistivity section, in general varies from
1.5m in the central portion to 5m on the peripheral areas of the profile. At the
central portion, a 7m wide moderately resistive layer is encountered with a
saturated spot on the northern part of this layer at a depth beyond 10m.

N S

Figure: 4.14. Profile 4, Schlumberger array at Peringassery

Profile 5

87
 The profile 5 with electrode spacing of 1m and length of 60m is laid
parallel to the Profile 4 across the suspected soil pipe about 25m west of it in
the down slope side. The inverse model resistivity section indicates high
resistivity patches all along the profile except at the central portion of the
profile. The soil pipe location is very shallow and falls within the electrode
stations of 29 and 39. The location indicates low resistivity zones which extend
towards depth. The profile also encountered two highly saturated zones
having resistivity lower that 350 Ωm, one in the northern part at a depth of 4m
and another in the southern part at a depth of 7m.

N S

Figure 4.15: Profile 5, Schlumberger array at Peringassery

4.1.3.2 ERP Survey at Thattekanni

Though three ERPs are laid, only two data are found acceptable as the
1st Profile indicated significant errors due to high contact resistance. The
interpreted ERP images for the two profiles 2 and 3 using Schlumberger array
are given as Figure 4.17 and 4.18. The resistivity sections so deduced are
qualitatively interpreted as follows.

88
 Figure 4.16: The Electrical resistivity survey layout in Thattekanni

N S

Figure 4.17: Profile 1 Schlumberger array at Thattekanni

Profile 7
The profile was laid near to a soil pipe in the EW direction at 1m
electrode spacing. The low resistivity near-surface anomaly is extending up to
a depth of 3.5m and laterally extending from the electrode station 13 to 35. A
low resistivity patch is seen at a depth of 4.30m which indicates a saturated
zone. The moderate resistivity layer in the eastern side may be indicative of
differential weathering and high resistivity on the western side may be
indicating hard crystalline rock.

N S

Figure 4.18: Profile 2 Schlumberger array at Thattekanni

89
Results
The qualitative interpretation of the resistivity section indicates that the
technique could delineate the conductive zones where soil pipes are
formed. This is evident from the Profile 2/3 and Profile 5 laid at Peringassery
and profile2 at Thattekanni as these profiles are close to the inlet and outlet
of the pipes and the possible orientation of pipes at these locations are
known. However, the geometry of the soil pipe is not found decipherable
from the resistivity section probably due to higher electrode separation in
comparison to the diameter of the soil pipe. Further, the data generated
could be interpreted in Dipole-Dipole and Wenner array mode and the
inference from these will also have to be seen. Therefore, repeating the
survey with a lesser electrode separation as well as interpreting the data in
different mode will be attempted.

4.1.4 Electrical Resistivity Surveys at Kannur

Experiments using Electrical Resistivity Survey techniques continued at
Kottathalachimala near Cherupuzha, Kannur district across the alignment of
a known soil pipe by using the WGMD-4 Multi-function instrument. Electrical
resistivity tomography has been carried out over five mutually parallel profiles
using a 60 electrode-setup (Figure 4.9). A minimum of 0.25m to a maximum of
2.0m spacing has been used as electrode configuration. Use of larger
electrode spacing has been constrained due to the nature of the terrain.
The five survey profiles were laid in the West-East direction (Figure 4.20).
Profiles are laid above the existing soil pipe. The terrain gently slopes towards
north hence the elevation gradually decreases from profile 1 to profile 5. ERT
at profile 1 is carried out using five different electrode spacing. Profile
1a,1b,1c,1d and 1e correspond to ERT at profile 1 with electrode spacing
equal to 0.25m, 0.50m, 1.00m, 1.50m and 2.00m respectively.

90
 Figure 4.19: Electrical resistivity survey at Kottathalachimala, Kannur

Profile 2 & 3 were laid almost parallel to profile 1 at a distance of about

27m north of it. The central electrode for profile 2 is about 8m east of central
electrode of profile 3. Profile 2a and 2b correspond to electrode spacing of
0.50m and 1.00m respectively. Profile 3a and 3b correspond to electrode
spacing of 1.50m and 2.00m respectively. Profile 4 was laid further towards
north at a distance of about 18m from profile 2 & 3. The electrode spacing
used for profile 4a and 4b are 1.00m and 1.50m respectively. Profile 5 was laid
in the NW-SE direction with the first electrode towards north-west. Electrode
spacing of 1.00m and 1.50m has been used for profile 5a and 5b respectively.

*Figure not to scale

Figure 4.20: The Layout sketch of Electrical resistivity survey line

Survey line1: Profile 1 is laid at right angles to the tunnel orientation near to the
entrance of tunnel. Profile 1a and Profile 1b (Figure 4.21) has an electrode

91
spacing of 0.25m and 0.50m with a horizontal stretch of 15m and 30m on the
ground respectively. Electrical resistivity cross section for Schlumberger,
Wenner and Dipole-Dipole configurations of profile 1a and 1b as shown in
Figure 4.21a and 4.21b respectively. The maximum depth of investigation is
achieved in dipole-dipole configuration followed by Schlumberger array and
Wenner array, in which the depth was not more than 4.3m. The Schlumberger
and Wenner configurations helped us to understand the top soil layer, which
is weathered and inhomogeneous in nature. The dipole-dipole configuration
provided the maximum depth and a highly resistive region could be
observed for this array at a depth of about 3.5m just beneath the central
electrode in profile 1b. This high resistive region could be attributed to the
roof of the tunnel. The presence of high resistive zone vertically below the
central electrode is strengthened from the Geoelectrical sections of profile
1b. The tunnel roof is observed at a depth of about 3.0-3.5 m from the surface
in all three electrode configurations. While the Schlumberger and Wenner
configurations helped us to determine the tunnel roof, the dipole-dipole
configuration indicated the extension of the high resistivity zone towards east.

92
a. Profile 1a 0.25m electrode spacing b. Profile 1b at 0.50m electrode spacing
Figure: 4.21.Electrical Resistivity Tomographic section of Survey line1

Profiles 1c, 1d and 1e are laid with an electrode spacing of 1.0m, 1.5m and
2.0m respectively. It is observed that Schlumberger and Wenner were not
found to be useful for mapping the tunnel cross-sections. Both the
configurations showed the tunnel extending indefinitely with depth. The two
configurations fail to map the tunnel bottom even though from physical
observations it is known that the actual vertical extent of the tunnel is lesser
than the interpreted depth of the two arrays. The dipole-dipole array clearly
brings out the entire tunnel cross-section. Further, as observed in dipole-dipole
configuration for profile 1b, there was an asymmetry in the tunnel cross-
section, with eastward (rightward) extension of the high resistive zone and the
absence of the same in the westward direction. This feature was observed in
all the three configurations (Figure 4.22) for 1.0m, 1.5m and 2m spacing. This
could be an indication of the presence of another tunnel like feature, smaller
as compared to the soil pipe under study, located parallel and towards east
(right) of the original tunnel. The asymmetric eastward (rightward) extension
of the soil pipe is further strengthened in all electrode configurations for 1.5m
spacing. In the dipole-dipole setup (Figure 4.22b); we also observe a low

93
resistivity zone adjacent to the west (left) wall of the tunnel but about 2m to
3m below the soil pipe. The true resistivity value is very low and can possibly
be corresponding to a water saturated zone. Profile 1e (Figure 4.22c) has an
electrode spacing of 2.0m and hence provides the highest depth of
investigation for survey line 1. Apart from the eastward extension, the
presence of low resistivity zone towards west of the tunnel is manifested in
profile 1e. The survey line 1 with profiles1a-e play an important role in
establishing the response of various array types to soil pipe and related
geological features. The unique response of Schlumberger array type can
hence be of importance in distinguishing a tunnel from a region of high
resistivity such as a buried boulder. Although Schlumberger array fails to map
the vertical extent of the soil pipe, it provides a better lateral resolution
compared to the dipole-dipole configuration.

94
 a. Profile 1c at 1.0m electrode spacing b. Profile 1d at 1.50m electrode spacing c. Profile 1e at 2.0m
electrode spacing
Figure 4.22: Electrical Resistivity Tomographic section of survey line 1

Survey line 2: As discussed, survey line 2 was laid parallel to survey line 1 at a
distance of 27m north of line 1. Two profiles with electrode spacing of 0.5 m
and 1.0 m were conducted. For profile 2a (Figure 4.23a) with an electrode
spacing of 0.5m, the maximum depth achieved was 8.5 m. Although the
Schlumberger array exhibited tunnel-like response (indefinite vertical
continuation of high resistive zone) just below the central electrode, geo-
electric sections from Wenner and dipole-dipole did not exhibit similar
feature. Except for inhomogeneous weathered top layer, the three
configurations did not show much correlation. The Profile 2b (Figure 4.23b)
was laid across the same survey line but with a greater electrode separation
of 1.0m. The top inhomogeneous weathered layer can be observed here. A
region of high resistivity can be observed at a depth of 2.5m from the surface
below the central electrode location. This region shows a typical
Schlumberger response for tunnel like feature. This feature can also be
observed for Wenner configuration. From this profile it is observed that the
tunnel cross-section is smaller than at the tunnel entrance. Due to
topographic constraints on the eastern side of the survey line, a profile with
higher electrode spacing could not be conducted.

95
a. Profile 2a with 0.50m electrode spacing b. Profile 2b with 1.0m electrode
spacing
Figure 4.23: Electrical Resistivity Tomographic section of survey line 2

Survey line 3: For achieving a wider spread, survey line 3 was laid along line 2
by shifting the center westwards by 8m and then increasing the electrode
spacing. As a result, we expect the anomalous region to shift towards east
(right) for survey line 3. Both the profiles on survey line 3, profile 3a (Figure
4.24a) and 3b (Figure 4.24b), with an electrode spacing of 1.50m and 2.00m
respectively, exhibit pipe like anomaly, shifted eastward as expected. As
seen in profile 2b, the tunnel size is smaller compared to tunnel entrance
(survey line 1). As a continuation from survey line 1, we can observe a water
saturated zone adjacent to the western wall of the tunnel. However, unlike
survey line 1, the water saturated zone is located at the same depth as the
tunnel for line 3. While this zone was deeper as compared to tunnel at the
entrance, its presence at approximately the same depth as the tunnel 27m
north of entrance could indicate that this water saturated zone acts as a
source for smaller soil pipes which were observed on the left wall of the tunnel
on internal examination.

96
a. Profile 3a with 1.50m electrode spacing b. Profile 3b with 2.0m electrode
spacing
Figure 4.24: Electrical Resistivity Tomographic section survey line 3

Survey line 4: Survey line 4 is 18m north of survey line 2&3. Profiles 4a (Figure
4.25a) and 4b (Figure 4.25b) correspond to electrode spacing of 1.0m and
1.5m respectively. These profiles indicate an inhomogeneous subsurface.
However, there is no indication of any tunnel-like characteristic in the
Geoelectrical section for any of the three configurations. This may be due to
the tapering of the tunnel in this section. The high resistivity region close to the
surface towards the western side in profile 4b probably represents a rocky top
surface.

97
a. Profile 4a with 1.00m electrode spacing b. Profile 4b with 1.50m electrode
spacing
Figure: 4.25. Electrical Resistivity Topographic sections survey line 4
Survey line 5: Survey line 5 runs in the NW-SE direction. Rocky outcrops were
observed on the surface for this survey line. Profile 5a (Figure 4.26a) shows a
high resistivity region close to the surface at a distance of about 8m from the
central electrode in the north-east direction. The same feature can also be
observed in profile 5b (Figure 4.26b). However, the inhomogeneous top layer
for this survey line makes it difficult to associate the anomaly with any
geological feature. The anomaly could be indicative of small underground
soil pipe or a boulder. Since, the Schlumberger configuration response for the
feature is different than Schlumberger response for soil-pipe as observed for
survey lines 1, 2 & 3, the source of anomaly remains inconclusive. However,
we do observe a water saturated layer extending from a depth of about 4m
to 17m from the surface.

98
 a. Profile 5a at 1.0m electrode spacing b.Profile 5b at 1.50m
electrode spacing
Figure 4.26: Electrical Resistivity Tomographic section survey line 5
Results

ID and 2D surveys have been carried out in Kottathalachimala. The result indicated that the area has a
complex geology. The results of VES gives scanty hope as water filled horizons are either thin having
depth to bedrock above 15m in just two stations or made up of clay horizon. However, the result of
ERT show areas favorable for siting productive borehole especially in profile TR1 at surface position
120m interpreted to be water filled fractured rock and profile TR 8 at ground position 130 m as a good
bedrock depression where subsurface water accumulates.

99
It was also discovered that 2D survey gives a better result than 1D because of its ability to image the
subsurface vertically and laterally which enhances continuity. Geoelectric layers from two VES points
separated by a distance would not give a comprehensive imaging as the 2D does.

4.1.5 Electrical Resistivity Survey at Nelliyedukkam, Kasaragod

Electrical Resistivity Survey was carried out at Nelliyadukkam, Kasaragod across the
alignment of a known soil pipe by using multi-function Digital DC Resistivity/IP Meter (WDJD-4),
having WDZJ-4 switcher box. All survey lines are in east west direction, the suspected soilpiping is in
south to north direction. A total of 7 survey lines were laid (figure 4.28), 3 on above the known soil
pipe, 3 surveys were laid on east side of the piping and one on the roadside. Sixty electrodes used for
survey at 1m and 2m spacing, so, total survey line went up to 60 and 120m respectively. The terrain
gently slopes towards north and profiles were across the slope so that there was no elevation
correction needed while the data on processing. Profile GPS co-ordinates were marked on 1, 15, 30,
45, 60 electrodes to label the electrode position & corresponding elevation. In survey line S 1and S2,
the instrument was placed at the centre of the target (above the cavity) to arrive greater depth of
penetration. S3 and S4 laid 15m east from the tunnelling. S5 is laid directly down of the survey line S1.
The survey line S6 is in 20m east of S5, survey line S7 laid in road side near subsidence1.The best
resultant cross-sectional Electrical Resistivity Tomographic section is plotted (Figure 4.29a to 4.34c).

Figure: 4.27. Survey is conducted in soil piping area (Nelliyedukkam, Kasaragod district)

The survey tools included electrodes, connecting cables, multi resistivity meter, battery pack,
laptop to deliver data gathered from the instrument in a graphic manner. Survey was done using 60
electrodes extended equally (30 each) to both sides with an interval of 2 meters.

100
 Figure: 4.28. Lay-out of the Study area at Nelliyedukkam, Kasaragod

Survey line 1 (S1): The qualitative interpretation of the resistivity section indicates that the technique
could delineate the conductive zones where the soil pipes were formed, evident from the profile laid at
Nelliyedukkam. These profiles are directly above the pipes and the possible orientation of pipes at
these locations is known. The total depth of information obtained from the figure 7 is 23m. The
resistivity value changes from 36.4 to 1510Ωm. The presence of high resistive zone vertically below
the central electrode is strengthened from the Geoelectrical sections of profile. The tunnel roof was
observed at a depth of about 3.98m from the surface in all three electrode configurations. While the
Schlumberger (Figure 4.29a) and Wenner (Figure 4.29b) configurations helped us in determining the
tunnel roof, the high resistivity zone could be seen extending at a depth of 3.98 to 10.5m, in the
schlumberger configuration. The data generated by schlumberger configuration was more accurate
than Dipole-Dipole (Figure 2.29c) and Wenner array mode.

a. Schlumberger array at 1m electrode interval

101
 Soil pipe

b. Wenner array at 1m electrode interval

Soil pipe

c. Dipole-dipole array at 1m electrode interval

Figure 4.29: Electrical Resistivity Tomographic section survey line 1

Survey line 2 (S2): This profile was also laid at the same point of profile S1with an electrode interval
of 1m. Depth of information obtained was 11.5m and high resistivity value obtained was 2366 Ωm.
From the schlumberger and Wenner images, a sudden increase of resistivity (~500 to 2366Ωm) was
indicated at a depth of 2.69 m indicating the starting point of tunnel section. The high resistivity zone
continued up to a depth of 11m. The lateral extends of the tunnel was more visible in this profile.

Cavity

a. Schlumberger array at 1m electrode interval

b. Wenner array at 1m electrode interval

102
 cavity

c. Dipole-dipole array at 1m electrode interval

Figure 4.30: Electrical Resistivity Tomographic section survey line 2

Survey line 3(S3): This profile (S3) was laid 15m east of the survey line S1 at an electrode interval of
1m. From the figure 4.30a and 4.30b,a high resistive zone (>2264 Ωm) was seen in the middle portion
in between station 22 and 33 at the depth of approximate 2m to 4.38m which is an indication of a
tunnel like feature. This feature was also observed in Wenner configuration. It has a lateral extent of
11m and thickness of 2.38m underline by low resistant water saturated zone.

a. schlumberger array at 1m electrode interval

b. Wenner array at 1m electrode interval

c. dipole-dipole array at 1m electrode interval

Figure 4.30: Electrical Resistivity Tomographic section survey line 3

Survey line 4 (S4): The surveyline 4 is laid across the soil pipe (east to west direction) and the mid

103
point of the profile is 12m north of the pipe. The electrode intervel was 2m, the total distance of the
profile was 120m and the maximum depth of penetration achieved was 23m. Two high resistive
(>1551 Ωm) zone was identified at a depth of ~ 5.37mwhich indicated pipes. From this profile it was
observed that the tunnel cross-section was bigger than the tunnel entrance. This figure (Figure 4.31a,
b, c) indicated branching of the pipe. In the dipole –dipole configuration it was indicated clearly.

Soil pipes

a. Schlumberger array at 2m electrode interval.

Soil pipes

b. Wenner array 2m electrode interval

Soil pipes

c. Dipole-dipole array 2m electrode interval

Figure 4.31: Electrical Resistivity Tomographic section survey line 4

Survey line 5 (S5): This survey line has E-W orientation and is parallel to S3and has a station interval
of 1m. The first electrode position was at east side. From this profile the high resistive zone with a
lateral extent of almost 10m and detected at a depth of 2.69m to 7.38m may not be a pipe like feature.
This is because the dipole-dipole configuration indicated that the high resistive zone continued
downwards and the apparent resistivity values of 1528 Ωm was less than the value generally obtained
from known piping area. Therefore, the high resistive zone may be indicative of a high resistive rock
bolder.

104
 a. Schlumberger array in piping area.

b. Wenner array in piping area

c. Dipole-dipole array at 1m electrode interval

Figure 4.32: Electrical Resistivity Tomographic section survey line 4

Surveyline 6 (S6): Survey line S6 runs in the E - W direction with midpoint placed at 10m towards
north from the survey line S3. This Profile (Figure 4.33) showed moderately low resistivity at shallow
depth and relatively high resistivity at a depth of 2.62m which continued further. The same feature
was also observed in profile S3. The inhomogeneous layer made it difficult to attribute the anomaly to
any specific geological feature. The anomaly could be indicative of small underground soil pipe or a
boulder. Since, the Schlumberger configuration response for the feature was different from the normal
Schlumberger response to soil-pipe as observed for survey lines S1, S2& S4, the anomaly could not be
interpreted conclusively.

a. Schlumberger array at 1m electrode interval

105
 b. Wenner array at 1m electrode interval

c. dipole-dipole array at 1m electrode interval

Figure 4.33: Electrical Resistivity Tomographic section survey line 4

Survey line 7 (S7): The survey was carried out on the road side; the contact resistance was relatively
higher than the other profiles because of the hard nature of the road fillings. The resistivity of the top
hard layer was found relatively higher and this probably represented rock-dominated top layer.

Schlumberger array in piping area.

Wenner array in piping area

106
 Dipole-dipole array in piping area

Figure 4.34: Electrical Resistivity Tomographic section survey line 4

Conclusion

The resistivity image generated using schlumberger, Wenner and Dipole-Dipole configuration
for station interval of 1m and 2m exhibited resistivity anomalies in correspondence with soil pipes.
The profile laid on the top of the soil pipes showed high resistive zone indicating tunnels as the
resistivity of cavity is much higher than resistivity of surrounding hard rocks. The surrounding regions
of this high resistive zones indicated lower resistivity values attributable to saturated soil beds. None
of the profiles could trace the bed rock as the depth of investigation was limited, though certain
profiles reached up to a depth of 23m. The physical attributes of the soil pipes measured, generally at
the inlet and outlet points, matched well with the results obtained from the electrical resistivity
imaging. Therefore, electrical resistivity imaging technique is found to be a tool for locating spatial
disposition and geometry of near-surface soil pipes.

Comparing various (Schlumberger, Wenner and dipole-dipole ) arrays, the Schlumberger

gives the depth of information and it is useful for differentiate cavities from the rock boulders,
Wenner array gives information about the piping in shallower depths. If the pipe is in shallow,
Wenner array useful for the study the upper layers of the piping and the Dipole-Dipole array gives the
clear cut picture of the cross section of pipes. It also gives the information about branching of
tunnels.

4.1.6 General Comparison of Analog and Digital multi-electrode Resistivity meter

Analog (Aquameter) meters give display of both injected current and the measured potential
difference on non-linear scales. Readings obtained from such meters are prone to many serious errors
that could conceal the desired information. Moreover, in the computation of resistance by analog
meters, results are compromised by the compounded errors due to current and voltage readings. In an
effort to significantly reduce such errors, reduce cost and produce a user-friendly device it was
resorted to develop a digital resistivity meter using the state of the art technology. This is an on-going
new approach that combines software and hardware to produce a device that could be utilized for

107
various purposes dictated by the use of peripherals and accustomed software, thereby reducing the
amount of hardware requirements as most of the control is handled by the software. The software does
most of the functions previously done by the hardware, thus, making the whole set up portable,
cheaper, more rugged and easier to operate during field usage. The readings of the meter are given in
digital format; therefore, errors due to parallax are highly minimized.

Field data obtained from Aquameter (four electrode configurations) and

Digital multi-electrode resistivity meter during electrical resistivity survey shows
that the multielectrode surveys give useful in piping related surveys. In
Aquameter, the data gives the depth information in single line with vertical
variation and is useful for 1D resistivity graph information. It does not give the
lateral information. For 1D to 2D conversion, a series of different surveys has to
be carried out by shifting the central point of the layout in each survey. The
manual shifting of the survey layout can distorted the data. The data
generated from the digital multi-electrode resistivity meter gives high data
quality and quantity. It gives vertical and lateral data variation. Figures 4.5a
and 4.22 show the profile obtained by Aquameter (four electrode
configurations) and Digital multi-electrode resistivity meter at the same
location. The Digital resistivity instrument directly gives 2D inversion data. The
principal advantage of 2D inversion is that it allows for dimensional clarity that is
not obtained in 1D inversion at depth. The figure 4.6 is the 2D graph of 6 profiles
of data generated by the Aquameter. Each profile has having a horizontal
distance of 5m. 22 data point was obtained in a single survey. The figure 4.22
is 2D inverse model of single survey of data generated by the Digital multi-
electrode resistivity meter.

4.2 Field trials using Geophones

The water flow in an underground pipe or when vehicular movement
occurs over the cavities it often produces ground vibrations. The geophone
(figures 4.35) was subjected to field trials (figure 4.36) to understand the
responses during vibrations caused by various activities. Here the geophone is
used for measuring the ground vibrations at Thattekanni in Idukki district. It has
a natural frequency 4.5 Hz. Data logger (-8 to 24V DC) for real-time recording

108
and conversion of analogue to digital signals.

Figure 4.35: Geophone and data logger

4.2.1Field test along the road over a tunnel

Field trials were conducted in Thattekanni, were the road was affected
by Soilpiping. The field trials indicated that the geophones are responding
well to various types of ground vibrations.

Figure 4.36: Field trial at Thattekanni, Idukki

Figure 4.37: Vibrations when vehicle passing through a pipe affected road
From the graph ground vibrations generated (time: 3:44:52.500 PM to 3:45:48.000 PM and
3:46:42.500 PM to 3:48:04.000 PM) by vehicle passing through the road in piping occurred area. the

109
ground vibration formed is greater than the normal than, due to the caving, the signals recorded by
geophone.

4.3 Investigations with Push camera

As it is a water resistant it is mainly used to investigate the piping
affected wells which are so deep and difficult to study. Digital video recorder
is a rugged, industrial quality video processing device. It allows us to record
videos, image and audio, view live feeds and play back recorded feeds
while in the field and is specially designed to work with Inuktun cameras. The
design of this combination in the field is very useful for the users. Camera with
12 high intensity LEDs, weight just 0.12Kg and connected with Digital video
recorder can be easily used to know the interior, diameter and
characteristics of the investigated pipe by continuously monitoring where
one cannot enter. As it is water resistant it can be used to know the deep
wells which are affected by piping in the field.
The Crystal Cam camera is a unique, high-performance micro video camera that is
compact, lightweight and readily affordable designed and developed by Inuktun (Figure. 4.38
with built-in LED lighting and its high resolution, low lux camera, the Crystal Cam is very
effective in low light environments. The camera head is completely encased in transparent epoxy,
making it virtually indestructible while operating in the most confined spaces, hazardous areas
and to depths up to 304m / 1000ft. The Cam can even survive to depths of 1,000-feet underwater.
It is mainly used to internal inspection of pipes, tanks and wells in the field. The push camera is a
very useful tool in the field where it is inaccessible in areas like narrow soil pipes where one
cannot enter. Cavities formed by piping occur in different shapes and sizes. It often occurs as
dendritic pattern, with smaller tanners joins to form big tunnels. Sometimes big tunnels branches into
smaller tunnels. Some of these tunnels are smaller in size and therefore not accessible for
investigation. In order to investigate these tunnels push (field) cameras are used. It is mainly used to
internal inspection of tunnels, tanks and wells in the field. It is very useful in the field in order to
know the most confined pipes, piping affected wells it is also used as a drop camera to investigate
under waters up to a depth of 300m.

110
 Figure 4.38: A Inuktun’s compact Crystal Cam camera (Push camera) and Cables

4.3.1 Investigations with Push camera

Push camera (underwater / borehole camera) was used (Figure 4.39) for
visual investigation of tunnel branches at Chattivayal in Kannur district for
studying sediment deposition and branching. The information from camera was
recorded the video and picture mode (Figure 4.40).

Figure4.39 Using of push camera inside the Tunnel in Chattivayal, Kannur

Figure. 4.40 The images taken from inside the pipes (filled with water) by using push Camera

111
The studies conducted using this camera helped in the characterisation of branch tunnels and their
classification. The usage camera is difficult where the tunnel is rugged with many bends. To
overcome this this camera may be fitted on a robotic platform for mobility within complex tunnels.

112
 CHAPTER 5

DETERMINATION OF CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PARAMETERS

Soil piping is the subsurface soil erosion by ground water. In Kerala this occurs in the saprolite layer
from by removing clay by physical and chemical processes. Samples were collected (table 5.1) from
the localities affected by soil piping and other unaffected soil sections to determine various
parameters. The measurement of pH, EC, and TDS were conducted at the time of sample collection in
the field itself. The pH and conductivity of the sample is measured by a portable standard instrument
(EUTEC 650), which has an accuracy of 0.01 pH and 0.01 conductivity. All chemical parameters
were analyzed by the methods suggested by APHA (1998). The dissolved nutrients and Fe were
estimated in the filtered sample through 0.45 µm cellulose nitrate filter paper. All colorimetric
estimations were done with u v-visible spectrophotometer SHIMADZU-160A.

5.1 Soil Sampling

Table 5.1 Soil Sample locations

Co-Ordinates
Sample
Sl No. Sample Code Location Elevation (m) Sample Taken Sample Type
No
Lattitude Longitude

1 I1 6/1/PRY-A Peringassery 9⁰52'08.4''N 76⁰51'24.2''E 271 Soil Profile soil

2 I2 6/1/PRY-E Peringassery 9⁰52'08.4''N 76⁰51'24.2''E 270 Soil Profile soil

3 I3 6/1/PRY-B perrigassery 9⁰52'08.4''N 76⁰51'24.2''E 268 Soil Profile soil

Pipe( Inside the

4 I4 6/1/PRY-Ei perigassery 9⁰52'2.9''N 76⁰51'28.4''E 263 soil
piping)

Pipe (Wall of the

5 I5 6/1/PRY-Ci perrigassery 9⁰52'2.9''N 76⁰51'28.4''E 262 soil
pipe)

Pipe (Wall of the

6 I6 6/1/VM-B Venniyanimala 9⁰51'39.3''N 76⁰51'16.8''E 492 soil
pipe)

Pipe (with in the

7 I7 6/1/VM Thattekanni 9⁰51'39.3''N 76⁰51'16.8''E 492 soil
cavity)

8 I8 6/1/TK-Ci1 Thattekanni 9⁰59'55.6''N 76⁰53'15.2''E 270 Pipe soil

9 I9 6/1/NP-B Neendapara 10⁰01'19.0"N 76⁰50'09.6''E 270 Soil Profile soil

10 I10 6/1/TK1 Thattekanni 9⁰59'55.6''N 76⁰53'15.2''E 270 Out let soil

11 I11 6/1/TK-Bi Thattekanni 9⁰59'55.6''N 76⁰53'15.2''E 270 Within the cavity soil

12 I12 6/1/NP-E Neendapara 10⁰01'19.0"N 76⁰50'09.6''E 418 Soil Profile soil

13 I13 6/1/NP- C Neendapara 10⁰01'19.0"N 76⁰50'09.6''E 418 Soil Profile soil

113
14 I14 6/1/TK-Ci2 Thattekanni 9⁰59'55.6''N 76⁰53'15.2''E 270 Within the cavity soil

15 I15 6/1/NP-A Neendapara 10⁰01'19.0"N 76⁰50'09.6''E 418 Soil Profile soil

16 I16 6/1/TK2 Thattekanni 9⁰59'55.6''N 76⁰53'15.2''E 270 Out let soil

17 K1 13/2KTM –C Kottathalachimala 12⁰16'16.0"N 76⁰25'48.8''E 418 Soil Profile soil

18 K2 13/2KTM –B Kottathalachimala 12⁰16'16.0"N 76⁰25'48.8''E 418 Soil Profile soil

19 K3 13/2KTM Kottathalachimala 12⁰16'16.0"N 76⁰25'48.8''E 418 (wall of the pipe) (Weathered rock)

20 K4 13/2/KTM Kottathalachimala 12⁰16'16.0"N 76⁰25'48.8''E 418 (wall of the pipe) (Weathered rock)

21 K5 13/2/KTM Kottathalachimala 12⁰16'21.8."N 75⁰25'21.8''E 236 (wall of the pipe) Soil

22 K6 13/2/KTM Kottathalachimala 12⁰16'21.8."N 75⁰25'21.8''E 236 inlet sediment soil

23 K7 13/2/KTM Kottathalachimala 12⁰16'21.8."N 75⁰25'21.8''E 236 (wall of the pipe) soil

24 K8 13/2/KTM Kottathalachimala 12⁰16'21.8."N 75⁰25'21.8''E 236 (wall of the pipe) (rock)

25 K9 13/2/KTM Kottathalachimala 12⁰16'23.2."N 75⁰26'02.2''E 415 (wall of the pipe) (weathered rock)

26 K10 13/2/KTM Kottathalachimala 12⁰16'23.2."N 75⁰26'02.2''E 415 Pipe soil

27 K11 13/2/KTM Kottathalachimala 12⁰16'23.2."N 75⁰26'02.2''E 416 Pipe (weathered rock)

(E-Horizon)
28 K12 13/2/KTM(Ch) –E Thirumeni 12⁰15'34.4"N 75⁰26'00.0''E 414 soil
White colour

29 K13 13/2/KTM(Ch) –E Thirumeni 12⁰15'34.4"N 75⁰26'00.0''E 414 E-Horizon soil

30 K14 13/2/KTM(Ch) -B Thirumeni 12⁰15'34.4"N 75⁰26'00.0''E 414 B-Horizon soil

31 K15 K113/2/KTM(TM) Thirumeni 12⁰15'34.1"N 75⁰26'08.7''E 414 wall of the pipe soil

K16.
32 K16 Thirumeni 12⁰15'34.1"N 75⁰26'08.7''E 414 wall of the pipe soil
13/2/KTM(TM)

33 K17 K17.13/2/KTM(Ch Thirumeni 12⁰15'36.0"N 75⁰26'45.7''E 453 wall of the Pipe soil

34 K18 K18. 13/2/KTM(Ch) Thirumeni 12⁰15'36.0"N 75⁰26'45.7''E 454 Base of the pipe soil

small pond, wall

35 K19 K19. 13/2/KTM(Ch) Thirumeni 12⁰16'01.7"N 75⁰25'11.6.''E 384 soil
of the pipe

piping affected
36 K20 K20. 13/2/KTM(Ch) Thirumeni 12⁰16'02.4"N 75⁰25'11.6.''E 353 soil
well sample

Between Pipe -1
and its Outlet
37 K21 13/2/KTM(Ch) Chattivayal N12º15'36" E75º26'06.9" 405 Soil

38 K22 13/2/KTM(Ch) Chattivayal 405 Soil

39 K23 13/2/KTM(Ch) Chattivayal 405 Soil

N 12º15'40.2" E 75º26'04.0"
40 K24 13/2/KTM(Ch) Chattivayal 405 Soil

41 K25 13/2/KTM(Ch) Chattivayal 405 Soil

42 K26 13/2/KTM(Ch) Chattivayal N 12º15'40.2" E 75º26'04.0" 415 Above pipe-1 Soil

114
43 K27 13/2/KTM(Ch) Chattivayal 415 Soil

44 K28 13/2/KTM(Ch) Chattivayal 415 Above pipe-1 Soil

45 K29 13/2/KTM(Ch) Chattivayal 415 Soil

46 K30 13/2/KTM(Ch) Chattivayal 415 Soil

47 K31 13/2/KTM(Ch) Chattivayal 415 Soil

48 K32 13/2/KTM(Ch) Chattivayal 415 Soil

Near new Pipe in

49 K33 13/2/KTM(Tb) Tabor 505 Soil
Tabore

50 K34 13/2/KTM(Tb) Tabor 505 Soil

N 12º15'37.9" E 75º27'00.2"
51 K35 13/2/KTM(Tb) Tabor 505 Soil

52 K36 13/2/KTM(Tb) Tabor 505 Soil

53 K37 13/2/KTM Kottathalachimala Near Pipe-1 Soil

54 K38 13/2/KTM Kottathalachimala Near Pipe-1 Soil

55 K39 13/2/KTM Kottathalachimala Near Pipe-1 Soil

56 K40 13/2/KTM Kottathalachimala Inside the Pipe-1 Soil

N 12º16'16.0" E 75º25'48.8" 505
57 K41 13/2/KTM Kottathalachimala Inside the Pipe-1 Soil

58 K42 13/2/KTM Kottathalachimala Inside the Pipe-1 Soil

59 K43 13/2/KTM Kottathalachimala Inside the Pipe-1 Soil

60 K44 13/2/KTM Kottathalachimala Inside the Pipe-1 Soil

61 K45 13/2/KTM Kottathalachimala Non piping Soil

62 K46 13/2/KTM Kottathalachimala Non Piping Soil

63 K47 13/2/KTM Kottathalachimala Non Piping Soil

64 K48 13/2/KTM Kottathalachimala Non Piping Soil

N 12º16'16.2" E 75º25'48.8" 418
Collecting in
65 K49 13/2/KTM Kottathalachimala Small slide , Non Soil
piping

Collecting in
66 K50 13/2/KTM Kottathalachimala Rock
Small slide

67 K51 13/2/KTM Chattivayal In landslide Rock

N 12º15'35.6" E 75º25'53.4" 406
Collecting near
68 K52 13/2/KTM Chattivayal Rock
Jinu Home

Collecting near
69 K66 13/2/KTM Kottathalachimala Rock
Pipe-2

70 I17 6/1/4th Mile 4th Mile Soil

N 9º39'34.0" E 76º59'29.4" 810 Outlet in 4th Mile
71 I18 6/1/4th Mile 4th Mile Soil

115
72 I19 6/1/4th Mile 4th Mile Soil

73 I20 6/1/4th Mile 4th Mile Soil

74 I21 6/1/4th Mile 4th Mile N 9º39'37.4" E 76º59'28.5" 877 Pipe in 4th Mile Soil

75 I22 6/1/4th Mile 4th Mile Soil

76 K53 13/2/KTM Chattivayal N 12°15'38.5" E 75°26'06.3" 394 Soil (piping) Soil

77 K54 13/2/KTM Chattivayal N 12°15'35.4" E 75°26'03.9" 387 Soil (piping) Soil

horizon C (non-
78 K55 13/2/KTM Chattivayal N 12°15'39.6" E 75°26'03.9" 406 Soil
piping)

horizon B (non-
79 K56 13/2/KTM Chattivayal N 12°15'39.6" E 75°26'03.9" 406 Soil
piping)

horizon A (non-
80 K57 13/2/KTM Chattivayal N 12°15'39.6" E 75°26'03.9" 406 Soil
piping)

horizon O (non-
81 K58 13/2/KTM Chattivayal N 12°15'39.6" E 75°26'03.9" 406 Soil
piping)

82 K59 13/2/KTM Kottathalachi mala N 12°16'27.8" E 75°25'20.0" 233 Soil (piping) Soil

83 K60 13/2/KTM Kottathalachi mala N 12°16'27.8" E 75°25'20.0" 233 Soil (piping) Soil

84 K61 13/2/KTM Kottathalachi mala N 12°16'21.3" E 75°25'45.7" 485 horizon A (piping) Soil

85 K62 13/2/KTM Kottathalachi mala N 12°16'21.3" E 75°25'45.7" 485 horizon B (piping) Soil

86 K63 13/2/KTM Kottathalachi mala N 12°16'21.3" E 75°25'45.7" 485 horizon C (piping) Soil

87 K64 13/2/KTM Kottathalachi mala N 12°16'29.0" E 75°25'59.7" 471 Soil (piping) Soil

88 K65 13/2/KTM Kottathalachi mala N 12°16'22.5" E 75°25'46.3" 476 Rock near to pipe Soil

89 KZ66 14/3/KTL-1 Kuttikol N 12°29'12" E 75°11'22.9" 135 Affected well Soil

90 KZ67 14/3/KTL-2 Kuttikol N 12°29'14" E 75°11'39.5" 179 Soil (piping) Soil

91 W68 11/4/WAY-1 Padinjarethara N 11°43'52.9" E 75°49'52.7" 817 landslide Soil

92 W69 11/4/WAY Banasuram N 11°40'25.3" E 75°58'04.0" 736 Soil (piping) Soil

93 W70 11/4/WAY-6 Banasuram N 11°40'25.3" E 75°58'04.0" 736 Soil (piping) Soil

Where,

6- Idukki district, 13- Kannur district, 14- Kasaragod, 11- Wayanad, 1, 2and 3 -Sample locations, PRY-
Peringassery, TK- Thattekanni, VM- Venniyanimala, KTM- Kottathalachimala, Tb- Tabor, Ch- Chattivayal,
KTL- Kuttikol, WAY- Wayanad, A, B, C, and E- Soil horizons

116
 Figure 5.1 Soil Sample collecting from Piping and Non piping Area

5.2 Soil chemistry and Sedimentological studies

The soil samples were prepared for analytical tests following Hesse P R, (1971)
method. The samples were dried as rapidly as possible. Drying is carefully
carried out to avoid secondary reaction. Large lumps of soil were crushed
and roots of plants were removed and the sieved fine soil was used for the
analytical experiments.
The chemical parameters like pH, electrical conductivity, total dissolved
solids, Organic carbon and other organic matter were estimated. XRD and
XRF analysis were carried out in 8 and 10 samples respectively. Soil texture
analysis was also conducted. Dispersion test has been conducted to know
about the dispersive property of the soil.
5.2.1 pH
PH of soil is the measure of hydrogen ions activity and depends on
relative amounts of the absorbed hydrogen and metallic ions. It measures the
acidity and alkalinity of a soil water suspension and provides good
information about the soil properties such as phosphorous availability, base
status and so on. The pH of the soil was determined using 1:10 soil-water (w/v)
suspension. 10 g of the air dried soil was mixed with 100 ml distilled water in a
beaker. The soil-water mixture was stirred at least 5 times over a 30 minutes
interval to allow for soil and water to reach equilibrium. After reaching the
equilibrium, the pH of the mixture was measured using the glass electrode
after thorough mixing. pH meter was calibrated using buffer solution before
the measurements were done.

117
5.2.2 Electrical Conductivity (EC)

Electrical Conductivity of the soil is a numerical expression of the ability of a soil-water mixture to
carry an electrical current which depends on the total concentration of the ionized substances
dissolved in the soil-water mixture and the temperature at which the measurement was done.
Conductivity is a good criterion of the degree of mineralization and soluble salts in the soil. It depends
upon the ratio of the soil to water ratio. The EC of the soil was determined using 1:10 soil-water (w/v)
suspension. 10 g of the air dried soil was mixed with 100 mL distilled water in a beaker. The soil-
water mixture was stirred at least 5 times over a 30 minutes interval to allow for soil and water to
reach equilibrium. The mixture was left overnight in order to obtain a clear supernatant solution into
which conductivity electrode was dipped for EC measurement.

5.2.3 Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)

Total Dissolved Solids is a measure of the combined content of all inorganic and organic substances
contained in a soil water mixture. The TDS of the soil was determined using 1:10 soil-water (w/v)
suspension. 10 g of the air dried soil was mixed with 100 mL distilled water in a beaker. The soil-
water mixture was stirred at least 5 times over a 30 minutes interval to allow for soil and water to
reach equilibrium. Then mixture was left undisturbed for few minutes to obtain a clear supernatant
solution into which conductivity electrode was dipped for TDS measurement.

Analytical report –Idukki

Table5.2. Analytical report of soil samples from Idukki locations

Sample Taken Sample Electrical Conductivity Total DissolvedSolids

SL.NO pH
from No. (μs/m) (ppm)

1 I1 5.84 5.32 3.77

2 I2 6.98 3.82 2.65

3 I3 6.68 4.18 3.05

4 I4 5.85 7.33 5.22

5 I6 5.91 5.49 3.95

Piping Area
6 I7 5.55 7.35 5.24

7 I8 5.56 8.2 5.91

8 I10 6.21 4.43 3.06

9 I11 5.8 8.21 5.9

10 I14 6.55 4.8 3.41

118
 11 I16 6.29 3.8 2.42

12 I-17 5.63 10.85 7.70

13 I-18 5.74 13.22 9.38

14 I-19 5.96 5.22 3.70

15 I-20 6.02 10.16 7.21

16 I-21 5.71 6.66 4.72

17 I-22 6.00 3.84 2.72

18 I9 5.91 5.26 3.6

19 I12 5.71 5.13 3.54

Non-Piping Area
20 I13 6.7 5.21 3.75

21 I15 6.14 6.76 4.68

The pH values of the samples (Table 5.2) from Idukki range from 5.00 - 6.98. The samples collected
from Peringassery (Sample- I2) records highest pH reading (6.98), whereas the sample Sample-I17
(collected from Upputhara, Idukki) records the lowest reading (5.63). pH shows below 7 ranges it
should be acidic in nature, above 7 shows alkaline in nature. The change in pH affects the degree of
dissociation of weak acids and bases. The soil samples collected from,piping and non-piping area was
showed in low pH values therefore all the samples are acidic in nature. (Table 5.2) The maximum of
values EC and TDS is at 13.22μs/m and 9.38ppm is respectively from the samples I17 collecting from
Upputhara.

Analytical report –Kannur

Table 5.3. Analytical report of soil samples from Kannur locations

SL.NO Sample code pH Electrical Conductivity(μs/m) Total Dissolved Solids (ppm)

1 K1 5.69 5.14 3.7

2 K2 5.7 8.24 6.1

3 K5 4.31 44.22 32.28

119
 4 K6 5.36 15.88 11.68

5 K7 5.72 11.18 8.19

6 K10 6.02 4.73 3.63

7 K12 5.96 5.14 3.7

8 K13 6.33 4.23 3.16

9 K14 6.52 5.86 4.23

10 K16 6.88 4.33 3.28

11 K17 6.11 4.23 3.08

12 K18 6.45 5.36 3.96

13 K19 6.84 5.78 4.39

14 K20 6.3 5.31 3.99

15 K53 6.32 27.4 21.76

16 K54 6.54 19.56 15.33

17 K55 6.58 8.41 6.56

18 K56 6.53 14.86 11.41

19 K57 6.29 21.84 16.17

20 K58 6.54 34.58 26.68

21 K59 6.9 12.89 9.94

22 K60 6.54 18.7 14.66

23 K61 6.5 25.02 18.89

24 K62 6.74 8.38 6.5

25 K63 6.74 11.4 8.81

26 K64 6.95 17.98 14.39

The pH values of the soil samples from Kannur at different piping locations is ranges from 4.31 -6.95

(Table 5.3). The samples collected from K-64 records highest pH reading (6.95) while that from K-5
records the lowest reading (4.31). The change in pH affects the degree of dissociation of weak acids
and bases. All the samples show acidic in nature. There was a huge variation in EC (4.23 μs/m to

120
34.58) and TDS (3.16 to 26.68) in the piping area at Kannur compare to Idukki piping area.

The results shows that the parameters like EC and TDS of soil samples collected from Soil Idukki
district is less than that from the Kannur district. Which is collected from inside the pipe, this result
indicate that lowest PH value indicate the piping area is in oxidising environment. So the chemical
erosion is prominent in this region.

5.2.4 Organic carbon and organic matter

Organic Carbon
Carbon occurs in the soil in elemental form in the inorganic forms of carbonate, hydrogen carbonate
and carbon dioxide and organically as plant and animal matter, their immediate decomposition
products and more resistant humus. Wet digestion method or Walkley-Black method (rapid
dichromate oxidation technique) was used for the estimation of organic carbon. For the wet
combustion of organic matter soil was heated with potassium dichromate as the oxidizing agent and
sulphuric acid to convert all forms of carbon into carbon dioxide. The potassium dichromate in excess
after oxidation of carbon was titrated against ferrous ammonium sulphate. 0.5 g air dried sieved soil
was added with 1N potassium dichromate solution and swirled gently to disperse the soil. To this, 20
ml of concentrated sulphuric acid was added and swirled for one minute. The sulphuric acid used
contains containing 1.25 % silver sulphate to precipitate chloride as silver chloride so that chloride
does not contribute to oxidation of the organic matter. The solution was allowed to stand for half an
hour to make the reaction complete. After half an hour the solution was diluted with distilled water
and added with 10 drops of diphenyl amine indicator. Then it was titrated with 0.5 M Ferrous
ammonium sulphate solution. The end point is indicated by the colour change of the solution from
yellow to red with an intermediate green colour formation. The blank determination of organic carbon
content was measured as above without soil. The organic carbon content of the soil was calculated in
percentage by the formula.

Organic carbon (%) = 10(B-T)/ B *0.003*100/S

Where,

B -Volume of ferrous ammonium sulphate required for blank titration in ml.

T -Volume of ferrous ammonium sulphate required for soil sample in ml.
S –Weight of soil in gram
Organic matter (%) = % Organic carbon *1.724

Organic matter
The term soil organic matter embraces the non-mineral fractions of the soil such as any vegetable or

121
animal matter of the sample. Organic matters contribute to the physical condition of a soil by holding
moisture and by affecting the structure. It is the direct source of plant nutrient elements, the release of
which depends on the microbial activity and by affecting the action exchange capacity, organic matter
is directly involved in the availability of nutrient elements. Soil organic matter is estimated from its
organic carbon content.

Table 5.4 Estimation of soil organic carbon and matter

SL.NO Sample Organic Carbon (%) Organic Matter (%)

1 I-1 1.83 3.15

2 I-2 0.84 1.44

3 I-3 1.02 1.75

4 I-4 0.75 1.29

5 I-5 0.69 1.18

6 I-9 0.48 0.82

7 I-11 0.09 0.16

8 I-14 0.01 0.02

9 I-15 0.96 1.97

10 I-17 2.49 4.3

11 I-18 2.04 3.52

12 I-19 0.97 1.67

13 I-20 2.98 5.14

14 I-21 3.4 5.87

15 I-22 2.49 4.3

16 K-1 0.36 0.62

17 K-2 0.33 0.57

18 K-5 0.06 0.1

19 K-6 0.37 0.63

20 K-10 0.21 0.36

21 K-12 1.05 1.81

22 K-13 1.11 1.89

122
 23 K-15 0.63 1.08

24 K-19 0.57 0.98

25 K-20 0.93 1.6

Analysis of organic Carbon and organic matter (table 5.4) shows the lowest
range 0.10% and 0.02%, samples were collected from I-14 (inside the piping).
Sample I-21 shows an organic carbon percentage of 3.40 % and organic
matter percentage of 5.87%. This soil sample was collected from a depth of
50 cm with an elevation of 877m.soil samples were collected from Upputhara
near Nalaam mile (inside the piping). Occurrences of organic matter in
tropics where high temperature and abundant precipitation are prevalent
laterite soils in general, do not accumulate organic matter except under
special conditions like swamping or forest vegetation. But on a review of the
data obtained by many workers, it is revealed that no characteristic limit can
be fixed for it, in general, since it appears to fluctuate between 0.1 to 17% as
in the case of some soils. The Lowest range of organic carbon and organic matter
indicated that the sampling areas become eroded. Lowest range of organic
carbon and organic matter which increase the soil erosion activity, leads to
reducing the soil stability.

The table 5.4 shows organic carbon and organic matter percentage of soil
samples collected Upputhara near Nalaam mile, Peringassery and
Venniyanimala in Idukki district. In the Sample I-9 shows a relatively less
organic carbon percentage (0.48%) and organic matter (0.82%). This sample
was collected from a piping affected locality with an elevation of 492m. In
general vertical distribution of organic carbon in soil is decreasing as depth
increases. By comparing piping and non piping area, organic carbon is rich
in non-piping area and low in piping area.

123
5.2.5 XRF analysis
The XRF facility in NCESS consists of a Bruker model S4 Pioneer sequential wavelength-dispersive
x-ray spectrometer (XRF) and sample preparation units. All major and trace elements are determined
on sample pellets for which fused glass disk cannot be made. XRF analysis (figure 5.5) of samples
show the presence of excess level of SiO2, Al2O3, MnO, Fe2O3 and TiO2 revealed that, the soil sample
shows the laterite property. Mature laterites are made up of primarily of iron, aluminium, silica,
titanium and water. The sesquioxides form the major constituent as their hydrated oxides followed by
kaolinite substances. Generally laterites are poor in alkali and alkaline earth metals.

Table 5.5: Estimation of major elements by XRF and Calculated CIA

Sample SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 MnO Fe2O3 CaO MgO Na2O K2O P2O5 CIA
No.
K-1 41.5778 1.2068 31.6807 0.1431 24.5264 0.0669 0.2487 0.0125 0.2361 0.3009 99.0138
K-2 42.8363 1.1217 38.4336 0.0584 16.5216 0.1402 0.4324 0.0234 0.3038 0.1285 98.7987
K-5 46.7706 0.8890 37.0886 0.0693 13.7047 0.1501 0.5773 0.0462 0.5773 0.1270 97.9570
K-6 44.3822 0.7890 35.8463 0.0812 17.6365 0.1740 0.5222 0.0348 0.4525 0.0812 98.1885
K-8 50.5178 1.1005 29.5948 0.0337 12.0043 0.1909 1.0108 0.3481 4.8623 0.3369 84.5660
K-10 49.1495 0.4712 41.1804 0.1060 6.0423 0.6595 1.4018 0.3180 0.5418 0.1296 96.4419
K-12 33.3520 0.9515 41.8430 0.3720 21.8261 0.3182 0.5785 0.0548 0.4932 0.2107 97.9719
K-13 36.5425 1.4323 31.9489 0.4934 27.9316 0.3445 0.6486 0.0383 0.3934 0.2265 97.6280
K-14 40.9856 1.4551 34.5444 0.9007 19.9548 0.7851 0.9932 0.0808 0.1848 0.1155 97.0481
K-15 42.1630 1.2721 34.9844 0.0945 20.4569 0.1225 0.3998 0.0187 0.3676 0.1205 98.5664
K-19 50.1667 0.6128 35.8752 0.0227 9.7933 0.4198 0.8625 0.2497 1.9064 0.0908 93.3008
K-20 48.0959 1.3263 34.2434 0.3094 8.6979 4.1439 1.3043 0.5195 1.1936 0.1658 85.3941
K-21 34.8250 1.4622 26.6072 0.6026 34.3245 0.3981 0.7173 0.0767 0.6994 0.2869 95.7734
K-22 34.0369 1.4870 26.2887 0.7431 35.4755 0.3473 0.6361 0.0608 0.6660 0.2586 96.0743
K-23 34.5122 1.5043 26.8850 0.5606 34.7321 0.2648 0.6092 0.0450 0.6572 0.2296 96.5282
K-24 34.2687 1.4772 26.7301 0.5934 35.0660 0.2823 0.6320 0.0453 0.6482 0.2569 96.4781
K-25 34.5448 1.4673 26.5715 0.6169 35.0721 0.2735 0.5582 0.0439 0.6279 0.2239 96.5648
K-26 37.8263 1.2501 28.0993 0.5745 29.4480 0.4587 1.0485 0.1263 0.8463 0.3220 95.1532
K-27 37.6034 1.2039 28.8576 0.5712 28.6754 0.6188 1.1388 0.1569 0.8273 0.3468 94.7372
K-28 35.5922 1.3670 28.5024 0.2367 32.1108 0.2112 0.7330 0.0581 1.0651 0.1235 95.5277
K-29 34.9363 1.3095 28.8304 0.2855 32.6746 0.2630 0.6783 0.0447 0.8258 0.1520 96.2173
K-30 33.2254 1.5060 28.8584 0.1388 34.1598 0.1654 0.6416 0.0435 1.1135 0.1478 95.6187
K-31 32.2944 1.4686 29.1321 0.1664 35.0446 0.1502 0.5697 0.0434 0.9829 0.1476 96.1181
I-1 39.6866 1.7914 33.5808 0.0960 22.5719 0.0614 0.6468 0.0493 1.3568 0.1592 95.8131
I2 56.6949 0.7094 29.0649 0.0317 10.0497 0.0547 0.8200 0.1911 2.2711 0.1125 92.0305
I-3 43.5614 1.5919 33.1276 0.0410 19.3281 0.1019 0.5378 0.0855 1.5063 0.1185 95.1357
I-4 61.7737 0.5881 28.8821 0.0028 6.6892 0.0339 0.7873 0.0846 1.1001 0.0581 95.9513
I-5 53.5846 0.9011 30.4432 0.0247 11.0316 0.0472 1.2876 0.1547 2.4118 0.1135 92.0931
I-9 36.8668 1.4577 30.9042 0.8462 27.9227 0.7576 0.9576 0.0439 0.1582 0.0852 96.9884
I-11 48.9626 1.3968 31.2702 0.1452 13.3755 0.2346 1.1846 0.1564 2.7264 0.5476 90.9342
I-14 48.8789 1.2402 31.5236 0.1341 12.5807 0.3686 1.3744 0.2570 3.1060 0.5364 89.4153
I-15 37.0120 1.6556 41.9283 0.1461 16.3121 0.2678 1.3027 0.0852 0.8765 0.4139 97.1513

a. Estimation XRF results By CIA

The chemical index of alteration (CIA) has been widely used as a proxy for chemical weathering in

124
sediment source area. The CIA actually reflects the integrated weathering history in the drainage
basins and therefore, caution should be taken while using it as a direct and quantitative proxy for
evaluating the intensity of instantaneous chemical weathering in continents. Chemical Index of
Alteration (CIA) is a powerful tool for study of the paleo-climatic record preserved in siliciclastic
sedimentary successions. These CIA values are compatible with a prominent influence of physical
weathering on the production of the diamictite detrital silicate matrix.

The CIA is defined as

Al2O
CIA = x100
(Al2O3 + Na2O + K2O + CaO ∗)

where the major element oxides are given in molecular proportions. CaO* represents the CaO content
in silicate minerals only (Fedo et al., 1995). Kaolinite has a CIA value of 100 and represents the
highest degree of weathering. Illite is between 75 and 90, muscovite at 75, the feldspars at 50. Fresh
basalts have values between 30 and 45, fresh granites and granodiorites of 45 to 55. Data and trends
can be displayed well in A–CN–K (Al2O3– CaO*+Na2O – K2O) ternary diagrams. The combination
of these features make the CIA the presently preferred weathering index (Nesbitt and Young, 1982;
Fedo et al., 1995).

CIA

Figure 5.2: Al2O3–(CaO*+ Na2O)–K2O (A–CN–K) diagram for the investigated soil

(Compositions as molar proportions, CaO* represents CaO of the silicate fraction only).

From the XRF result of selected samples plotted on the (A–CN–K) diagram, the mineral

125
compositions, weathering trends and weathering intensity give the following conclusions: A-CN-K
diagram illustrates the weathering trend of saprolite materials, (Nesbitt and Young, 1984; 1989). The
analysed samples plot is very close to the Kaolinite Gibbsite Chlorite corner tie lines, suggesting very
poor weathering conditions or albite-rich sources with less K mobility. The degrees of weathering for
the sediment samples are fairly different throughout the sequence. The weathering process took place
in two stages, marked by a rapid depletion of silica, Magnesium, alkalies and enrichment of Al2O3
and Fe2O3 and K2O during the first stage. The second stage has been marked by gradual depletion of
SiO2, CaO, MgO, Na2O and K2O with enrichment of Al2O3, Fe2O3 and TiO2.

b. Correlation method
Table 5.6Correlation matrix of selected sample from Idukki obtained using XRF analysis.

SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 MnO Fe2O3 CaO MgO Na2O K2O P2O5
SiO2 1
TiO2 -0.9267 1
Al2O3 -0.6862 0.6692 1
MnO -0.5639 0.3093 -0.0041 1
Fe2O3 -0.8850 0.7813 0.2989 0.7393 1
CaO -0.5694 0.3426 0.1037 0.9358 0.6321 1
MgO -0.0139 -0.0684 0.2496 0.0768 -0.2686 0.3082 1
Na2O 0.4875 -0.4196 -0.2958 -0.3716 -0.6049 -0.1296 0.5475 1
K2O 0.4820 -0.2799 -0.3175 -0.5588 -0.5858 -0.3696 0.4088 0.8962 1
P2O5 -0.1928 0.3299 0.3801 -0.0928 -0.1366 0.2045 0.6770 0.5270 0.5328 1

Table 5.7 Correlation matrix of selected sample from Kannur obtained using XRF analysis.

SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 MnO Fe2O3 CaO MgO Na2O K2O P2O5

SiO2 1

TiO2 -0.6924 1

Al2O3 0.1836 -0.3153 1

MnO -0.5973 0.4524 -0.3685 1

Fe2O3 -0.8962 0.6521 -0.5751 0.6220 1

CaO 0.0704 0.0598 0.1119 0.2092 -0.1991 1

126
 MgO 0.3781 -0.1624 0.1452 0.0092 -0.4731 0.4031 1

Na2O 0.5291 -0.3339 0.1369 -0.2145 -0.5989 0.6723 0.7131 1

K2O 0.5250 -0.1498 -0.1705 -0.4526 -0.4349 -0.0620 0.4398 0.5691 1

P2O5 -0.1149 0.3255 -0.1255 0.1125 0.0682 -0.0285 0.3840 0.1801 0.3914 1

The correlation coefficients for the oxides are shown in (Tables 5.11 and 5.12) Regression accordance
tests were run to understand the meanings of the interpretations of the correlation coefficients. The
majority of the correlation coefficients were significant with a 95% and 99% probability.

The table 5.6 shows correlation of major elements of soil samples collecting from piping area in
Idukki district. The computed correlation coefficient of silica shows significantly negative
relationship with TiO2, CaO, MnO and Fe2O3, Al2O3 in Idukki area (Table 5.12). These relationships
reveal that with the increase of SiO2 there is correspondingly decrease in MnO, Fe2O3, TiO2, CaO,
MgO, Na2O and vice versa. The negative relationship of silica with manganese and Fe2O3 probably
indicates that manganese and Fe2O3 are the substitutes of silica.

The highly variable silica/alumina ratio and sympathetic relationship of silica with Al2O3, Fe2O3 and
K2O favors the coexistence of quartz and aluminosilicate minerals in the soil. Silica shows a
sympathetic relationship with Al2O3, Fe2O3, P2O5 and K2O. The positive relationship of silica with
these elements is possibly due to the presence of potash feldspar and other aluminosilicate minerals.
(Table 5.7)

The positive relationship of MnO with Fe2O3 and the constant MnO/Fe (total iron) (Table 5.6 and
5.7) ratio indicate that iron and manganese were delivered in the same proportion. The constant
MnO/Fe ratio suggests co-precipitation of Mn and Fe under fairly oxidizing condition. The SiO2
content and the SiO2/Al2O3 ratio are the most commonly used geochemical criteria for delineating
the sediment maturity (Potter, 1978), which also reflect the abundance of quartz, feldspar and clay
contents in the sediments. Even the alkali content (Na2O + K2O) is very much applicable for index of
chemical maturity and also a measure of the feldspar content.

5.2.6 Determination of exchangeable sodium percentage and Ca & Mg ratio

A sodic soil, by definition, contains a high level of sodium relative to the other exchangeable
cations (i.e. calcium, magnesium and potassium).The presence of excessive amounts of exchangeable
sodium reverses the process of aggregation and causes soil aggregates to disperse into their
constituent individual soil particles. This is known as deflocculation and occurs in sodic soil. A sodic

127
 soil with few stabilizing agents (e.g. humus, clay or sesquioxides) in the topsoil will ultimately be
susceptible to erosive soil loss during intense rainfall or irrigation cycles via rill and gully erosion. In
Australia, soil with an ESP greater than 6 % is considered to be sodic. However, soil dispersion
problems may occur at a higher or lower ESP depending upon clay type.

Table 5.8 Exchangeable sodium percentages common standard

Exchangeable

Sodium Percentage <6 6-10 10-15 15-25 25

Classification Non-sodic Sodic ModeratelySodic Strongly Sodic Very strongly

Sodic

(http://www.terragis.bees.unsw.edu.au/terraGIS_soil)

Table 5.8 shows a high percentage of exchangeable sodium on 53.53 at Kottathalachimala,

the soil samples were collected from inside the piping affected area. And least (9.86) in Thattekanni
soil samples were collected from soil profile of the affected area. All the soil samples are above the
limit. These results revealed that all the sampling area is affected by sodic soil.

Ca: Mg ratio is also one of the important factor for determining sodic soil if Ca:Mg ratio of
less than 2 also indicates tendency to disperse. All the results shows lessthan 2 range, wchich indicate
that the affected area is prone to clay dispersion.from this result, Kottathalachimala is highly
susceptible to clay dispersion.

Previous studies and reports shows that If the non-saline soils with an exchangeable sodium
percentage (ESP) above 5 are liable to disperse in water .The exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP)
value gives potential for clay dispersion. (Bernie McMullen, 2000),

Table 5.9 List exchangeable sodium, Potassium, Magnesium and calcium

Exchangeable Exchangeable
Exchangeable Exchangeable K
Sample Id
Na (cmol/kg) (cmol/kg)
Mg (cmol/kg) Ca (cmol/kg) ESP(%) CEC ( cmol /kg)

1/KTM-C 14.13 0.83 9.16 7.00 45.40 31.12

7/KTM 1.74 0.02 4.79 3.00 18.21 9.55

6/VM-B 2.18 0.05 4.80 2.80 22.17 9.83

14/TK-C1 2.03 0.31 6.38 4.40 15.47 13.12

16/KTM-4 10.86 0.51 6.35 5.60 46.56 23.32

6/KTM 9.78 0.89 4.80 2.80 53.53 18.27

128
 11/TK-B 1.51 0.20 8.40 5.20 9.86 15.31

5/PRY-C1 1.54 0.24 3.98 3.20 17.18 8.96

2/KTM-B 12.93 0.06 7.95 6.80 46.61 27.74

2/PRY-E 0.95 0.001 5.18 0.40 14.54 6.53

9NP-B 5.10 0.25 5.36 3.00 37.19 13.71

5.2.7 XRD analysis

X-ray diffraction (XRD) is a rapid analytical technique primarily used for phase identification of a
crystalline material and can provide information on unit cell dimensions. X-ray diffraction is most
widely used for the identification of unknown crystalline materials (e.g. minerals, inorganic
compounds). Determination of unknown solids is critical to various geological applications. The XRD
facility at CESS, consists of a PAN analytical 3 kW X’pert PRO X-ray diffractometer.It can be used
for the following studies. Characterization of crystalline materials, Identification of fine-grained
minerals such as clays and mixed layer clays that are difficult to determine optically, Determination of
unit cell dimensions, Measurement of sample purity.

Datasets and results

Table 5.10. Peak List of Soil sample (6/1/TK-C3)

Pos. [°2Th.] Height [cts] FWHM Left [°2Th.] d-spacing [Å] Rel. Int. [%]

8.7453 86.31 0.4015 10.11151 22.25

12.3664 202.21 0.2676 7.15765 52.12

18.2851 387.97 0.0836 4.85198 100.00

20.1465 47.37 0.4015 4.40771 12.21

21.4390 45.07 0.5353 4.14480 11.62

24.8804 267.82 0.2007 3.57875 69.03

26.6131 346.17 0.0836 3.34955 89.23

37.7064 45.67 0.2676 2.38573 11.77

45.3669 48.62 0.3346 1.99911 12.53

50.7299 14.03 0.8029 1.79965 3.62

129
Figure5.3: X-ray diffract gram of soil samples (6/1/TK-C3) at Idukki

Table 5.11: Peak List of Soil sample (6/1/NP-B)

Pos. [°2Th.] Height [cts] FWHM Left [°2Th.] d-spacing [Å] Rel. Int. [%]

7.2871 25.36 0.4015 12.13142 4.04

8.9831 18.47 0.8029 9.84439 2.95

12.2962 627.14 0.3011 7.19836 100.00

18.3149 99.08 0.0836 4.84415 15.80

19.9901 38.40 0.4015 4.44183 6.12

21.3382 39.75 0.5353 4.16415 6.34

24.9175 608.92 0.2676 3.57352 97.09

37.6790 61.10 0.3346 2.38741 9.74

51.0611 23.10 0.4015 1.78875 3.68

130
Figure 5.4: X-ray diffract gram of soil samples (6/1/NP-B) at Idukki

Table 5.12. Peak List of Soil sample (6/1/PRY-B)

Pos. [°2Th.] Height [cts] FWHM Left [°2Th.] d-spacing [Å] Rel. Int. [%]

8.8122 94.08 0.1338 10.03496 8.68

12.3664 1083.34 0.1171 7.15766 100.00

17.7451 67.30 0.2007 4.99840 6.21

18.3093 816.82 0.0836 4.84562 75.40

20.1654 25.47 0.6691 4.40360 2.35

21.3906 92.91 0.3011 4.15406 8.58

24.8266 1073.84 0.1171 3.58639 99.12

26.6378 275.53 0.1338 3.34651 25.43

33.6222 32.60 0.4015 2.66560 3.01

37.7843 151.60 0.2007 2.38099 13.99

45.4670 70.53 0.3346 1.99495 6.51

51.0713 56.61 0.3346 1.78841 5.23

131
Figure: 5.5: X-ray diffract gram of soil samples (6/1/PRY-B) at Idukki

Table 5.13 Peak List of Soil sample (6/1/PRY-A)

Pos. [°2Th.] Height [cts] FWHM Left [°2Th.] d-spacing [Å] Rel. Int. [%]

12.281(3) 262(5) 0.47(1) 7.20122 100.00

18.265(3) 146(14) 0.08(1) 4.85327 55.77

20.13(4) 20(3) 0.68(8) 4.40706 7.52

21.31(2) 47(3) 0.85(5) 4.16526 18.08

24.850(4) 252(5) 0.50(1) 3.58009 96.18

26.62(2) 43(3) 0.55(4) 3.34630 16.33

33.39(5) 12(2) 0.8(1) 2.68117 4.77

34.96(3) 17(3) 0.4(1) 2.56463 6.46

37.33(4) 27(3) 1.34(9) 2.40686 10.49

132
Figure: 5.6: X-ray diffract gram of soil samples (6/1/PRY-A) at Idukki

Table: 5.14 Peak List of Soil sample (6/1/PRY-E)

Pos. [°2Th.] Height [cts] FWHM Left [°2Th.] d-spacing [Å] Rel. Int. [%]

8.7842 113.21 0.2676 10.06683 48.93

12.3371 144.66 0.2676 7.17461 62.52

18.2986 105.82 0.1004 4.84843 45.73

20.0310 43.49 0.4015 4.43285 18.79

24.9152 176.52 0.3346 3.57384 76.28

26.6446 231.40 0.0836 3.34567 100.00

45.2529 19.97 0.8029 2.00388 8.63

133
Figure 5.7: X-ray diffract gram of soil samples (6/1/PRY-E) at Idukki

Table 5.15 Peak List (6/1/NP-A)

Pos. [°2Th.] Height [cts] FWHM Left [°2Th.] d-spacing [Å] Rel. Int. [%]

7.1367 27.36 0.4015 12.38662 3.82

12.3289 292.62 0.2676 7.17936 40.82

18.2935 716.81 0.0836 4.84977 100.00

20.2881 161.27 0.0836 4.37725 22.50

21.3641 84.80 0.2676 4.15916 11.83

24.8955 325.85 0.2342 3.57662 45.46

26.6151 69.97 0.2007 3.34931 9.76

33.3013 21.73 0.8029 2.69055 3.03

37.6582 98.01 0.2007 2.38868 13.67

41.6760 22.00 0.4015 2.16721 3.07

44.2522 26.76 0.2007 2.04685 3.73

45.5003 29.92 0.2007 1.99356 4.17

134
 Figure: 5.8: X-ray diffract gram of soil samples (6/1/NP-A) at Idukki

According to the XRD results, gibbsite and kaolinite is more dominant followed by
Quartz. Gibsite indicate prominent leaching material which confirms the erosional
actvity in that region. Muscovite (KAl2 (AlSi3O10) (F, OH) 2), Vermiculite,
Montmorillonite, Kaolinite (Al 2Si2O5 (OH) 4 are the minerals present in the
sample. The natural weathering of the cave can leave behind
concentrations of aluminosilicates which were contained within the bedrock.

a. 13/2/KTM (K21) b. 13/2/KTM (K22)

135
 c.13/2/KTM (K23) d.13/2/KTM (K24)

e. 13/2/KTM(K25) f. 13/2/KTM(K26)

g. 13/2/KTM (K27) h. 13/2/KTM (K28)

Figure: 5.9: X-ray diffract gram of soil samples from Kottathalachimala at Kannur

In tune with the earlier results the soils from Thirumeni also dominated by
gibbsite and kaolinite followed by Quartz, Vermiculite. Earlier studies have
indicated that Gibbsite undergoes leaching and promotes chemical
erosional actvity in the region (Figure 5.9). All the soil samples {13/2/KTM-(K21)
to 13/2/KTM-(K28)} collected from piping affected area indicated the
presence of Gibbsite.

136
 Figure: 5.10: X-ray diffract gram of soil samples from Chattivayal at Kannur

a. XRD result of sample I-17 b. XRD result of sample I-19c

c. XRD result of sample I-21

Figure: 5.11: X-ray diffract gram of soil samples from Idukki

XRD analysis was carried out on 5 samples collected from Kasaragod (KSD),

137
Kannur (KTM) and Wayanad (WAY) soil samples.

Figure5.12: X-ray diffract gram of soil samples from Wayanad (W68) and Kasaragod, Kz 66

Figure: 5.13: X-ray diffract gram of soil from inside the piping at Kannur, (K 43) and (K 44)

Figure 5.14: X-ray diffract gram of soil samples from inside the piping at Kannur, (K 46)

According to the XRD results (Figure-5.11 to 5.14) most of the soil samples from the affected area
shows that the presence of Gibbsite, Kaolinite and followed by Vermiculate. These minerals indicate
prominence of leaching material which leads to the erosional actvity in that region. Presence of
Zeolite seen in the laterite cavities is an indication of hydrothermal activities take place in that region.

Previous studies confirming the formation of this mineral under other

environments and during the initial stages of weathering (Delvigne, 1965) Hsu
(1977) stated that there is no relationship between the age of a soil and the

138
presence of gibbsite and and another study by Herbillon (1978) inferred that
gibbsite is typically an intrazonal mineral. pH and high Mg and Si activities in
solution, do not favour the formation of gibbsite (Pedro & Bitar, 1966). The XRD
results shows that the presence of Gibbsite and zeolite. Gibbsite is a
secondary mineral mainly of tropical and alteration product of many
aluminous and alumina-silicate minerals under intense weathering conditions.
Gibbsite indicates prominent leaching material which confirms the erosional
actvity in that region. Zeolite having the property of high porosity indicates
the ability of storing water with in its pores and in conditions if the pores are
completely saturated by water they start eroding. Presence of these clay
minerals gives clear indication of soil piping in the affected area.
5.2.8 Soil textural analysis

Textural analyses were carried out by pipette analysis. By far the pipette method is the one most
widely used for analysing the grain size distribution of silt and clay. Usually the settling velocities
used in pipette analysis are calculated from Stocks’ low. Sample preparation methods are following

1. Coning and Quartering

2. Removal of substances that interfere with dispersal
3. Removal of organic matter
4. Pipette analysis
5. Drying and weighing.
Table 5.16 Textural analysis of soil samples in Idukki

SL.NO Sample code Sand (%) Silt (%) Clay (%) Depth in meter (bgl)

1 6/1/PRY-A 33.15 33.31 33.52 1

2 6/1/PRY-E 44.18 37.70 18.10 1.3

3 6/1/PRY-E1 44.33 43.07 12.59 1.3

4 6/1/PRYC 47.33 45.31 7.29 3

5 6/1/VM-B 70.6 23.6 5.79 2

6 6/1/VM 75.28 22.0 2.7 1.7

7 6/1/TK-C3 51.96 34.92 13.11 3

8 6/1/PRY-B 28.61 35.76 35.61 2

9 6/1/NP-A 45.02 38.08 14.81 0.5

10 6/1/NP/-B 49.93 41.05 8.96 1

139
 11 6/1/TK-B1 55.21 33.76 11.00 2

Figure 5.15: Textural diagram of soil sample in the piping and non-piping area

The textural analysis of the samples from the affected area shows (table 5.16) all sample collecting
from inside the piping, shows less percentage clay. The high percentage sand shown by the sample
6/1/VM is 75.28 and minimum percentage is shown by 6/1/PRY-B (28.61). The maximum percentage
of silt (45.3%) was shown by (16/1/PRYC) and the minimum 22.0 was shown by 6/1/VM. Higher
values of clay 35.61% was indicated by 6/1/PRY-B sample and a lower value of clay (2.7%) were
shown by 6/1/VM.

Table 5.17 Textural analysis of soil samples from Idukki and Kannur

SL.NO Sample code Sand (%) Silt (%) Clay (%) Depth in meter ( bgl)

1 6/1/TK Out let-2 82.2 10.46 7.20 0

2 13/2/KTM-1,C 15.00 57.49 27.46 4.00

3 13/2/KTM-7 73.8 18.9 7.30 3.25

4 6/1/NP-C 78.24 17.05 4.70 6.00

140
 5 13/2/KTM-6 73.93 19.51 6.52 3.00

6 6/1/TK-Out let-1 90.87 4.46 4.63 0

7 6/1/TK-C1 62.00 29.6 8.40 3.00

8 13/2/KTM-2,B 20.08 57.68 22.20 2.00

Figure 5.16 Textural diagram of soil sample in the piping and non-piping area

The textural analysis of the samples from the affected area shows (Table 5.17) a high percentage of
sand. The maximum percentage shown by 6/1/TK, (sample taken from piping Out let) is 90.87and
minimum percentage is shown by 13/2/KTM-1C (15.00%). The maximum percentage of silt (57.68%)
was shown by (13/2/KTM-2, B) and the minimum 18.9 was shown by 13/2/KTM-7. Higher values of
clay 27.46% was indicated by 13/2/KTM-1, C sample and a lower value of clay (4.63%) was shown
by 6/1/TK-Out let-1.

Most of samples (Sl No. 1, 2, 3, 6, and 7) are falls in sand silt clay region, samples (4) falls
under sandy silt region and Sample (8) in clayey sand region. According to textural analysis, samples
show high percentage of sand. This result revealed that all the soil samples are not affected by piping;
silty and clayey portion is removed.

141
 Table 5.18 Textural analysis of soil samples from Idukki and Kannur

SL.NO Sample code Sand(%) Silt(%) Clay(%) Depth in meters (bgl)

1 13/2/KTM-21 27.07 30.07 42.82 0.25

2 13/2/KTM-22 30.14 21.69 48.10 0.50

3 13/2/KTM-23 33.58 20.85 45.55 0.75

4 13/2/KTM-24 33.83 19.94 46.21 1.00

5 13/2/KTM-25 35.24 16.99 47.76 1.25

6 13/2/KTM-26 43.14 25.91 30.91 0.15

7 13/2/KTM-27 45.01 25.32 29.65 0.35

8 13/2/KTM-28 43.64 12.76 43.58 0.50

Figure 5.17 Textural diagram of soil sample in the piping area

The textural analysis of the samples from premise of piping shows (Table 5.18) a high percentage of
sand. The maximum percentage is shown by 13/2/KTM (2745%).01and minimum percentage is

142
shown by 13/2/KTM-21(27.07%). The maximum percentage of silt (30.07%) was shown by
(13/2/KTM-21) and the minimum 12.76 was shown by 13/2/KTM-28. Higher values of clay (48.10%)
were indicated by 13/2/KTM22, lower value of clay (29.65%) was shown by 13/2/KTM-28.

Table 5.19 Textural analysis of soil samples from Kannur

Sl. No Sample No Sand percentage Silt Percentage Clay percentage Depth in meter ( bgl)

1 K53 45.08 16.45 38.46 Wall of the Pipe

2 K54 72.34 21.25 05.71 2.00

3 K55 34.85 13.77 51.37 4.50

4 K56 34.27 38.38 27.35 3.00

5 K57 29.87 13.83 56.29 0.50

6 K58 30.65 25.23 44.11 0

7 K59 76.80 10.50 12.69 Wall of the Pipe

8 K60 66.54 08.87 24.59 Wall of the Pipe

9 K61 40.41 26.99 32.59 0.30

10 K62 41.45 13.47 45.07 0.80

11 K63 51.87 09.48 38.72 3.50

12 K64 76.00 15.91 08.08 Inside the Pipe

143
 Figure 5.18 Textural diagram of soil sample in the piping area

In the figure 5.18 the sample K53 is sandy clay taken from inside the piping in Kannur district at
Chattivayal and the sample K54 was sandy loam from outlet of the same piping area. K53 sample is a
Forest loam soil with Sandy clay structure and weak granular to moderate sub granular blocky
structure. K54 sample is a riverine soil having sandy loam texture and structure less. The third sample
K55 is dominated by Clay, sample K56 is dominated by Loam, Sample K57 is dominated by clay and
K58 is also dominated by Clay. These four samples were taken from the same area in horizon wise at
Chattivayal near the piping effected area is mostly dominated by Clay. K59 sample was dominated by
Sandy Loam, K60 sample was dominated by Sandy clay loam, and both these samples were taken
from one of the pipe at Kottathalachimala, both the sandy loam and sandy clay loam texture indicating
Forest Loam soil having a weak granular to moderate sub granular structure. The next three samples
were taken from study area where the sample K61 dominated by Clay Loam, K62 dominated by Clay
and K63 dominated by Sandy Clay indicating that mostly the soil is dominated by clay, Clay Loam,
Clay, Sandy clay texture of this samples show it is a Forest loam soil having a weak granular to
moderate sub granular blocky structure. K64 is dominated by Sandy Loam texture indicating this is a
Riverine alluvium soil and it is structure less.

The soil samples collected from piping area (K53, K54, K59, K60, K61, K62, K63, K64) in
horizon wise are mostly dominated by sand and less proportion of clay and silt indicating that the soils
are mostly eroded. The very less amount of silt itself indicates the level of subsurface soil erosion

144
which leads to piping. The remaining samples were collected from non-piping area in horizon wise
shows a high dominance of clay.

Table 5.20 Textural analysis of soil samples from Idukki

SL.No. Sample No Sand% Silt% Clay% Depth in meter (bgl)

1 I-17 50.68 15.69 33.61 20

2 I-18 44.97 23.37 31.65 50

3 I-19 59.68 15.13 25.17 75

4 I-20 54.97 19.97 25.04 35

5 I-21 53.79 16.26 29.93 50

6 I-22 44.57 21.49 33.71 75

Figure 5.19 Textural diagram of soil sample in the piping area

From the figure 5.19 the sample I-17, I-19, I-20, I-21 falling under Sandy Clay Loam region, I-18 and
I-22 fall under clay loam region. Samples of I-23 and I-24 are falling under Loam region and sample
number I-25 falling under silty Loam region. From this we can interpret that in non-piping area
texture of soil is dominated by sandy loam texture and in piping area the texture of soil is dominated

145
by Loam and silty loam.

Table 5.21 Textural analysis of soil samples from Idukki

SL.NO Sample Sand (%) Silt (%) Clay (%) Depth in meter (bgl)

1 K39 53.06 10.41 36.52 1.00

2 K40 26.82 46.82 26.36 1.50

3 K41 31.44 28.80 39.76 2.00

4 K42 23.75 21.38 54.86 3.00

5 K43 34.97 26.74 38.29 4.00

6 K44 52.25 21.06 26.72 5.00

7 K45 53.39 34.37 12.25 0.35

8 K46 56.78 17.98 25.23 0.50

9 1WAY 59.65 21.86 18.48 0

10 6-WAY 68.96 4.58 26.46 0

11 3KSD 52.59 13.73 33.68 0

12 5-KSD 36.07 22.69 41.24 0

146
 Figure 5.20 Textural diagram of soil sample in the piping and non-piping area

The textural analysis of the samples from the affected area shows (table 5.21) a high percentage of
sand. The maximum percentage shown by 6-WAY-(68.96%) and minimum percentage is shown by
K-42 (23.75%). The maximum percentage of silt (46.82) was shown by (K-40) and the minimum
4.58was shown by 6-WAY.Higher values of clay K42% was indicated by 54.86% and a lower value
of clay (12.25%) was shown by K45. In Textural analysis reveals that, depletion of clay or high
percentage of sand which indicate that, sampling area is highly affected by soil piping.

Conclusion

Soil piping phenomena occur in acidic soil. Soil texture describe the proportion of three sizes of soil
particle- sand (large), silt (medium) and clay (small). Soil texture is the most important physical
property of the soil. Texture analysis gives the difference in sand silt, clay percentage, of piping and
non-piping area. The results show that, sand percentage of the piping area is dominant and clay
percentage is dominant in non- piping area. Decrement of Organic matter contributes to enhance the
soil piping activity. According to the XRF study, presence of some major elements (Na, K) does not
shows the significant effect. According to the XRD results, Gibbsite and Kaolinite is more dominant
followed by Quartz. Gibbsite indicates prominent leaching material which confirms the erosional
actvity in that region. The result of Exchangeable Sodium percentage, calcium and Magnesium ratio

147
 shows that the soil affected by dispersion.

5.3 Hydrogeochemical analysis

5.3.1 Water Sampling

20 Water samples for the chemical lab analysis were taken from areas of piping and non-
piping areas of Kannur and Kasaragod Districts.10 samples were taken from non-piping areas of
Kasaragod District (figure 5.24) among which 2 samples are from Surangam and 8 samples are from
well water. Another 10 samples were taken from piping area of Kannur District (figure 5.25). The
chemical parameters were analyzed based on the result (table 5.22) and graphical representations are
given below pH, Total Dissolved Solids, Electrical Conductivity, Total Hardness, Magnesium,
Calcium, Sodium, Potassium.

Figure 5.21 Water sample collecting from piping and non-piping areas

Table 5.22Water sample details of piping and non-piping areas

Sl No. Sample Distric Location Co-Ordinates Sample (Piping/

No taken from Nonpiping)
Latitude Longitude

1 S1 Kasaragod Uliyathadukka 12º36'15.49 75º00'04.57" Well Non piping

2 S2 Kasaragod Kudulu 12º31'33.62 75º59'07.32" Well Non piping

3 S3 Kasaragod Fort road 12º29'48.69 75º59'21.14" Well Non piping

4 S4 Kasaragod Mannipady 12º32'2.0 75º59'58" Well Non piping

5 S5 Kasaragod Mannipady 12º32'21.9 74º59'49.3" Well Non piping

6 S6 Kasaragod Mulleria 12º33'18.25 75º11'9.17" Well Non piping

148
7 S7 Kasaragod Mythri nagar 12º33'18.25 75º11'9.17" Well Non piping

8 S8 Kasaragod Arootmoole 12º33'18.25 75º11'9.17" Well Non piping

9 S9 Kasaragod Mythri nagar 12º33'47.84 75º10'6.23" Well Non piping

10 S10 Kasaragod Arthipallam 12º34'10.47 75º04'1.31" Well Non piping

11 S11 Kannur Kottathalachimala 12º16.461 75º25.340' Inside the piping Piping

12 S12 Kannur Kottathalachimala 12º16.503' 75º25.310' Inside the piping Piping

13 S13 Kannur Kottathalachimala 12º16.509' 75º25.327' Inside the piping Piping

14 S14 Kannur Kottathalachimala 12º16.508' 75º25.354' Inside the piping Piping

15 S15 Kannur Kottathalachimala 12° 16.361' 75º25.755' Inside the piping Piping

16 S16 Kannur Kottathalachimala 12º16.406' 75º25.773' Inside the piping Piping

17 S17 Kannur Kottathalachimala 12⁰16'23.2" 75⁰26'02.2'' Inside the piping Piping

18 S18 Kannur Chattivayal 12º15.660' 75º26.090' Outlet of Piping Piping

19 S19 Kannur Nelliyeukkam 12º15.589' 75º26.120' Inside the piping Piping

20 S20 Kannur Nelliyeukkam 12º15.662' 75º26.077' Inside the piping Piping

Figure: 5.22: Water Sample locations of Non-piping area in the Kasaragod District

149
 Figure: 5.23: Sample locations of piping area in the Kannur District

5.3.2 pH

Samples 1 to 10 represents water samples from Non-piping area, Samples (S6, S8 and S10) from
'Surangam' is basic in character while other water samples are slightly acidic in nature. Samples 11 to
12 represents water samples from piping area. These water samples show acidic nature.

Non-piping Area Piping Area

6.2
7.9
7.7 7.7 6 6.01
6
7.5
7.3 7.24 5.86
5.8 5.84
7.1 7.1 5.77
5.76
6.9
6.7 5.6
6.5 6.48
6.3 6.34 5.47 5.49 5.47
5.4 5.44
6.1
5.9 5.84
5.7 5.73
5.62 5.2
5.5 5.48
5.3 5.23
5.1 5
S-1 S-2 S-3 S-4 S-5 S-6 S-7 S-8 S-9 S-10 S-11 S-12 S-13 S-14 S-15 S-16 S-17 S-18 S-19 S-20

Figure: 5.24: Graphical representations of pH values water samples.

5.3.3 Electrical Conductivity

Conductivity is one way to measure of the inorganic materials including calcium, bicarbonate,
nitrogen, phosphorus, iron, sulphur and other ions dissolved in a water body. Electrical Conductivity
of water sample from the Piping area does not show much difference. Compare to samples of Non-
piping area is slightly higher values (198.2, 130.6) of EC than from piping area. Variation in

150
conductivity can result through changes in geology of an area. It can also be due to seepage of
groundwater, Industrial and agricultural effluent, storm water runoff and sewage effluent flowing into
the stream.

EC of Non-Piping Area EC of Piping Area

210 80
200 198.2
190 70 70.99
180
170 64.3 65.02
160 60
150
140 52.59
130 130.6 50
120
110 40
100 39.12
90
80 79.88 81.71 30 32.38 32.19 33.73
70 66.13 64.3 27.5726.76
60
50 47.08 20
40 36.26
30 27.41 27.15 10
20
10
0 0
S-1 S-2 S-3 S-4 S-5 S-6 S-7 S-8 S-9 S-10 S-11 S-12 S-13 S-14 S-15 S-16 S-17 S-18 S-19 S-20

Figure 5.25: Graphical representations of EC value from Non-piping and Piping area.

5.3.4 Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)

The most common source of dissolved solids in water is from the weathering of
sedimentary rocks and the erosion of the earth’s surface. Since many minerals are water
soluble, high concentrations can accumulate over time through the constantly reoccurring
process of precipitation and evaporation. Groundwater usually has higher levels of TDS
than surface water, since it has a longer contact time with the underlying rocks and
sediments. Water Sample from the Piping and non-piping area the amount of Total
Dissolved Solids in Non-piping areas are varying as compared piping area, some samples shows
higher values198.2 to lower values 27.15. The amount of Total dissolved solids of water samples
from piping area show a constant trend (figure5.26). The minerals (salts, such as sodium and
calcium bonded to chloride and carbonate) and small amounts of soluble minerals are
deposited by the weathering of sedimentary rocks and erosion of the earth’s surface.

151
 TDS of Nonpiping Area TDS of Piping area
220 80
210 207.8
200 74.31
190 70
180 67.77 67.83
170
160 60
150 54.87
140 136
130 50
120
110 40 41.01
100
90
80 82.9 84.91 33.59 33.47 35.42
30 28.9428.08
70 69.63 66.62
60
50 50.38 20
40 38.89
30 28.77 28.99
20 10
10
0 0
S-1 s-2 s-3 s-4 s-5 s-6 s-7 s-8 s-9 s-10 s-11 s-12 s-13 s-14 s-15 s-16 s-17 s-18 s-19 S-20

Figure 5.26: Graphical representations of TDS values water samples.

5.3.5 Total Hardness

Water becomes hard by being in contact with soluble, divalent, metallic cations. The two main
cations that cause water hardness are calcium (Ca2+) and magnesium (Mg2+). Calcium is dissolved
in water as it passes over and through limestone deposits. Magnesium is dissolved as water passes
over and through dolomite and other magnesium bearing formations. Because groundwater is in
contact with these geologic formations for a longer period of time than surface water,
groundwater is usually harder than surface water. The hardness of water from piping area (1.2 to
3.8) shows lower values than of water from Non-piping area (0.4 to 9.2).

Non-piping Area Piping Area

10 4
9.5 3.8
9 9.2
8.5 3.5
8 3.2
7.5 3
7
6.5 2.6 2.6
6 2.5
5.5 5.6
5 2
4.5 1.8
4 4 1.6
3.5 1.5 1.4 1.4 1.4
3 1.2
2.5 1
2 2.2 2.2
1.5 1.8 1.6
1 1.2 1 0.5
0.5 0.4
0 0
S-1 S-2 S-3 S-4 S-5 S-6 S-7 S-8 S-9 S-10 S-11 S-12 S-13 S-14 S-15 S-16 S-17 S-18 S-19 S-20

Figure: 5.27Graphical representations of total hardness water samples.

5.3.6 Calcium and Magnesium Hardness

Hardness caused by calcium is called calcium hardness, regardless of the salts associated with it.
Likewise, hardness caused by magnesium is called magnesium hardness. Since calcium and
magnesium are normally the only significant minerals that cause hardness, it is generally assumed

152
that:

Total Hardness = Calcium Hardness + Magnesium Hardness

(mg/L as CaCO3) (mg/L as CaCO3) (mg/L as CaCO3)

= 2.50 X Calcium conc. (mg/L as Ca2+) + 4.12 X Magnesium conc. (mg/L as Mg2+)

Salts that contribute to salinity, such as calcium and magnesium, do not have this effect
because they are smaller and tend to cluster closer to clay particles. Calcium and magnesium
will generally keep soil flocculated because they compete for the same spaces as sodium to
bind to clay particles. Increased amounts of calcium and magnesium can reduce the
amount of sodium-induced dispersion.

Non-Piping area Piping area

10 4

8.6
8
3 3
2.8
6
2.2
2
4
1.4 1.4
3
1 1
2 2 1.8 0.8
1.4 0.6 0.6
0.8 1
0.4 0.4 0.6 0.2
0 0
S-1 S-2 S-3 S-4 S-5 S-6 S-7 S-8 S-9 S-10 S-11 S-12 S-13 S-14 S-15 S-16 S-17 S-18 S-19 S-20

Figure: 5.28 Graphical representation of Ca hardness of water samples.

Calcium Hardness of Non-piping area and Piping area generally does not shows larger variations
except sample S3 (8.6). The water collected from inside of the pipe showing much variation.

Figure: 5.29 Graphical representation of Mg hardness of water samples.

153
5.3.7 Sodium

The primary physical processes associated with high sodium concentrations are soil
dispersion and clay platelet and aggregate swelling. The forces that bind clay particles
together are disrupted when too many large sodium ions come between them. When this
separation occurs, the clay particles expand, causing swelling and soil dispersion. Soil
dispersion causes clay particles to plug soil pores, resulting in reduced soil permeability. The
three main problems caused by sodium-induced dispersion are reduced infiltration,
reduced hydraulic conductivity, and surface crusting. The major implications associated
with decreased infiltration due to sodium-induced dispersion include reduced plant available
water and increased runoff and soil erosion.

Non-piping Area Piping Area

11 4
10 10.28
3.55
9
8.62 3
8 8.12 7.83
7 2.63
2.49
2.24 2.31
6 2.14
5.67 2 1.95 2
5 5.28
1.72
4 4.06
1.31
3 2.74 2.83 1
2 2.29
1
0 0
S-1 S-2 S-3 S-4 S-5 S-6 S-7 S-8 S-9 S-10 S-11 S-12 S-13 S-14 S-15 S-16 S-17 S-18 S-19 S-20

Figure: 5.30 Graphical representation of Na. percentage of water samples.

5.3.8 Potassium

Since clay and organic matter particles hold potassium ions in an exchangeable or
available form, potassium does not leach from silty or clayey soils. Some leaching may
take place in very sandy soils because sandy soils do not contain enough clay to hold the
potassium. Organic matter particles hold most positively charged nutrients tightly.
Potassium is an exception because the attraction between potassium ions and organic
matter particles is relatively weak. Consequently, some potassium leaches from organic
soils (peats and mucks). Loss of potassium by leaching is one reason sandy and organic
soils often test relatively low in available potassium, especially when tested in the spring.
These soils require precise annual potassium applications, since it is not possible to build

154
up high potassium reserves.

Piping Area Non-Piping Area

0.8 2.6
2.4 2.43
2.2
0.65 2
0.6
1.8
1.6 1.64
1.5
1.4
0.4 1.2
1
0.8 0.74 0.81
0.2 0.2 0.2 0.6 0.68
0.17 0.19
0.15 0.46 0.5
0.11 0.4
0.2 0.23 0.26
0.06 0.05 0.04
0 0
S-11 S-12 S-13 S-14 S-15 S-16 S-17 S-18 S-19 S-20 S-1 S-2 S-3 S-4 S-5 S-6 S-7 S-8 S-9 S-10

Figure 5.31 Graphical representation of Potassium percentage of water samples.

155
CHAPTER 6

GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS

6.1 Introduction
The geotechnical investigations were carried out with the assistance of the Civil engineering
departmentof the NIT Kurukshetra. Geotechnical investigation had been done on the soil
piping affected regions and non- affected localities to find out the various geotechnical
properties of soil. Physical, chemical, topographical and hydrological factors responsible for
soil piping are attempted in many countries. But in India very little work had done to find out
how the geotechnical properties of the soil affect this phenomenon. Undisturbed soil samples
were collected from different regions and geotechnical properties evaluated in the
geotechnical lab of NIT Calicut and Kurukshretra.

6.2 Sample Collection

6.2.1 Types of samples
Soil samples collected to determine the engineering properties were in two different forms as
disturbed samples and undisturbed samples.
1. Disturbed samples: These are the samples in which the natural structure of the soil
gets disturbed. These types of samples represent the composition and the mineral
content of the soil. Index properties like grain size, plasticity characteristics, specific
gravity can be determined using disturbed samples.
2. Undisturbed samples: These are the samples in which the natural structure of the soil
and the water content are retained. It is really impossible to get truly undisturbed
samples. Some disturbance is inevitable.
Undisturbed samples are used for determining the engineering properties of the soil, such as
compressibility, shear strength, and permeability. Some index properties like shrinkage limit
can also be determined. In the current study the samples collected were undisturbed.

6.2.2 Types of samplers

Various types of samplers are usually available to collect the samples from the field.

a. Split-spoon samplers:
The most commonly used sampler for obtaining a disturbed sample of the soil is the standard
split-spoon sampler. The inside diameter of the split tube is 38 mm and outside diameter is 50
mm. This sampler is used mainly in conducting standard penetration test. If the soil
encountered in the bore hole is fine sand and it lies below the water table, the sample
recovery become difficult. For such soils, a spring-core catcher device is used to aid
recovery. The split tube may be provided with a thin metal or plastic tube liner collected, the
liner and the sample it contains are removed from the tube and the ends are scaled.

156
b. Scraper bucket samplers:
If a sandy deposit contains pebbles, it is not possible to obtain samples by standard split-
spoon sampler or split-spoon sampler fitted with a spring core catcher. The pebbles come in-
between the springs and prevent their closure. For such deposits, a scraper bucket sampler
can be used. A scraper bucket sampler can also be used for obtaining the samples of cohesion
less soils below the water table.

c. Shelby tubes and thin-walled samplers:

These are used for obtaining undisturbed samples of clay. The samplers pushed into the soil
by a continuous rapid motion without impact or twisting. The tube should be pushed to the
length provided for the sample. At least after 5 minutes after pushing the tube into its final
position, the tube is turned 2 revolutions to shear the sample off at the bottom side before it is
withdrawn. The tube is taken out and its ends are sealed before transportation.

d. Piston samplers:
A piston sampler consists of a thin-walled tube with a piston inside. The piston keeps the
lower end of the sampling tube closed when sampler is lowered to the bottom of the hole.
After the sampler has been lowered to the desired depth, the piston is prevented from moving
downward by a suitable arrangement, which differs types of piston samplers. The thin tube
sampler is pushed past the piston to obtain the sample. The piston remains in close contact
with the top of the sample. The presence of the piston prevents rapid squeezing of the soft
soils into the tube and reduces the disturbance of the sample. Piston samplers are used for
getting undisturbed soil samples from soft and sensitive clays.

e. Denison sampler:
The Denison sampler is a double-walled sampler. The outer barrel rotates and cuts into the
soil. The sample is obtained in the inner barrel. The inner barrel is provided with a liner. It
may also be provided with a basket-type core retainer. The sampler is lowered to the bottom
of the drilled hole. A downward force is applied on the top of the sampler. A fluid under
pressure is introduced through the inner barrel to cool the coring bit when the outer barrel
rotates. The rotation of the outer barrel is continued till the required length of the sample is
obtained. Denison sampler is mainly used for obtaining samples to stiff to hard cohesive soils
and slightly cohesive sands. However it cannot be used for gravelly soils, loose cohesion less
sands and silts below ground water table and very soft cohesive soils.

f. Hand carved samplers:

Hand carved samples can be obtained if the soil is exposed, as in a test pit, shaft or tunnel.
Hands carved samples are also known as chunk samples. The soil should have at least a trace
of cohesion so that it can stand unsupported for some time. To obtain a sample, a column of
soil is isolated in the pit. The soil is carefully removed from around the soil column and it is
properly trimmed. An open-ended box is then placed over the soil column. The space
between the box and the soil column is filled with paraffin. A spade or a plate with sharp
edges is inserted below the box and the sample is cut at its base. The box filled with the soil

157
sample is removed. It is turned over and the soil surface in the box is trimmed and any
depression is filled with paraffin. These are undisturbed samples.
The sampler used in this study was thin walled samplers having size 10.5 cm diameter and 22 cm
long. They were pushed into the soil to the complete length by light hammering and the outside soil
was removed properly. The soils obtained in the samplers were covered tightly to avoid loss of
moisture content. Undisturbed samples were collected from the various depths of piping and non-
piping regions.

Figure6.1: Sample collection- various stages

Table 6.1: Locations of sample collection

Piping region- Elevation Non-piping region- Elevation Non-piping region- Elevation
Kasaragod Kasaragod Calicut
Sample 1 30 m Sample 6 63.6 m Sample 11 100.94

Sample 2 28.7 m Sample 7 61.4 m Sample 12 100.73

Sample 3 27.7 m Sample 8 61 m Sample 13 102

Sample 4 26.5 m Sample 9 60 m Sample 14 98.6

Sample 5 26 m Sample 10 57.4 m

6.3 Analysis of Various Geotechnical Properties

Undisturbed samples were carried to the geotechnical lab of NIT Calicut to conduct various
tests. Sieve analysis, Atterberg’s limits, specific gravity, permeability and direct shear tests
were carried out on the samples. The sample extruded from the samples using sample
extruder.

158
 Figure 6.2: .Sample extrusion

Various tests conducted on the samples were specific gravity test(G), grain size analysis,
Atterberg’s limits(i.e. liquid limit, plastic limit and shrinkage limit), bulk density, moisture
content, permeability, and shear strength characteristics(i.e. cohesion and angle of internal
friction).All the tests were conducted in accordance with IS standards.

6.3.1 Atterberg’s limits

The water content at which soil changes from one state to other are known as consistency
limits or Atterberg’s limits. The water content alone is not an adequate index property of a
soil. At the same water content, one soil may be relatively soft, whereas another soil may be
hard. However, the soils with same consistency limits behave somewhat in a similar manner.
Thus consistency limits are very important index properties of fine grained soils. A soil
containing high water content is in a liquid state. It offers no shearing resistance and can flow
like liquids. It has no resistance to shear deformation and, therefore the shear strength is equal
to zero. As the water content is reduced, the soil becomes stiffer and starts developing
resistance to deformation. At some particular water content, the soil becomes plastic. The soil
in the plastic state can be moulded into various shapes. As the water content is reduced, the
plasticity of the soil decreases. Ultimately the soil passes from the plastic state to semi-solid
state when it stops behaving as plastic. It cracks when moulded.

a. Liquid limit:

The water content at which soil changes from liquid state to plastic state is known as liquid
limit. In other words, the liquid limit is the water content at which soil ceases to be liquid. At
liquid limit, the clay is practically like a liquid, but possesses a small shearing strength. The
liquid limit depends on the clay mineral present.

The liquid limit is determined in the laboratory either by Casagrande’s apparatus or by cone
penetration test. Testing done as per IS: 2720. About 100 gm of an air dried sample passing
425 micron is required for the test. The soil sample is mixed thoroughly mixed with distilled
water in the evaporating dish to form a uniform paste. A portion of the paste is placed in the
cup of the liquid limit device. Level the mix so as to have maximum depth of 1 cm. Draw the
grooving tool through the sample along the symmetrical axis of the cup, holding the tool
perpendicular to the cup. Now rotate the handle at a rate of 2 revolutions per second and the
number of blows is counted till the two parts of the soil sample come into contact at the
bottom of the groove. Take 10gm of the soil near the closed groove and determine the water

159
content of the soil by oven drying method. By altering the water content of the soil sample
repeat the procedure. The liquid limit is determined by plotting the graph the semi-
logarithmic scale between the number of blows as abscissa on logarithmic scale and the
corresponding water content as ordinate on simple linear scale. The liquid limit is arbitrarily
taken as the water content when the soil has shear strength just sufficient to withstand the
shearing stress induced in 25 blows.

b. Plastic limit:

Plastic limit is the water content below which the soil stops behaving as a plastic material. It
begins to crumble when rolled into a thread of soil of 3 mm diameter. At this water content,
the soil loses its plasticity and passes to a semi-solid state.

For determination of plastic limit of a soil, it is air-dried and sieved through a 425 micron IS
Sieve. About 30 gm soil is taken in an evaporating dish. It is mixed thoroughly with distilled
water till it becomes plastic and can be easily moulded with fingers. About 10 gm soil is
taken in one hand and ball is formed. The ball is rolled with fingers on a glass plate to from a
soil thread of uniform diameter. If the diameter of thread becomes smaller than 3 mm,
without crack formation, it shows that the water content is more than the plastic limit. The
soil is kneaded further. This results in the reduction of water content, as some water is
evaporated due to the heat of the hand. The soil is re-rolled and the procedure repeated till the
thread crumbles. The water content at which the soil can be rolled into a thread of
approximately 3 mm in diameter without crumbling is known as plastic limit.

c. Plasticity index:

The plasticity index may be calculated as the difference between liquid limit and plastic limit.
It is the range of water content over which the soil remains in the plastic state.

d. Shrinkage limit:

Shrinkage limit is the water content at which the soil is saturated. It is also defined as the
maximum water content at which a reduction of water will not cause a decrease in the volume
of the soil mass.

For the determination of shrinkage limit in the laboratory, about 50 gm of soil passing a 425
micron sieve is taken and mixed with distilled water to make creamy paste. The paste is then
placed in the shrinkage dish without any air voids. The required mixing water content is little
greater than the liquid limit. Coat a thin layer of Vaseline or grease inside of the shrinkage
dish and then weigh. Fill the dish in three layers by placing soil paste about one third the
capacity of the dish. The firm surface should be properly cushioned by a rubber sheet. Weigh
the dish full of wet soil immediately and allow it to dry in air until the color of soil pat turns
light. Then dry in an oven at 105˚ to 110˚ C. Cool the dish with with dry pat in a desiccators
and weigh. Remove the dry pat from dish, clean and dry the shrinkage dish and determine the
empty mass. Weigh the empty mercury weighing dish also. Keep the shrinkage dish in the
large porcelain or stainless steel dish, fill it to overflowing with mercury and remove the

160
excess by pressing the plain glass plate firmly over the top of the dish, taking care not to
entrap air. Transfer the contents of the shrinkage dish to the mercury weighing dish and
weigh. Place the glass cup in a large dish, fill to over flowing with mercury and remove the
excess by pressing the glass plate. Wipe off any mercury adhering on the side and then place
the cup full of mercury to another large dish. Place dry soil part on the surface of mercury
and submerge it under mercury by pressing with the glass plate with prongs. Transfer the
mercury displaced by the dry part to the mercury weighing dish and weigh.

The Atterberg’s limits do not directly helps to identify the soils of highly erodible nature but
the higher the values of liquid limit, plastic limit, and plasticity index, the higher is the
resistance to disperse in water. High plasticity index tends to be clayey and thus have low
infiltration rates. Hence, more water requirement gives the material a certain degree of
stability in certain situations(Rienks et al 2000).The increasing trend of liquid limit and
plasticity index shows an increase of clay content and high ion exchange capacity, or a
combination there of. Watts et al. (1996) found the critical amount of water needed for
dispersion to be close to the plasticity limit. The shrink/swell potential of clayey soils can be
identified by the shrinkage characteristics (Cerato and Lutenegger, 2000).

e. Particle size analysis

The knowledge of grain size analysis of a soil is very useful in the present geotechnical
world. The results of this analysis are widely used for the soil classification, design of filters,
construction of earth dams, highway embankments and determining the mode of bearing
capacity computations and for construction of building, hydraulic structures and road
construction etc.

Grain size analysis of a soil generally carried out by two methods.

1. Dry sieving
2. Wet sieving
Dry sieving: It consists of shaking the soil by a mechanical device through sieves of known
aperture size. Dry sieve analysis is suitable for cohesion less soils, with little or no fines.

Wet sieve analysis: If the soil contains a substantial quantity of fine particles, a wet sieve
analysis is required. All lumps are broken into individual particles. A representative soil
sample in the required quantity is taken, using a riffler, and dried in oven. The dried sample is
taken is taken in a tray and soaked with water. If deflocculation is required, sodium hexa
meta-phosphate, at the rate of 2g per litre of water is added. The sample is stirred and left for
a soaking period of at least one hour. The slurry is then sieved through a 4.75 mm IS sieve,
and washed with a jet of water. The material retained on the sieve is the gravel fraction. It is
dried in an oven, and sieved through set of coarse sieves.

The material passing through 4.75 mm sieve is sieved through a 75 micron sieve. The
material is washed until the wash water becomes clear. The material retained on the 75
micron sieve is collected and dried in an oven. It is then sieved through the set of fine sieves
of the size 2mm, 1 mm, 600 micron, 425 micron, 300 micron, 150 micron, and 75 micron.

161
The material retained on pan is equal to the total mass of soil minus the sum of masses of
material retained on all sieves.

f. Hydrometer analysis:

This method is used for the grain size analysis of the soil passing through 75 micron sieve.
Sieve out of fraction passing 4.75 mm IS sieve, to determine the percentage of various sized
(silt and clay) particles and to plot the grain size distribution curve. This method is not
applicable if less than 10 percent of the material passess 75 micron IS sieve. It is done
according to IS : 2720, part 4-1985.

g. Bulk density
Bulk density is an indicator of soil compaction and its health. The bulk density of a soil
affects the infiltration, root depth, soil porosity, available water capacity and soil
microorganism activity, which influence the key soil process and productivity. It is dependent
on soil organic matter, soil texture, the density of soil mineral (sand, silt, and clay) and their
packing arrangement. Bulk density usually increases with the soil depth since the subsurface
layers are more in more compacted form and have less organic matter. If for a soil bulk
density is low it indicates the low porosity and low compaction.

The most popular methods using for the determination of bulk density of the samples are core
cutter method and sand replacement method.

Core cutter method: It is a field method for determination of mass density. A core cutter
consists of an open, cylindrical barrel, with a hardened, sharp cutting edge. The method is
quite suitable for soft, fine grained soils. It cannot be used for stoney, gravelly soils. The
method is practicable only at the places where the surface of soil is exposed and the cutter
can be easily driven.

6.3.2 Specific gravity test

Specific gravity of a soil is the ratio of the weight of a given volume of soil particles in air to
the weight of an equal volume of water at a temperature of 4 ˚C. The specific gravity of a soil
is often used in relating a weight of soil to its volume. Although specific gravity is employed
in the identification of minerals, it is of limit value for identification or classification of soils
because the specific gravity values of most soils fall within a narrow range. It is an important
factor required for computing the most of the soil properties e.g. void ratio of soil, unit
weight, particle size determination by hydrometer method, degree of saturation of a soil etc.

a. Density bottle method:

Clean bottle with distilled water, dry it in an oven and cool in desiccators and then weigh it
with its stopper. Keep about 10-15 g of the oven dried cool soil in the bottle and weigh. The
soil may be pulverized to pass 2 mm IS sieve before use, if required. Cover the soil with air
free distilled water from the plastic or glass wash bottle and leave for a period of 2-2.5 hours

162
for soaking. Add more water to fill the bottle to about its half. Keep the bottle without stopper
in the vacuum desiccators and slowly apply partial vacuum for about 1-1.5 hours until there is
no further loss of air. Gently stir the soil in the density bottle by a clean glass rod, wash off
carefully the adhering particles from the rod with some drops of distilled water and see that
no soil particles are lost. Close the vacuum desiccators and again apply the vacuum. Repeat
the process till no more air bubbles are observed in the soil water mixture. Now take out the
density bottle from the vacuum desiccators and fill it completely with air free distilled water.

6.3.3 Direct shear test

The shear strength of a soil mass is its property against sliding along internal planes within
itself. The stability of slope in an earth dam or hills and the foundations of structures built on
different types of soils depend upon the shearing resistance offered by the soil along the
possible slippage surface. Shear parameters are also used in computing the safe bearing
capacity of the foundation soils and the earth pressure behind retaining walls. In a direct shear
test the sample is sheared along a horizontal plane. This indicates that the failure plane is
horizontal. The normal stress on this plane is the external vertical load divided by the area of
the soil sample. The shear stress at failure is the external lateral load divided by the corrected
area of soil sample.

The main advantage of direct shear apparatus is its simplicity and smoothness of operation
and the rapidity with which testing programmes can be carried out. The direct shear test is
generally conducted on cohesion less soils as CD test. It is convenient to perform and it gives
good results for strength parameters. It is occasionally used to determine the strength
parameters of silt and clay under unconsolidated-un drained and consolidated drained
conditions.

6.3.4 Permeability test

Permeability is defined as the property of a porous material which permits the passage or
seepage of water through its interconnecting voids. Permeability is involved in the problems
of flow of water through soils, such as seepage under dams, the squeezing out of water from a
soil by the application of a load and drainage of sub-grades and backfills, computation of
losses from canals etc. The two different methods to determine permeability of soils are

1. Constant head permeability test and

2. Variable head permeability test

a. Constant head permeability test:

The co-efficient of permeability of a relatively more permeable soil can be determined in a

laboratory by constant head permeability meter. The test is conducted in an instrument known
as constant-head permeameter.

b. Variable head permeability test:

For relatively less permeable soils, the quantity of water collected in the graduated jar of the
constant-head permeability test is very small and cannot be measured accurately. For such

163
soils, the variable head permeability test is used. After the soil specimen in the mould is
completely saturated, disconnect the water storage from the outlet at the bottom and connect
the selected standpipe to the inlet at the top of plate. Fill the standpipe with water. Open the
stop cock at the top and allow water to flow out so that all the air in the cylinder is removed.
After about 5 minutes, close the stop cock and allow the water to flow through the soil
specimen and establish a steady flow. Note the height h1 at time t1 and of the water level in
the stand pipe from the centre of the outlet and at the same instant start a stop watch. Allow
sufficient time so that the water level lowers by about 15 to 20 cm. Stop the watch and note
the height h2 at time t2 of the water level in the reservoir at that instant. Repeat the
observations from the same height and for same height difference till three successive
observations give about same time interval. Alternatively fill the reservoir again with water
and repeat the above observations by noting the heights h1 and h2.

Piping erosion will increase the permeability, but the soils susceptible to piping are of low
permeable, increased gradients and pore pressure build up. For clean sands and gravel
mixtures, the hydraulic conductivity varies from 10-1 to 10-3 cm/s, whereas for very fine sands
to homogeneous clays the permeability value varies from 10-4 to 10-9 cm/s(Lambe 1951).

Figure 6.3: Lab testing - various stages

164
 6.4 Discussion

Samples were collected from three different regions, the piping and non-piping regions of
Kasargod and from non-piping area of Calicut. Comparisons were done between the soil
properties at 3 various regions of piping and non-piping region of Kasargod district and non-
piping region of Calicut district. The soils of all these regions were basically laterite in
nature.

Results of various engineering properties of undisturbed samples, collected from the various
depths of the piping region and the non-piping region of Nelliyadukkam locality has been
summarized in the following tables. A detailed geotechnical investigation was done on this
soil samples. Various geotechnical properties tested in the piping and non-piping region of
Kasrgod district is shown Table 6.2.

Table6. 2: Summary of laboratory results of soil at piping and non-piping region

(Kasragod Nelliyadukkam locality)
piping region(Kasaragod) non piping region(Kasaragod)
S1 S2 S3 S 4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9 S 10
ɤ(g/cc) 2.116 1.77 1.817 1.57 1.57 1.36 1.56 1.543 1.544 1.47
w(%) 19.89 17.54 18.74 37.93 43.15 45.6 39.006 29.725 36.605 32.75
ɣd 1.77 1.506 1.53 1.14 1.097 0.934 1.122 1.189 1.13 1.107
LL(%) 45 45 42 46 46.5 47.5 45 40 50 51
PL(%) 33.77 31.14 21.84 28.37 22.7 35 37.2 24.17 29.38 30.66
PI(%) 11.23 13.86 20.16 17.63 23.8 12.5 7.8 15.83 20.62 20.34
SL(%) 16.61 21.31 16.98 26.7 16.34 25.11 25.48 18.89 24.19 25.49
Specific gravity 2.6 2.7 2.495 2.525 2.311 2.75 2.582 2.28 2.13 2.268
c(kpa) 100 60 45 15 50 50 65 10 5 20
ᶲ 18.53 26.57 21.06 24.71 34.99 21.8 22.62 35.37 23 28.93
class GP-GM GW-GM GW GW-GM GW-GC GW-GM GW-GC GW-GM GW-GM GW-GM
Cu 1.8 18.33 8.7 200 11 71.4 85.7 114.29 736.84 388.23
Cc 0.83 2.64 2.37 2.79 2.33 2.31 3.1 2.161 8.2 6.2
G(%) 91.19 84.4 86.33 60.03 78.54 75.9 65 46.29 35.57 51.46
S(%) 3.18 9.64 12.05 25.11 14.96 14.63 23.85 40.19 22.92 19.2
M(%) 5.32 3.94 0.91 9.94 1.77 5.64 5.42 10.55 31.49 23.92
C(%) 0.32 2.02 0.71 4.92 4.73 3.83 5.73 2.97 10.02 5.42
K(cm/s) 1.2x10-3 2x10-3 1x10-3 3.7x10-4 3.5x10-5 3x10-3 2x10-3 2x10-3 7x10-4 2x10-3
e 0.47 0.79 0.63 1.21 1.11 1.94 1.32 0.92 0.88 1.05
S(%) 98 59.94 74.21 79.15 89.84 64.64 76.31 73.67 88.6 70.74

165
 Table6.3: Description of notations

ɤ Bulk unit weight of soil

w Water content
ɣd Dry unit weight of soil
LL Liquid limit
PL Plastic limit
PI Plasticity index
SL Shrinkage limit
c Cohesion
ᶲ Angle of internal friction
Cu Co-efficient of uniformity
Cc Co-efficient of curvature
G Gravel
S Sand
M Silt
C Clay
K Permeability
e Void ratio
S Degree of saturation

GP

GM Silty gravel
Poorly graded gravel

GC Cleyey gravel

GW well graded gravel

In the piping region, the soil strata were hard and compacted at the top surface and become
loose at the bottom. Compactness of strata at the top surface is shown by the bulk density
results. Bulk density evaluated at top surface of the piping region was 2.116 g/cc and was
1.57 at the wall of piping region. The water content increases with depth at the piping region
which indicates the easy draining of top surface and accumulation of water at the bottom
strata. The permeability results verify the above statement i.e. the permeability of the top
surface is high and which decreases with depth. The permeability value at the top surface was
found to be 1.2x10-3 cm/s and at bottom it was found to be 3.5x10-5 cm/s. Sieve analysis has
conducted on various samples to separate the fractions, and the results reflect the presence of

166
saprolite at the wall of piping erosion. The gravel percentage was more than 50 % at every
depth, but the percentage value decreased with depth. This indicates that the soil became less
coarse with depth. Presence of the high amount of sand and silt at the wall of piping gives a
conclusion that the clay content may be dispersed into the water and lost. Loss of clay content
increased the void ratio of the soil. The classification of the soil samples was done as per IS
classification system according to the particle fractions and consistency limits. The soil
classifications of various soils are included in Table 6. 2. Soils of dark colors or low clay
accumulation content are found to be having low tunnel erosion potential, here the surface
soil at the piping region is blackish red and as going to the bottom the color changes to
yellowish red.

From the geotechnical test results, it is obtained that water easily infiltrates into the A horizon
during rainfall and get accumulated in the B horizon. Thus, a perched water table is assumed
to be formed in the boundary. The lateral subsurface flow which is formed at the contact zone
is the reason for the formation of soil pipes. Plasticity index value found at the wall of piping
was 23.8% and which is comparatively a high value. High plasticity index values at the wall
of piping region reflect the positive correlation of sodium adsorption ratio and plasticity
index as the sodium content was found to be high at this region.

In the non-piping region of Kasargod district, the strata were almost uniform in density.
Percentage of fines was found to be high in the non-piping region of Kasargod and gravel
percentage was comparatively low than the piping area. As the percentage of clay is higher
the liquid limit and plastic limit values were high for the samples collected. Plasticity values
increase with the decrease of particles size (increase in total surface area). The chances of sub
surface erosion are low in the non-piping region because the permeability is uniform in each
layer and no chances for the accumulation of water at lower layers. As there was not a high
difference in permeability at various depths of the non-piping region the water content
obtained at different depths were almost same. Thus in non-piping region the water can easily
drains into the underground.
Particle size distributions of samples collected from the various regions of Kasargod were
shown in figure6.4 and the plasticity charts were shown in figure 6.5.

167
 a b

Figure 6.4: Particle size distribution graph (a) piping region (Kasrgod) (b) non-piping region(Kasargod)

Figure 6.5: Plasticity chart (a)piping region(Kasargod) (b) non-piping region(Kasargod)

The co-efficient of uniformity and co-efficient of curvature values obtained for different soil
samples are included in table 6.2. The values help in the classification of soil. The samples
collected were well graded in nature with a slight variation in the dominance of clay and silt
content at bottom. In the piping region, the clay is assumed to be lost due to dispersion. As
the soil is well sorted it is understood that the particle size distribution is not the factor which
makes the soil unstable.

From the comparison of geotechnical properties of the soils at the piping and non-piping
region of Nelliyadukkam locality of Kasargod district, the parameters found to have an effect
in piping erosion was obtained as the difference in the permeability of strata at various depth
of the same region, increase of fine content at bottom and comparatively higher plasticity
index at bottom. Rest of the properties were insufficient to decide whether the soil is of
piping susceptible(dispersible) or not.

168
 Table 6.4: Summary of laboratory results of soil non-piping region
(Kozhikode IIM Site)
Non-piping region(Kozhikode)
S 11 S 12 S 13 S 14
ɤ(g/cc) 1.5 1.86 1.79 1.4
w(%) 40 27.10 38.1 50.8
ɣd 1.07 1.40 1.30 0.928
LL(%) 59 42 46 60
PL(%) 37.99 25 32.4 38
PI(%) 21.01 17 13.6 22
SL(%) 35.08 34 36.55 45.5
Specific gravity 2.68 2.54 2.65 2.70
C(kpa) 40 15 40 35
ᶲ 25 39.23 26.56 35.53

class GW-GC GW-GM GW-GM GW-GM

Cu 37.78 220 30.77 252.5
Cc 1.817 5.05 2.02 2.475
G(%) 63.51 63.96 76.36 66.56
S(%) 28.99 19.54 16.18 16.02
M(%) 0.959 12.11 6.18 13.32
C(%) 6.648 4.39 1.28 4.1
K(cm/s) 1.2x10-3 3.0x10-5 2x10-5 4.4x10-3
e 1.50 0.81 1.04 1.91
S(%) 71.47 84.98 97.08 71.81

Kozhikode district, a non-piping region was choose to compare the properties with the
piping region of Kasargod and which was far away from the piping susceptible soil belt of
northern Kerala. Piping phenomena was not reported in the current study area. The test result
shows that the properties of soils do not show notable changes with piping region. The test
results of the non-piping regions of Kozhikode were shown in Table 6.4.

6.5 Conclusion
The areas subjected to piping erosion were found to be mainly laterite regions. Field
investigation and laboratory results show that the visual classification, Atterberg’s limits and
particle size analysis do not provide sufficient basis to differentiate between dispersive clays
and ordinary erosion resistant clays. The soils at both piping and non-piping region were
found to be well graded soils, which show that the particle size distribution is not the factor

169
which makes the soil unstable. Presence of high dispersible sodium content makes the soil
erodible and for such soils the plasticity index found to be high. Here the plasticity index of
the piping region was high and which proves this positive correlation of plasticity index and
presence of sodium content. At the piping region as the permeability of the top strata was
high and decreased with bottom, it results in the accumulation of water at the bottom layers
and leads to lateral subsurface flows. The current study area was of sloping nature and which
was situated almost middle side slope of the high lands. The high rainfall at the region was
found to be high by the weather forecasting results. And this water is found to be playing the
main role in the piping erosion phenomena. The properties of soil were almost same in all
regions but the soil at piping region becomes dispersible with the presence of water. The
mitigation works suggested in the area should include proper dewatering techniques.

170
CHAPTER 7

GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS

7.1 Repair and rehabilitation of tunnel-affected land

The importance of integrating mechanical, vegetative, and chemical

treatments for the repair of field tunnel erosion has been recognized
(Boucher 1994), although Boucher (1995) acknowledges that reclamation
measures are inadequate to control tunnel erosion due to the likelihood of
reoccurrence. Techniques for the control and repair of field tunnel erosion
have traditionally focused on re-establishing perennial vegetation following
mechanical disturbance of the tunnel systems. Contour furrows (drains), deep
ripping, chisel ploughing, and contour ripping have been employed to
destroy existing tunnels and divert water away from tunnel-prone areas
(Colcough 1965, 1971; Floyd 1974; Boucher 1995). However, use of these
techniques often failed, resulted in further tunnel erosion, or, at best, only
provided short-term benefits (Floyd 1974; Crouch 1976; Boucher 1995).
Mechanical, chemical and re-vegetation techniques are available and it
may be appropriate to use a combination of these to suit the particular
situation. Here all the techniques available are discussed and three typical
mitigation measures suggested for Nelliyadukkam (Kasaragod) and
Banasurasagar (Wayanad ) are suggested.

7.2 Mechanical techniques

a. Control Animal burrows

Rabbits and other burrowing animals create localized access for runoff to
enter the subsoil and start tunnel erosion.. In the highlands and foothills many
such burrowing animals burrow the farmland for food and shelter. Existing
burrows need to be ripped, and the disturbed soil ameliorated with gypsum
and re-vegetated. Storm water should not be allowed to charge these

171
burrows.
b. Compaction
Carefully controlled compaction at or near the optimum moisture content
has been widely used to prevent ‘piping’. Ritchie (1965) demonstrated that
the degree of compaction is the single most important factor responsible for
the ‘piping’ failure of dams constructed from dispersive clays.
A higher degree of compaction reduces soil permeability, restricting the
movement of water and dispersed clay through the soil matrix, which
decreases the severity of dispersion and restricts tunnel development (Vacher
et al. 2004). However dispersive soils can be difficult to compact as they lose
strength rapidly at or above optimum moisture content, and thus may require
greater compactive force than other soils (McDonald et al.1981).Bell and
Bryun (1997) and Bell and Maud (1994) suggest that dispersive clays must be
compacted at a moisture content 1.5-2% above the optimum moisture
content in order to achieve sufficient density to prevent piping (Elges 1985).
Normal earth moving machinery including bull-dozers, excavators and
graders do not provide sufficient compactive force to reduce void spaces or
achieve adequate compaction in dispersive soils. A sheep foot roller of
appropriate weight is usually required to compact dispersive soils. However in
Kerala highlands where the affected land is vast and rugged this method
may not be feasible. Compaction could be adopted in specific site specific
cases such as construction of road or earth dam etc.

7.2.1 Engineering interventions:

a. Dewatering techniques
Reducing the amount of water that flows onto and into the affected/eroded
area is the only practical way to prevent or retard tunnel development.
Diversion techniques could include graded banks with appropriate soil
amelioration of the bank and channel.
b. Deep rip around the site
The soil surface around tunnel erosion areas is often hard-set which prevents

172
infiltration. As a result, surface water can only enter the soil at points of
weakness such as cracks and holes. Deep ripping or chisel ploughing around
and above the erosion area will promote more even infiltration into the
topsoil.

Piping under foundations of buildings

There are many cases reported in the Western Ghats of Kerala where piping was observed under
foundations of buildings and which cause subsidence problems for such buildings. In Kerala in places
such as Nelliyadukkam (Kasaragod), Iritty (Kannur), Kottathalachimala (Kannur), Vavalmala
(Kannur), Banasurasagar (Wayanad), Tattekanni and Peringassery (Idukki) and Pampa Valley, Ranny
, Pathanamthitta ( figure 7.1 ) are classic examples.

Figure7.1: Subsidence occurred in Ranny, Pathanamthitta

Proper dewatering techniques are necessary for preventing further piping problems in such areas. But
the renovation of subsided building is also equally important. For the diversion of both surface and
subsurface water filter drains can be used with geotextile layer. In well like subsidence occur in
combination with underground drains, Used tyre could be used to trap sediments. To prevent effect of
surface and ground water in damaged foundations, French drains are found to be suitable option.
Hydraulic barriers can also be provided in such areas for protecting the foundation. Damaged
foundation in the problematic site can be renovated using polyurethane resin.

c. Diverting water at source

The diversion of water could be done either in the top soil to nearby streams
or within the tunnel floor . The tunnel floor is usually hard and impermeable, so

173
deep ripping the floor will break-up existing flow lines. Rip and excavate
tunnels in all directions to at least 15 cm below the tunnel base. Finish by
ripping along the contour. Diverting water at source may the most effective
and cost effective method to control soil piping or tunnel erosion.

d. Hydraulic barrier
This technique for diverting surface and subsurface water away from footings has been proposed as an
alternative, or an addition to pier or post foundations. The hydrological barrier technique involves
construction of sand and gypsum filled trench to the depth of the foundations around the upslope area
of the dwelling. The sand – gypsum mixture acts to trap the dispersed silts pugging up the developing
tunnel while allowing the water to come into contact with the gypsum and rise through the sand and
away from the footings. An earth mound immediately above the sand filled trench acts to prevent
surface runoff entering the trench. The hydrological barrier can be installed either during construction
or fitted to existing dwellings after construction. While the hydrological barrier technique has only
been experimented once in Tasmania. The design principles result from successful use of sand blocks
for the prevention of tunnel erosion resulting from the installation of optical fibre cables in dispersive
soils (Richley 1995 & 2000, Hardie et al., 2007). This type of barrier may not be effective in places
where the hydraulic head is very high as in the case of Kerala. In Kerala proper RCC structure ( figure
6.2 ) or any proper civil engineering structure should be made to divert water .

Figure 7.2: Hydraulic barrier for the protection of building foundations (Panjami 2016)

e. French drain

A French drain ( figure 7.3 ) is a trench filled with gravel or rock or containing a perforated pipe that
redirects surface water and groundwater away from an area. A French drain can have perforated
hollow pipes along the bottom to quickly vent water that seeps down through the upper gravel or rock.
French drains are primarily used to prevent ground and surface water from penetrating or

174
damaging building foundations. Alternatively, French drains may be used to distribute water, such as
a septic drain field at the outlet of a typical septic tank sewage treatment system. French drains are
also used behind retaining walls to relieve ground water pressure.

Figure7.3: Typical sketch of a French drain (Panjami 2016)

f. Underpinning using Polyurethane resins

Many methods are available for the rectification of foundation by the subsidence problems, such as
underpinning, slab jacking and chemical grouting. Underpinning of the foundation is found to be the
best suitable renovation method for the damaged foundation in the study area. It is the process of
strengthening the foundation of an existing building, accomplished by extending the foundation in
depth or in breadth so that it can rest in more strong strata. Use of micro piles and jet grouting are the
two common methods of underpinning.

Underpinning by expanding resin injection has the advantages over the other methods on the piping
erosion case. In this method a mix of structural resins and hardeners is injected into the tunnel, formed
by piping erosion under the foundation of the house. On entering the ground the chemical reaction of
the resin and hardener mix will takes place and expansion will occur. The mix fills the hollow space
and compacts any weak soil and thus the structure placed above get raised from the subsidence and
relevelled. The underpinning using expanding resins is a new method developed recently. The
technique can provide an effective and efficient solution for many of the differential settlement
problems like erosion of the soil, settlement due to adjacent work, and consolidation or collapsible
soil. Usually expanding polyurethane resins are preferred for the individual houses and buildings. The

175
pressure exerted during the chemical reaction and expansion helps to raise the structure. Resin filled
in the cracks prevents the further waterflow and decrease the permeability of the soil. The
applicability of the polyurethane resins depends on the strength of soil required for the specific
application. Different polyurethane resins can yield different density, permeability and shear strength.
Expanding polyurethane resins are formed from the exothermic reaction between a polyol and an
isocyanate, mixed in specific volumetric proportions according to their product specification. During
the reaction a large amount of carbon dioxide is produced and which causes volume expansion with
production of foam.

There are mainly two types of polyurethanes based on their reaction to water, hydrophilic
polyurethanes and hydrophobic polyurethanes. As name indicates hydrophilic polyurethanes reacts in
presence of water. They absorb water while curing and cure to a flexible foam and these types are
typically single component products. While hydrophobic polyurethanes does not require water for the
reaction.The expansion rate of hydrophobic polyuretahnes are higher than hydrophilic and it is about
20 times the original volume

Piping under Road

Surface and subsurface water from the sides of roads can be collected by providing filter drains with
geosynthetic cover. The pipe generated below the subgrade by the subsurface erosion of dispersive
soils can be rehabilitated by using polyurethane expansive resins.

a. Filter drains
Filter drains ( figure 7.4 ) are provided along the sides of roads which collect water from the surface
and surface and then diverted properly without causing any piping failures in such areas. The
perforated pipe provided at the bottom collect water. Geosynthetic layers provide around the filter
drain. The material for the perforated pipe can be concrete, galvanized pipe, plastic etc.

176
 A B

Figure7.4: Filter drain along A- road B- Cross section (Panjami 2016)

b. Application of polyurethane grout

The uses of polyurethane resins (figure ) are found to be a good solution for settlement issues on
both concrete and asphalt roadways. In these applications the polyurethane grout is to raise sunken
concrete roadway, improve geo-material performance, increase load bearing capacity, stabilize soil
conditions and prevent piping and soil erosion.

Figure7.5:Typical road section treated with Polyurathne grout (Panjami2016)

Railway track

Unstable slopes along the sides of rail roads cause serious stability problems. Collapse of the slopes
can be occurred by piping. Retaining walls with vertical drains ( figure ) behind it are suitable
methods in such case.

a. Retaining wall

177
 Figure7.6 Typical sectiond of retaining walls suitable for stabilisation of lateritic

railway cutting prone to soil piping (Panjami 2016)

b. Gabbion wall

Gabbion walls (figure ) are one of the suitable method for the slope protection besides the railway
tracks. The pipes formed along the wall can be covered with gabion wall and providing vegetation
over this so that the futher problems on stability can be minimized. Micropipes or juvenile pipe are
the initial stages of piping. The diameter of pipe is ranges from <5cm. Clayey and lateritic soils are
favourable for the formation of juvenile pipes. Juvelile pipes are commonly found in the besides of
railway track. These kinds of pipes are preferred to be mitigated by providing gabion walls.

Figure7.7 Gabions along railway tracks (Panjami 2016)

The gabions are long-lasting, simple-to-install, and have been certified by numerous authorities
worldwide, including Brasil, France, Italy, South Africa and the UK. The structures are flexible and
can accommodate differential settlement easily without being damaged; ideal for seismic areas or soft

178
ground.

7.3 Chemical Treatments

Identification and avoidance of dispersive soils

The risk of tunnel erosion resulting from construction activities on dispersive
soils can be reduced or eliminated by identifying and avoiding areas
containing dispersive soils. The presence and severity of dispersive soils can
vary enormously over short distances. In many instances, large scale soil
survey and screening of soils for dispersion, (using the Emersion crumb test)
can be used to site dwellings and infrastructure away from dispersive soils.
Advice should be sought from a suitably qualified and experienced engineer
or soil professional. Prevention of tunnel erosion or ‘piping’ in earth dams built
with dispersive clays has involved a combination of approaches including;
chemical amelioration, controlled compaction, and sand filters.

7.3.1 Dispersion Test

Soil erosion occurs in dispersive soils (Vacher et.al. 2004) which typically contain greater
than 6.0% exchangeable sodium (ESP). These soils are known as sodic soils or Sodosoils (Isbell
2002), or in the past may have been referred to as Solodic, Solonetz or Solodized –solonetz (Doyle
and Habraken1993).Other soils such as Vertisols, Kurosols and Kandosols may also contain sodic or
dispersive soil layers. When a sodic soil comes into contact with non-saline water; water molecules
are drawn in-between the clay platelets causing the clay to swell to such an extent that individual clay
platelets are separated from the aggregate, this process is known as dispersion while sodic soils are
generally dispersive ,it is an important to acknowledge that not all sodic soils disperse ,and that not all
dispersive soils are sodic(Summer1993).Factors such as silt and high magnesium content may induce
non-sodic soils (ESP‹ 6%) to disperse ,while organic matter,clay mineralogy ,acidity ,and high content
may prevent sodic soils (ESP› 6%) from dispersing (Raine and Loch 2003,Rengasamy 2002).

A simple test has been conducted to know about the dispersive property of the soil. The procedure as
follows:

-2 cm diameter

regates in the sun for a few hours until air dried.

179
 A. Nill (start) B. Slight (15 minutes)

C. Moderate (40 minutes) D. Severe (120

minutes)

Figure 7.8 Dispersion test (Sample from Kottathalachimala , Kannur)

The test conducted with the soil samples from Kannur indicates that they are of dispersive in nature.
This was further confirmed by the chemical test to determine the presence of exchangeable sodium.
All the soil samples from the piping affected localities indicated the presence of exchangeable sodium
more than 5%. So the best technique to control the soil piping is by chemical amelioration to
neutralize the exchangeable Na+ with K+ or Mg+ by supplementing with gypsum or hydrated lime.

7.3.2 Mitigation trials by using Gypsum

Chemical amelioration by adding gypsum (CaSO42H2O) improves physical properties of sodic soils
such as infiltration rate and hydraulic conductivity in addition to decreasing excess Na+ levels.
Gypsum (calcium sulphate) is more effective than lime for the treatment of dispersive soils as it
increases the electrolyte concentration in the soil solution as well as displacing sodium with calcium
within the clay structure (Raine and Loch 2003). Hydrated lime (calcium hydroxide) has been widely
used to prevent piping. Rates of application have varied depending on soils and degree of compaction
used in construction.

Eventhough chemical amelioration is a slow process, lab scale experiements were done for visually

180
estimating the nature of dispersion with the addition of gypsum Laboratory testing usually indicates
that only around 0.5 –1.0% hydrated lime is required to prevent dispersion. For the analysis, sample
taken from the Kannur at piping affected area. The 10g of 5 soil sample taken in each watch glass
mixed with at Gypsum of 0 to 2g respectively and 2ml water added to each sample. It is observe at a
particular time interval (figure 6.9a-h), when the high percentage of dispersion taken place in the
sample 1it contain no gypsum, and the low percentage of dispersion in the sample 5 contain 2g of
gypsum, Dispersion rate is found to be varying depends on the amount of gypsum added. Dispersion
seems to retard with the addition of gypsum (figure 6.9)

a. Before adding water b. After adding water c. After 15min

d. After 30min e. After 45min f. After 1hr

181
 g. After 1.30hr h. After 15hr
Figure: 7.9 Dispersion test of soil sample by the addition of Gypsum
{(1)0g of Gypsum, (2) 0.5g of Gypsum, (3).1g of Gypsum, (4)1.5g of Gypsum, (5) 2g
of Gypsum}

The experiment conducted is far from conclusive and requires more lab and
field trials for any conclusive quantitative results.

7.4 Agrostological Measures

7.4.1 Re vegetation techniques

Re-establish vegetation as soon as earthworks are completed. The

plants will provide a protective groundcover, slow water flow, reduce
excessive soil water, and bind the soil. Non-dispersive topsoil may have to be
brought onto the site to produce a level finish and establish a rapid
vegetation cover.

7.4.2 Plant species for specific functions

A range of vegetative control measures including the use of pastures,

trees, and shrubs have been employed to control field tunnel erosion either
with or without prior mechanical intervention. The choice of pasture, trees, or
a combination of pasture and trees for the rehabilitation of tunnel-affected
land is related to the risk of desiccation resulting in surface soil cracking and
uneven infiltration of runoff into the subsoil. Dense plantings of Pinus radiata

182
have been used to successfully control tunnel erosion in New Zealand
(Trangmar 2003) and Tasmania (Colcough 1973). However, Boucher (1995)
recommends that reclaimed tunnel-affected areas should be re-vegetated
with a widely spaced tree cover in association with a combination of
perennial and annual pastures, rather than a dense stand of trees or pasture
alone. Floyd (1974) argues that a dense healthy pasture is preferable to tree
planting as pasture promotes even infiltration and minimises soil cracking.
Grass will provide a fast growing cover on new earthworks. Vigorous, growing
grass will encourage microbial activity which will, in turn, improve both soil
structure and aggregate stability. The composition of
Annual and perennial species to be sown should suit the local climate and
soil properties. Annuals provide quick cover and protection and perennial
species have extensive and deep root systems that bind the soil and
Promote water uptake. Trees planted above and around the reclaimed area will prevent soil water
building up and creating an erosion risk.

7.4.3 Mitigation plans suitable for Kerala

In Kerala soilpiping or field tunnel erosion occurs mainly in the saprolite clay region below the
lateritic profile. Usually it occurs in the slope break region on the side slope regions of the Western
Ghats. In most of the cases the catchment area will be large therefore runoff will be high associated
with high discharge. Since the state enjoys two monsoons SW and NE for a majority of the year these
areas experiences good rains. There should be two types of approaches needed for mitigating the soil
piping process here.

1. Long term chemical amelioration plans and

2. Immediate site specific interventions to divert water
Before taking up any intervention plans the detailing of the site is required in terms of its tunnel
configuration. This is done using the geophysical surveys such as multi electrode resistivity surveys.
After having an understanding of the disposition of the subsurface tunnels plans could be made.
Chemical amelioration techniques should include the usage of gypsum and lime in the area. The
catchment area should be surveyed properly to detect any burrows or pits that my encourage large
scale water intake into the soil. These pits and burrows should be ripped, and the disturbed soil
ameliorated with gypsum and re-vegetated. A proper water management plan should be in place

183
before taking up any intervention plans. Here mitigation plans for three localities such as
Nelliyadukkam in Kasaragod, Ranny in Pathanamthitta and Padinjarethara in Wayanad districts are
discussed.

7.5 Mitigation plan for Nelliyadukkam subsidence

Land subsidence has occurred in the Nelliyedukkam locality (N12°17’58.0”, E75°13’02.5”) in

Kinanoor village, Vellarikund taluk in the Kasaragod district on 2014 August 2nd. The affected
locality is in the side slope region of the laterite mesa. The pipe is in mature type and diameter of the
entrance is around 5m, inside diameter is in 20m. This is an example of combination of mature and
huge pipes. The subsurface pipe was partially filled by subsided earth materials (figure 7.10). The soil
is in thick and underlying the well-developed laterite. The slope of the terrain as well as the tunnel
orientation is towards NE-SW direction.

Field investigations revealed that the entire Nelliyadukkam locality is affected by soil piping. Piping
process has affected the Saprolite clay of the laterite. Ground fissures indicative of ground movement
are seen at few places. The initial investigations have established the presence of more than one
subsurface erosional channel towards the out let side. Pipe outlet (Figure 6.10) is located at 50m north
of this area. In this area a huge tunnel shaped pipe in combination with a typical pipe was formed
here. Sudden collapsing of the top surface of the tunnel has happened due to the continued erosion.
Surface fissures were also identified in the premises of the tunnel.

Figure7.10: Collapsed pipe due to subsurface erosion

184
 Figure7.11: soilpiping in Nelliyadukkam, Kasaragod

In order to design the dewatering structures and to locate the subsurface pipes resistivity surveys were
conducted in Nelliyadukkam, Kasaragod. Electrical Resistivity Surveys were carried out across the
possible alignment of a known soil pipe. All survey lines were in east west direction, the suspected
pipes are in the south - north direction (figure 7.11). A total of 7 survey lines were laid. The Electrical
Resistivity Tomographic section is plotted (Figure 7.12) clearly brings out the existence of the pipe.
Propagation of the tunnels could be deciphered by combining all the 7 results and filed surveys.

185
 Figure 7.12 Electrical resistivity Survey layout Nelliyadukkam, Kasaragod

The electrical resistivity surveys (ERS) are extremely useful in identifying the subsurface tunnels. The
ERS conducted in survey line 1 output is shown in figure 6.12a, b and c.

a. Schlumberger array at 1m electrode interval

186
 Soil pipe

b. Wenner array at 1m electrode interval

Soil pipe

c. Dipole-dipole array at 1m electrode interval

Figure 7.13: Electrical Resistivity Tomographic section survey line 1

Measures suggested:
The mitigation measure suggested in Nelliyadukkam locality are proper diversion of seepage water by
constructing a hydraulic barrier and the damaged foundation is recommended to be renovated by
underpinning using polyurethane resins. It is always better to prevent the water from getting to the
foundation of the house, than to attempt to control it after it gets there. The water is recommended to
divert by means of a hydraulic barrier made of concrete so that foundation can be protected from
presence of water. The location and dimension details of the hydraulic barrier are shown in figure.
The hydraulic barrier here acts as water proofing for the foundation and which helps the seepage
water to divert properly.

187
 Figure7.14: Water divertion plan at Nelliyadukkam

The failed location is situated in the middle of a long side slope with very head. Here the gradient is
high and water discharge is high during monsoons. A proper RCC structure is needed to protect the
foundation of house affected by the piping erosion. The catchment of this locality should be treated
and surface water should be diverted through lined open drains.

188
 Figure7.15: Section of the hydraulic barrier to protect the foundation

Rectification of damaged foundation also bears at most importance in this study. Many methods are
available for the rectification of foundation by the subsidence problems, such as underpinning, slab
jacking and chemical grouting. Underpinning of the foundation is found to be the best suitable
renovation method for the damaged foundation in the study area. It is the process of strengthening the
foundation of an existing building, accomplished by extending the foundation in depth or in breadth
so that it can rest in more strong strata. Use of micro piles and jet grouting are the two common
methods of underpinning.

7.6 Mitigation work suggested at Ranny

Soil piping associated with a well like subsidence (figures 7.16) near a residence was noticed on 6
April 2011 in the Kollamulla village of Pathanamthitta district. As the subsidence pit was located very
near to the dwelling place the district administration has requested NCESS to inspect the land and
suggest suitable interventions. The affected house is located in a +25o slope.

189
 Figure: 7.16 Subsidence occurred in Kollamula village, Pathanamthitta district

The house is constructed on a terraced platform cut out of the natural hill slope. The soil in general
was reddish in colour and showed laterization at the bottom. The house itself is well constructed
concrete structure. About 300 meters from this affected house, another soil piping incident was
reported about 25 years ago. There were many such incidences were located in the nearby areas. The
pipe identified was of typical in nature.

The following suggestions were given to the PWD . These measures uses only locally available
material

1. The sink hole formed may be filled up by Soil from outside affected site (Kollamula village )
and the land may be reclaimed.
2. The filling should be completed before the peak monsoon showers.
3. The floor where the tunnel is passing should to packed with used motor tyres, with large
ones on the bottom with decreasing diameter tyres upwards. These tyres will trap the
sediments flowing across the tunnel.
4. A non-degradable mesh should be provided at the entrance of the outflow section to
prevent sediments escaping the tyre packing
5. A method of filling up of the sink hole is illustrated in figure 14 which may be used by the
PWD Executive Engineer concerned as a guide.
6. Loose debris inside the sink hole must be removed before filling up the sink hole
7. After removal of the debris from the sink hole, three to four sacks of lime shall applied inside
the sink hole.
8. The ground must be compacted after filling up the sink hole.

190
 Figure: 7.17 Design prepared for mitigation work at the collapsed site in Ranny

7.7 Banasurasagar, (Wayanad)

Landsubsidece has occurred in the Banasurasagar Dam road in the Padinjarethara Village Wayanad in
2006 where a portion of the land ( N 11°41'33" / E75°54'16") subsidided (Figure 7.18a) and water
started spourting out with huge force indicating that the water is flowing under a very high hydraulic
head. The study assumes importance as this area is located very near to the Banasurasagar dam, which
is an earth dam. Investigations revealed that the subsidence is caused by soil piping. The initial
investigation revealed that this locality is underlained by subsurface tunnels and pipes and it emerges
out as a springs in the nearby valley.

a. Before filling subsided area 2006 b. After filling subsided area2014

Figure: 7.18 Mitigation experiment by locals at Banasurasagar, Vythiri taluk Wayanad

The owner of the affected land reclaimed the subsided pit with earth (figure 7.18b) as advised by the
Nirmithi kendra. Unforunatly the pit was filled up by the locally available earth which is prone to soil
piping. Also there were no efforts to divert the water passing through the tunnel. The reclaimed area

191
started showing signs of disintergration during the next monsoon with water sprouting out through the
cavity.During this period the buildings situated in the down slope region started showing signs of
subsidence by exhibiting surfacial cracks. Since the whole area is affected by soilpiping the State
Disaster Management Authority was alerted and a detailed investigation of nearby Banasurasagar dam
which is an earth and rockfill dam was taken up.

The electrical resistivity profiles (figure 7.19a, b, and c) were laid almost perpendicular to the
suspected alignment of the soil pipes with the probable location of pipes as the centre point.
Accordingly, four profiles in two locations were laid across the suspected soil pipes that are in the
West to East direction. One location is situated in the downslope direction and the second one is
located in the village road situated in the upslope direction of the affected site.

The results of the electrical resistivity survey with 1m electrode spacing were conducted long the
Banasura sagar dam – Padinjarethara road across the suspected pipe on the indicates the presence of a
saturated zone / tunnel.

a. ERT of Schlumberger array at 1m spacing

b. ERT Wenner of array at 1m spacing

c. ERT Dipole-Dipole of array at 1m spacing

Figure 7.19 : Electrical Resistivity Tomographic section at Banasurasagar dam

192
Based on the information about the subsurface configuration a dewatering plan is being prepared to
divert the subsurface water so that the dwelling units situated on ground could be saved from
subsidence.

a. Cracks on the walls nearby house b. Near by Banasurasagar dam

Figure: 7.20: Detailed investigation of nearby Banasurasagar dam

Dewatering is suggested to mitigate the piping related problems in this area. The plan is given in
figure 7.21 . It is proposed to collect water coming from upslope direction on a well like structure the
it should be be diverted to lower levels to save the house.

Figure 7.21:Suggested dewatering plan is to mitigate the piping in Banasurasagar dam

193
 Figure 7.22:Side view and cross-sectional of dewatering plan

The plan and cross sectional drawings are shown in figure 7.21 . The well is 7m in depth with a
effective inside length and breadth of 3.5m x 3.5m . The structure will have an out flow section of 1m
in diameter. Since the soil thickness is very high construction of barriers might not yield desired
results. If the intervention is carried out the government then the well could be used as a community
well for the locals.

194
CHAPTER 8

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

8.1 Conclusions
8.1.1 General

 Tunnel erosion due to soil piping is a serious problem in the Western Ghats

 Soilpiping is the main reason for the land subsidence in the Western Ghats and its foots
in Kerala

 Most of the tunnelling occur where deforestation has taken place

 Piping also occurs in areas where removal of large trees such as rubber or any other trees
without removing their long tap roots have taken place.

 Land subsidence due to soil piping is at present observed mainly from the lateritic side
slopes in the Western Ghats of Kerala.

 Excepting districts of Alappuzha, Kollam and Trivandrum all other districts are affected
by the soil piping problem.

 Many places the tunnel formation has grown beyond any possibilities of mitigation

 Studies suggested that many infrastructure facilities especially communications line like
roads have been affected by tunnel formation due to soil piping

 The acidic nature of the soil as well as the type of fertilizer use in the highlands needs
further studies

 The ground water storage and the vegetation is also seriously affected in the localities
affected by soil piping

 Multi-electrode resistivity surveys helps in identifying typical and huge tunnels.

However it is difficult to identify small and juvenile tunnels using these surveys.

 Even though it is a very slow process usage of Gypsum and lime helps to retard the
soilpiping activity

 As immediate remedial measure it is better to adopt dewatering techniques using some

engineering measures like diversion of underground flow channels and construction of
underground barriers etc.

8.1.2 Data bank:

195
 The data on the affected sites indicate that the soil piping problem is spreading to many
areas in the highlands

 Data of the affected sites indicate that they are confined to the shoulder slope break of
the highlands.

 The worst affected districts are Kasaragod , Kannur and Idukki

 The so far the no incidents were reported from Thiruvananthapuram, Alappuzha and
Kollam districts of Kerala

8.1.3 Geophysical investigations

 Multi electrode electrical resistivity surveys are best suited to identify the sub surface
tunnels and voids formed by the soil piping. However with this technique it is able to
map the Juvenile and small voids/tunnels which are less than 5m in diameter.

8.1.4 Geochemical Studies

 The Kaolinite clay with gibbsite present in the saprolite layer beneath the laterite
bordering the impermeable bedrock is the vulnerable to soil piping. These clays are
always contain dispersible Na with quantities more than 5% are ideal for soil piping
erosion.

8.1.5 Geotechnical studies

 The areas subjected to piping erosion were found to be laterite soils.

 Field investigation and laboratory results show that the visual classification, Atterberg’s
limits and particle size analysis do not provide sufficient basis to differentiate between
dispersive clays and ordinary erosion resistant clays.

 The soils at both piping and non-piping region were found to be well graded soils, which
show that the particle size distribution is not the factor which makes the soil unstable.

 Presence of high dispersible sodium content makes the soil erodible and for such soils
the plasticity index found to be high. Here the plasticity index of the piping region was
high and which proves this positive correlation of plasticity index and presence of
sodium content.

 At the piping region as the permeability of the top strata was high and decreased with
bottom, it results in the accumulation of water at the bottom layers and leads to lateral
subsurface flows.

196
 Water is found to be playing the main role in the piping erosion phenomena. The
properties of soil were almost same in all regions but the soil at piping region becomes
dispersible at presence of water.

 The mitigation works suggested in the area are proper dewatering technique along with
renovation of damaged foundation by underpinning using polyurethane resins.

8.1.6 Mitigation

 Chemical amelioration and dewatering are found be the appropriate methods for
controlling soil piping.

 Though it is a slow process, application of lime and gypsum to neutralise the dispersive
nature of the soil is a good method to slow down the process.

 For immediate results it is better to adopt dewatering techniques, such as construction

of subsurface barriers to divert the flow , construction of surface drains to divert the
surface flow and reduce the infiltration, seal all the water intake features in the affected
slope etc.

 The mitigation works suggested in the area are proper dewatering technique along with
renovation of damaged foundation by underpinning using polyurethane resins.

8.2 Recommendations
 Land subsidence due to soil piping should be declared as a state specific hazard of
Kerala

 Studies are required to understand the soilpiping affected areas in adjoining Karnataka
districts

 Usage of Lime and gypsum should be encouraged in the already affected localities.

 A state wise survey in the village level should be conducted to fully map the affected
localities

 Major developmental projects should be taken up in the highlands only after

determining the quality (depressiveness) of the soil

 The Government should take immediate steps to determine the areas where dispersive
soils are present. The soil survey department should take proper initiatives

 The areas where earth dams are present in the state should be watched closely to rule
out the presence of dispersive soils. Since dispersive soils are located nearby the

197
 Banasurasagar Dam in the Wayanad district should be supervised carefully for any
possible soilpiping erosion.

 The National Centre for Earth Science Studies, Department of Earth Sciences,
Thiruvananthapuram should be made the nodal agency for handling any soil piping
related matters in the country.

198
 REFERENCE

1. Bernie McMullen, 2000, Vegetable SOILpak for vegetable growers, Industry

Development Officer (Horticulture),NSW Agriculture,#D3.1 to D3.3
2. Bench mark soils of Kerala(2007))soil horizons. Soil Survey organization agriculture
(S.C.Unit)Department Govt of Kerala,pp;249-277.
3. Boucher SC, Powell JM (1994) Gullying and tunnel erosion in Victoria. Australian
Geographical Studies 32, 17–26.
4. Boucher SC (1990) Field tunnel erosion, its characteristics and amelioration. Dept. of
Conservation and Environment, Land Protection Division, Victoria, East Melbourne.
5. Brady, John B., and Boardman, Shelby J (1995), Introducing Mineralogy Students to
X-ray Diffraction through Optical Diffraction Experiments Using Lasers. Jour. Geol.
Education, v. 43 #5, 471-476.
6. Bryan, R.B., Jones, J.A.A., (1997). The significant of soil piping processes: inventory
and prospect. Geomorphology. Page no. 209-218
7. Carey s. k, woo, m. k., (2000), The role of soil pipes is a slope runoff mechanism.
Subarctic Yukon, Canada. Journal of Hydrology, vol. no: 233(2000)206-222., page
no. 206-221,
8. Churchman, G.J. and Weissmann, D.A. (1995) Separation of sub-micron particles
from soils and sediments without mechanical disturbance. Clays and Clay Minerals,
43, 85-91.
9. Colcough J.D., (1973) Vegetation to control tunnel erosion. Tasmanian Journal of
Agriculture 44 (1), 65-70
10. Crouch RJ (1976) Field tunnel erosion—A review. Journal of the Soil Conservation
Service of New South Wales 32, 98–111.
11. DELVIGN~J. (1965)Pddogendse en zone tropicale. La formation des mineraux
secondaires en milieu ferrallityque. M6m O.R.S.T.O.M. 63,
12. Downes RG (1946) Tunnelling erosion in North Eastern Victoria. Journal of Council
of Science Industry and Research 1, 283–292.
13. Doyle RB, Habraken FM (1993) The distribution of sodic soils in Tasmania.
Australian Journal of Soil Research 31, 931–947. doi: 10.1071/ SR9930931
14. Elsenbeer, H., and A. Lack (1996), Hydrometric and hydro chemical evidence for fast

199
 flow paths at La Cuenca, western Amazonia, J. Hydrol., 180, 237– 250.
15. Farhat Nasim Siddiquie, Mohd Shaif*, (2015), Geochemistry of Major Oxides in Host
Rocks in Vizianagarm Manganese Ores Belt (A.P.), India, International Journal of
Geosciences, 350-372
16. Fitton, G., 1997, X-Ray fluorescence spectrometry, in Gill, R (ed.), and Modern
Analytical Geochemistry: An Introduction to Quantitative Chemical Analysis for
Earth, Environmental and Material Scientists: Addison Wesley Longman, UK.
17. Fitzpatrick et al, (1995) Australian Sodic Soils: Chapter 6 Environmental
consequences of soil sodicity
18. Gutierrez, M., C. Sancho, G. Benito, J. Sirvent, and G. Desir (1997), Quantitative
study of piping processes in badland areas of Ebro basin, NE Spain, Geomorphology,
20, 121– 134.
19. Hardie, Marcus (2009), Dispersive soils and their management, Technical Reference
Manual, Available at
20. Hardie M. A. et al (2007) Rehabilitation of field tunnel erosion using techniques
developed for construction with dispersive soils, Australian Journal of Soil Research,
2007, 45, 280–287.
21. Hardie M.A (2007) Review of Tunnel Erosion: It’s Cause, management and Repair in
Southern Tasmania. Tasmanian Institute for Agricultural Research, University of
Tasmania, Hobart.
22. Heinrich Bahlburg, Nicole Dobrzinski (2009)A review of the Chemical Index of
Alteration (CIA) and its application to the study of Neoproterozoic glacial deposits
and climate transitions, The Geological Record ofNeoproterozoic Glaciations.
Geological Society, London, Memoir.
23. Herbillon A. J. (1978) The degree of weathering, the surface properties of clays and
the classifications of the soils of the humid tropics. In: Bench-Mark Soils of Western
Africa (D. J. Greenland, editor (in press).
24. Herrera G,. I Alvarez Fernandez, R. Tomas, C. Gonzalez- Nicieza, J.M.Lopez-
sanchez, A.E Alvarez vigil (2012). Forensic analysis of buildings affected by mining
Subsidence based on differential Interferometer (part 3) Engineering failure Analysis
24.67-76, 2012.
25. Hesse P.R. (1971) A Textbook of Soil Chemical Analysis. Murray, London.
26. Holden, J. and Burt, T.P. (2002), Piping and pipe flow in a deep peat catchment.

200
 Catena
27. Hosking, P.L., 1967. Tunnelling erosion in New Zealand. J. Soil Water Conserv. 22,
149-151.
28. Isbell RF (2002). Australian Soil Classification. Revised Edition. (CSIRO Publishing:
Melbourne)
29. Ismail Hossain*, Krisna Kanta Roy, Pradip Kumar Biswas, Mahbubul Alam, Md.
Moniruzzaman, and Farah Deeba., (2014), Geochemical characteristics of Holocene
sediments from Chuadanga district, Bangladesh: Implications for weathering, climate,
redox conditions, provenance and tectonic setting, Science Press and Institute of
Geochemistry, CAS and Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg
30. Jones J. A. A (2002), Implications of natural soil piping for basin management in
upland Britain Institute of Geography and Earth Sciences, University of Wales
Aberystwyth, Aberystwyth SY23 3DB, UK.
31. Jones J. A. A (2002), Natural soil piping, water quality and catchment management in
British uplands, Institute of Geography and Earth sciences, University of Wales,
Aberystwyth.
32. Jones J. A. A (1994) Soil piping and its Hydro geomorphic functions, University of
Wales Aberystwyth.
33. Jumikis, A. R. (1962). Soil mechanics; Van NOSTRAND Publ. Co., Princeton, N.J.,
791p
34. Laffan M.D. and Cutler E.J.B. (1977), Landscapes, soils, and erosion of a catchment
in the Wither Hills, Marlborough. New Zealand Journal of Science 20, 279–289.
35. Land Environment Wet lands of Kerala & Environmental health (2007) Volume-1,
State of Environment Report- Kerala.
36. Mazumdar Anjana, (2011) Essay on Disaster Management of India.
37. M. Ghaemi1*, A.R. Astaraei1, H. Emami1, M. Nassiri Mahalati2, S.H. Sanaeinejad3
Determining soil indicators for soil sustainability assessment using principal
component analysis of Astan Quds- east of Mashhad- Iran, Journal of Soil Science
and Plant Nutrition, 2014, 14 (4), 987-1004
38. Natural Hazards (2007) State of Environment Report- Kerala volume 2; Kerala state
council for science, Technology and Environment.
39. NDMA, (2009), Disaster Management studies-National Disaster Management
Authority, Government of India.

201
40. Nesbitt, H.W. and Young, G.M. 1984. Prediction of some weathering trends of
plutonic and volcanic rocks based on thermodynamic and kinetic considerations.
Geochimica Cosmochimica Acta 48, 1523-1534.
41. Nesbitt, H.W. and Young, G.M. 1989. Formation and diagenesis of weathering
profiles. Journal of Geology 97, 129-147.
42. Nicholson, William C 2005 “NFPA 1600: The new standard for emergency
management”. Journal of emergency management 3(2): 44-46.
43. Pedro G. & Bitar E. (1966) Contribution a l'etude de la grnrse des sols
hypermagn~siens: Recherches exprrimentales sur I'alteration chimique des roches
ultrabasiques (serpentinites). Ann. Agron. 17,611-65 I.
44. Quirk, J. P. & Schofield, R. K. 1955. The effect of electrolyte concentration on soil
permeability. Journal of Soil Science, 6, 163–178. Commentary on the impact of
Quirk & Schofield (1955): by D. L. Rimmer, G. J. D. Kirk & G. Bourrié
45. Ritchie JA (1963) Earthwork tunnelling and the application of soil-testing procedure.
Journal of the Soil Conservation Service of New South Wales 19, 111–129.
46. Ritchie JA (1965) Investigations into earthwork tunnelling and mechanical control
measures using small scale dams. Journal of the Soil Conservation Service of New
South Wales 21, 81–89.
47. Roberge, J., and A. P. Plamondon (1987), Snowmelt runoff pathways in a boreal
forest hill slope: The role of pipe through flow, J. Hydrol., 95, 39– 54.
48. Rorke B. Bryan (1999): Soil erodibility and processes of water erosion on hill slope
Soil Erosion Laboratory, Faculty of Forestry, University of Toronto.
49. Sahu P and Sikdar P K (2011), Threat of land subsidence in and around Kolkata City
and East Kolkata Wetlands, West Bengal, India, J. Earth Syst. Sci.
50. Sankar.G.,(2005).,Investigation of the land subsidence in Chattivayal locality of
Cherupuzha Grama panchayath.,Taliparamba taluk, Kannur district., Centre for Earth
Science Studies, Thiruvanathapuram.
51. Saritha S, Vikas C, Groundwater information booklet of Kannur district, Kerala state.
Ministry of water resources, Central groundwater board, Govt. Of India.
52. Schulte E.E. and Kelling K. A. (1914), Soil and Applied Potassium, Understanding
plant nutrients, University of Wisconsin Extension.
53. Soman K (2002) Geology of Kerala (Page no 03-10)
54. Srinivas, H. (2005) Disasters: a quick FAQ.

202
55. Stephen, Davies. Alison, Lacy (2009), identifying dispersive soils, Department of
Agriculture and Food, Government of Western Australia., Available at
56. Stephen Davies and Alison Lacey 2010 managing dispersive soils Department of
Agriculture and Food
57. Stephenson, R.S. and DuFranc, C, (2002) Disasters and Development: Part 2:
Understanding and Exploiting Disaster-Development Linkages. Accessed on 23/01/08
58. Taro Uchida 2002, clarifying the role of pipe flow on shallow landslide initiation,
Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Japan.
59. Timo Saarenketo (1998) Electrical properties of water in clay and silty soils Journal
of Applied Geophysics 40 _1998. 73–88
60. Trangmar B (2003) Soil Conservation Guidelines for the Port Hills. Landcare
Research Contract Report: LC0203/111. Prepared for Christchurch City Council.
61. Troy Clarkson (Ballarat) (June, 2003) South West Victoria Soil Smart series:
Dispersive soils.
62. Uchida, T. (2004), clarifying the role of pipe flow on shallow landslide initiation,
Hydrol. Processes, 18, 375–378.
63. Umesh T. S. (2011) Characterization of Dispersive Soils Materials Sciences and
Applications, 2011, 2, 629-633 doi:10.4236/msa.2011.26085 Published Online June
2011
64. Univesite Caholique de Louvain, Belgium, Brussels EM-DAT, 2005b, (The
International Disaster Data base) from CENTRE FOR RESEARCH ON THE
EPIDEMIOLOGY OF DISASTERS- CRED)
65. Vacher CA, Raine SR, Loch RJ (2004a) Strategies to reduce tunnelling on dispersive
mine spoil materials. In ‘ISCO 13th International Soil Conservation Organisation
Conference’. Brisbane, Qld, Paper 139, pp. 1–6.
66. Vacher CA, Loch RJ, Raine SR (2004b) Identification and management of dispersive
mine spoils. Final Report for Australian Centre for Mining Environmental Research,
Kenmore, Queensland.
67. Rolland Andrade, (2011) Intervention of Electrical Resistance Tomography (ERT) in
Resolving Hydrological Problems of a Semi-Arid Granite Terrain of Southern India.
Journal geological society of India, Vol.78, October 2011, pp.337-344.
68. http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/resources/soils/guides/soilpak/vegetable
69. http://www.terragis.bees.unsw.edu.au/terraGIS_soil/sp_exchangeable_sodium_percen

203
 tage
70. http://www.geovision.com/resistivity.php
71. http://www.cgwb.gov.in/District_Profile/Kerala/KANNUR.pdf
72. http://www.gdrc.org/uem/disasters/1-whatis.html
73. http://pdm.medicine.wisc.edu/201%20PDFs/ContEd.pdf
74. http://www.agric.wa.gov.au/objtwr/imported.../fn_dispersive_soils.pdf
75. http://www.dpiw.tas.gov.au/inter.../DPIW_DSM_Manual_April2009.pdf

204