Pavement and Materials Design Manual 1999 TZ

MAY 1999
ISBN 9987 - 8891 - 1 - 5

THE UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA
MINISTRY OF WORKS
Pavement and Materials

Design Manual - 1999
Pavement and Materials Design Manual -1999
MAY 1999
ISBN 9987 8891 1 5
Reproduction of extracts from this Manual may be made

subject to due acknowledgement of the source.
Although this Manual is believed to be correct at the time of
printing, Ministry of Works does not accept any contractual,
tortious or other form of liability for its contents or for any
consequences arising from its use. People using the informa-
tion contained in the Manual should apply and rely on their
own skill and judgement to the particular issue that they are
considering.
Printed by: Allkopi AS, Oslo Norway

Layout: Jan Edvardsen, ICG Oslo Norway
2 Ministry of Works
Pavement and Materials Design Manual - 1999
Preface
The Ministry of Works has prepared this Pavement and Materials Design Manual 1999 for design of new roads
and rehabilitation of existing roads in order to standardise design practises in the country. The road network
comprises a huge national asset that requires adherence to appropriate standards for design, construction and
maintenance in order to give a high level service. As the length of the engineered road network is steadily
growing, appropriate choice of methods to preserve this investment becomes increasingly important for
optimal use of available resources.
This Manual has particular reference to the prevailing conditions in Tanzania and reflects the Ministry of
Works experience gained through activities within the road sector during the last 20 to 30 years. The Manual
supersedes the Pavement Design and Materials part of the Draft Road Manual of 1989 and the intention is to
update the Manual when new technical information and performance data become available.
The design standards set out in this Manual shall be adhered to unless otherwise directed by the Ministry of
Works. However, it is emphasised that careful consideration to sound engineering practice shall be observed
in the use of the Manual, and under no circumstances shall the Manual waive professional judgement in
applied engineering.
It is my sincere hope that this Manual will provide all involved parties with a ready reference standard and
assist in a cost-effective operation, and environmentally sustainable development of our road network. I look
forward to incorporating the practices contained in this Manual into our operations, thereby making a
substantial contribution to the improved infrastructure of our country.
Dar es Salaam
May, 1999
Ministry of Works 3
4 Ministry of Works
Acknowledgements
This Pavement and Materials Design Manual 1999 has been prepared as a component under the Institutional
Cooperation between the Ministry of Works (MoW), Central Materials Laboratory (CML) and the Norwegian Public
Roads Administration (NPRA). The Government of Tanzania and the Norwegian Agency for International
Development (NORAD) have jointly financed the project, which forms part of a programme to establish technical
standards and guidelines for highway engineering.
This Manual has been prepared by a Working Group under the supervision of a Steering Committee comprising the
following members from the Ministry of Works:
Mr. JL Ngumbulu Director of Trunk Roads (Chairman)
Mr. JW Kijazi Ag. Director of Rural Roads
Mr. DJ Mariki Ag. Chief Engineer, CML
Mr. LJ Mujjungi Ag. Chief Engineer, Design and Construction, Trunk Roads
Mr. GJ Kinyero Ag. Chief Engineer, Design and Construction, Rural Roads
The Working Group consisted of the following members:

Mr. AS Idabaga MoW
Mr. ST Rwegumisa MoW
Mr. C Overby NPRA
Mr. G Refsdal NPRA
Mr. R Johansen Norconsult (Secretary)
The Steering Committee and the Working Group wish to acknowledge the significant contribution from all people
giving critical comments and advice during the preparation of this Manual. In particular, the comprehensive input
from contributors within the Ministry of Works, professional bodies, the private sector, educational institutions and
other stakeholders who commented on the draft, is gratefully acknowledged.
Ministry of Works 5
Summary of Terminology
Definitions of terms and abbreviations are presented in full in /Appendix A1/ and /Appendix A3/. Selected terms,
definitions and abbreviations are tabulated below for ease of reference in the use of this manual.
Base course Materials testing methods

CBR - California bearing ratio
Bituminous binders GM - Grading modulus
- Bitumen emulsion (anionic, cationic, inverted) ICL - Initial consumption of lime
- Cutback bitumen (e.g. MC3000, MC800, MC30) LL - Liquid limit
- Penetration grade bitumen (e.g. 60/70, 80/100) LS - Linear shrinkage
MDD - Maximum dry density
Bituminous layers OMC - Optimum moisture content
- Asphalt concrete surfacing AC PI - Plasticity index
- Bitumen emulsion mix BEMIX (cold) PL - Plastic limit
- Dense bitumen macadam DBM (hot) TFV - Aggregate strength (10% fines value)
- Foamed bitumen mix FBMIX (cold) UCS - Unconfined compression strength
- Large aggregate mix for bases LAMBS (hot)
Materials testing standards
- Penetration macadam PM (cold)
AASHTO - Issued by the American Association for
Bituminous seals State Highway Officials
- Emulsion fogspray ASTM - Issued by the American Society for Testing and
- Slurry seal Materials
- Surface treatments: BS - British Standard
CML - Central Materials Laboratory (Ministry of Works),
Surface dressing
NPRA - Norwegian Public Roads Administration
Cape seal TMH - Technical Methods for Highways (South African
Otta seal series of standards)
Sand seal
Prime (Sprayed on granular layers)
Cemented materials (lime or cement) Problem soils
- C4 Stabilised, UCS >4 MPa - Expansive soils
- C2 Stabilised, UCS >2 MPa - Dispersive soils
- C1 Stabilised, UCS >1 MPa - Saline soils/water
- CM Modified, UCS >0.5 MPa
Climatic zones Subbase
- Dry Subgrade
- Moderate - Improved subgrade layers
- Wet - In-situ subgrade and fill
S15 CBR > 15%
Design depth S7 CBR > 7%
Earthworks S3 CBR > 3%
- Fill
- Improved subgrade layers Surfacing
- Roadbed - Binder course, bituminous hot mix
- Gravel wearing course
Environmental Impact Assessment - Surface treatments
Fogspray (Sprayed on a surface dressing) - Wearing course, bituminous hot mix
Granular materials
Tack coat (Sprayed on bituminous layers)
- CRR Crushed fresh rock
Traffic
- CRS Crushed stones and oversize
- Design period
- G80 Natural gravel CBR >80%
- E80 - Equivalent standard axle (8160 kg)
- Heavy vehicles:> 3t un-laden weight
Very heavy goods vehicles: 4 or more axles
Heavy goods vehicles: 3 axles
Gravel roads Medium goods vehicles: 2 axles
- GC Grading coefficient Buses: > 40 seats
- GW Gravel wearing course - Light vehicles: < 3t un-laden weight
- SP Shrinkage product (LSx%pass.75mm) - VEF Vehicle equivalency factor (the number of E80 per
heavy vehicle)
Materials for earthworks
- DR Dump rock: un-sorted rock Unfavourable subgrade conditions
- G15 Natural gravel/soil CBR >15% - Cavities, termites, rodents
- G7 Natural gravel/soil CBR >7% - High water table and swamps
- G3 Natural gravel/soil CBR >3% - Wells
- Wet spots
6 Ministry of Works
Centre
line
Cut back slope Roadway

Shoulder breakpoint
Shoulder Carriageway Shoulder
Open side drain Lane Lane Embankment side slope
Figure 1 Cross section terms
Original ground level

Finished road level
Cutting Pavement layers Formation level

Improved
subgrade layers
Fill
In-situ subgrade
Roadbed
Subgrade
Figure 2 Cross section elements
Asphalt concrete surfacing Surface treated pavements

Wearing course
Binder course (if required)
Surfacing
Surfacing
Subgrade Subgrade
Gravel roads
Gravel wearing course Surfacing

Structural layer (improved subgrade, if required)
Subgrade
Figure 3 Pavement details
Ministry of Works 7
Table of Contents
Preface .......................................................................................................................................................................... 3
Acknowledgement ........................................................................................................................................................ 5
Summary of Terminology ............................................................................................................................................. 6
List of Tables and Figures ........................................................................................................................................... 13
1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................ 1.1
1.1 The Manual - Background ...................................................................................................... 1.2
1.2 Purpose of the Manual ............................................................................................................ 1.2
1.3 Structure of the Manual .......................................................................................................... 1.2
1.3.1 Comment text ......................................................................................................................................... 1.2
1.3.2 Structure of the contents ........................................................................................................................ 1.2
1.4 Design Aspects and Policy ...................................................................................................... 1.4
1.4.1 Pavement design analysis ..................................................................................................................... 1.4
1.4.2 Material testing methods ....................................................................................................................... 1.4
1.4.3 New roads .............................................................................................................................................. 1.4
1.4.4 Pavement rehabilitation (paved roads) ................................................................................................. 1.5
1.4.5 Gravel roads .......................................................................................................................................... 1.5
1.5 Construction and Maintenance Considerations Affecting Pavement Design ......................... 1.6
1.5.0 General .................................................................................................................................................. 1.6
1.5.1 Extent and type of drainage .................................................................................................................. 1.6
1.5.2 Use of stabilisation with lime or cement .............................................................................................. 1.6
1.5.3 Availability of equipment and materials ............................................................................................... 1.6
1.5.4 Construction under traffic ..................................................................................................................... 1.7
1.5.5 Maintenance strategy ............................................................................................................................ 1.7
1.5.6 Type of surface on the shoulder ............................................................................................................ 1.7
1.5.7 Use of stage construction ...................................................................................................................... 1.7
References ........................................................................................................................................... 1.9
2 Environment ................................................................................................................................................ 2.1
2.0 General .................................................................................................................................... 2.2
2.1 Climatic Zones ........................................................................................................................ 2.2
2.2 Moisture Regime .................................................................................................................... 2.3
2.2.0 General .................................................................................................................................................. 2.3
2.2.1 Design moisture ..................................................................................................................................... 2.4
2.3 Pavement Temperature ........................................................................................................... 2.5
2.3.0 General .................................................................................................................................................. 2.5
2.3.1 Bituminous materials ............................................................................................................................ 2.5
2.3.2 Non-bituminous materials ..................................................................................................................... 2.5
2.4 Unfavourable Subgrade Conditions........................................................................................ 2.5
2.4.0 General .................................................................................................................................................. 2.5
2.4.1 Identification ......................................................................................................................................... 2.6
2.4.2 Treatment ............................................................................................................................................... 2.6
2.5 Other Physical Features .......................................................................................................... 2.7
2.5.1 Topography ........................................................................................................................................... 2.7
2.5.2 Geology ................................................................................................................................................. 2.7
2.5.3 Vegetation .............................................................................................................................................. 2.7
2.6 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) ............................................................................... 2.8
2.6.1 Purpose of EIA ...................................................................................................................................... 2.8
2.6.2 Commissioning of EIA .......................................................................................................................... 2.8
2.6.3 Implementing EIA ................................................................................................................................. 2.8
References .................................................................................................................................. 2.9
8 Ministry of Works
3 Cross Section, Shoulders and Drainage ....................................................................................................... 3.1

3.1 Standard Cross Section ........................................................................................................ 3.2
3.2 Shoulders .............................................................................................................................. 3.2
3.2.0 General ................................................................................................................................................. 3.2
3.2.1 Bearing capacity of the shoulders ......................................................................................................... 3.2
3.2.2 Surface treatments for shoulders .......................................................................................................... 3.2
3.2.3 Preventing cracks to develop in the shoulders ...................................................................................... 3.3
3.2.4 Unpaved shoulders .............................................................................................................................. 3.3
3.3 Drainage ................................................................................................................................ 3.4
3.3.1 Drainage of the road surface ................................................................................................................ 3.4
3.3.2 Drainage of the pavement layers .......................................................................................................... 3.4
3.3.3 Drainage of the subgrade ..................................................................................................................... 3.4
References ................................................................................................................................. 3.6
4 Traffic ........................................................................................................................................................... 4.1
4.0 General ...................................................................................................................................... 4.2
4.0.1 Magnitude of the loads ......................................................................................................................... 4.2
4.0.2 Contact pressure .................................................................................................................................. 4.2
4.0.3 Load repetitions .................................................................................................................................... 4.2
4.1 Design Period ............................................................................................................................ 4.2
4.2 Design Traffic Loading ............................................................................................................ 4.3
4.2.1 Traffic counts ........................................................................................................................................ 4.4
4.2.2 Axle load surveys .................................................................................................................................. 4.4
4.2.3 Equivalency factors ............................................................................................................................... 4.5
4.2.4 Axles loaded to above 13 tonnes ........................................................................................................... 4.5
4.2.5 Traffic growth ........................................................................................................................................ 4.5
4.2.6 Lane distribution .................................................................................................................................. 4.6
4.2.7 Construction traffic ............................................................................................................................... 4.6
4.3 Traffic Load Classes (TLC) ................................................................................................. 4.6
4.4 Presentation of Data ............................................................................................................. 4.7
References ......................................................................................................................................... 4.8
5 Subgrade . ........................................................................................................................................ 5.1
5.0 General ................................................................................................................................. 5.2
5.1 Design Depth ........................................................................................................................ 5.2
5.2 Centreline Soil Surveys ....................................................................................................... 5.2
5.2.0 General ................................................................................................................................................. 5.2
5.2.1 Depth of investigations ......................................................................................................................... 5.3
5.2.2 Materials testing frequency ................................................................................................................... 5.3
5.2.3 Determination of CBRdesign ......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5.4
5.3 Laboratory Testing ............................................................................................................... 5.5
5.4 Subgrade Classes ................................................................................................................. 5.5
5.5 Improved Subgrade Layers ................................................................................................. 5.6
5.5.0 General ................................................................................................................................................. 5.6
5.5.1 Design of improved subgrade ............................................................................................................... 5.6
5.5.2 Material characteristics ........................................................................................................................ 5.6
5.6 Fill .......................................................................................................................................... 5.8
5.7 Roadbed Preparation ........................................................................................................... 5.8
5.8 Filter Layers .......................................................................................................................... 5.8
5.8.0 General ................................................................................................................................................. 5.8
5.8.1 Filter criteria for soils/gravel ................................................................................................................ 5.9
5.8.2 Draining properties of filter layers ....................................................................................................... 5.9
Ministry of Works 9
5.8.3 Geo-textiles as filter .............................................................................................................................. 5.9

5.8.4 Cost ...................................................................................................................................................... 5.9
References ............................................................................................................................... 5.10
6 Problem Soils .............................................................................................................................................. 6.1
6.0 General ................................................................................................................................. 6.2
6.1 Low-Strength Soils (CBR < 3%) ......................................................................................... 6.2
6.2 Expansive Soils .................................................................................................................... 6.2
6.2.0 General ................................................................................................................................................. 6.2
6.2.1 Type of distress ..................................................................................................................................... 6.3
6.2.2 Identification of expansive soils ............................................................................................................ 6.3
6.2.3 Classification of expansive soils ........................................................................................................... 6.4
6.2.4 Design on expansive soils ..................................................................................................................... 6.5
6.2.5 Construction on expansive soils ........................................................................................................... 6.6
6.3 Other Problem Soils ............................................................................................................. 6.7
6.3.0 General ................................................................................................................................................. 6.7
6.3.1 Dispersive soils .................................................................................................................................... 6.7
6.3.2 Saline soils or presence of saline water ................................................................................................ 6.8
6.3.3 Other deleterious matter ....................................................................................................................... 6.9
References ............................................................................................................................... 6.10
7 Pavement Materials ................................................................................................................................. 7.1
7.0 General ................................................................................................................................. 7.2
7.1 Material Types ....................................................................................................................... 7.2
7.1.1 Crushed, fresh rock or boulders ........................................................................................................... 7.2
7.1.2 Weathered rocks and laterites ............................................................................................................... 7.2
7.1.3 Coral rock and calcrete ......................................................................................................................... 7.3
7.1.4 Volcanic tuff (scoria) ............................................................................................................................. 7.3
7.1.5 Self-cementing materials ....................................................................................................................... 7.3
7.2 Unbound Materials .............................................................................................................. 7.4
7.2.1 Natural gravel ....................................................................................................................................... 7.4
7.2.2 Crushed materials ................................................................................................................................ 7.5
7.3 Cemented Materials ............................................................................................................. 7.6
7.3.1 Classification ........................................................................................................................................ 7.6
7.3.2 Material requirements .......................................................................................................................... 7.6
7.3.3 Type of stabiliser ................................................................................................................................... 7.7
7.3.4 Content of stabiliser .............................................................................................................................. 7.7
7.3.5 Construction ......................................................................................................................................... 7.8
7.3.6 Other chemical stabilisers .................................................................................................................... 7.9
7.4 Bituminous Base Course Materials ..................................................................................... 7.9
7.4.0 General ................................................................................................................................................. 7.9
7.4.1 Classification ...................................................................................................................................... 7.10
7.4.2 Hot bituminous mixes ......................................................................................................................... 7.10
7.4.3 Penetration macadam ......................................................................................................................... 7.12
7.4.4 Cold bituminous mixes ....................................................................................................................... 7.12
7.4.5 Construction ....................................................................................................................................... 7.14
7.5 Deleterious Minerals .......................................................................................................... 7.16
7.6 Surveys for Construction Materials .................................................................................. 7.16
7.6.1 Borrow pits ......................................................................................................................................... 7.16
7.6.2 Quarries ............................................................................................................................................. 7.17
7.7 Manufactured Materials ..................................................................................................... 7.17
10 Ministry of Works
7.7.1 Geo-textiles used as separating layers ................................................................................................ 7.17

7.7.2 Geo-grids for reinforcement ............................................................................................................... 7.18
References ....................................................................................................................................... 7.18
8 Pavement Design New Roads ................................................................................................................. 8.1
8.1 Objectives ............................................................................................................................. 8.2
8.2 Pavement Types .................................................................................................................... 8.2
8.2.1 Flexible pavements ................................................................................................................................ 8.2
8.2.2 Semi-rigid pavements ........................................................................................................................... 8.3
8.2.3 Rigid pavements .................................................................................................................................... 8.4
8.3 Structural Design .................................................................................................................. 8.4
8.3.0 General ................................................................................................................................................. 8.4
8.3.1 Input data ............................................................................................................................................. 8.4
8.3.2 Pavement design catalogues ................................................................................................................. 8.6
References ............................................................................................................................... 8.12
9 Pavement Rehabilitation ............................................................................................................................. 9.1
9.0 General ................................................................................................................................. 9.2
Rehabilitation needs .............................................................................................................................. 9.2
9.0.1
9.0.2 Pavement evaluation ............................................................................................................................. 9.2
9.0.3 Rehabilitation design ............................................................................................................................ 9.2
9.0.4 Rehabilitation options ........................................................................................................................... 9.2
9.1 Pavement Evaluation ........................................................................................................... 9.2
9.1.0 General ................................................................................................................................................. 9.2
9.1.1 Confidence level .................................................................................................................................... 9.3
9.1.2 Design traffic loading ........................................................................................................................... 9.3
9.1.3 Pavement investigation procedure ......................................................................................................... 9.3
9.1.4 Extent of investigations ......................................................................................................................... 9.6
9.1.5 Distress criteria .................................................................................................................................... 9.7
9.1.6 Data interpretation ............................................................................................................................... 9.8
9.2 Rehabilitation Design Methods ........................................................................................... 9.8
9.2.0 General ................................................................................................................................................. 9.8
9.2.1 Maximum deflection method ................................................................................................................. 9.9
9.2.2 Structural number method .................................................................................................................. 9.13
9.2.3 Mechanistic method ............................................................................................................................ 9.15
9.3 Rehabilitation Options ....................................................................................................... 9.16
9.3.0 General ............................................................................................................................................... 9.16
9.3.1 Overlays ............................................................................................................................................. 9.16
9.3.2 Partial reconstruction ......................................................................................................................... 9.19
9.3.3 Full reconstruction ............................................................................................................................. 9.19
9.4 Methods to Prevent Reflective Cracking ......................................................................... 9.19
9.4.0 General ............................................................................................................................................... 9.19
9.4.1 Conventional methods for overlays .................................................................................................... 9.19
9.4.2 Special methods and materials for overlays ....................................................................................... 9.20
9.4.3 Surface treatments .............................................................................................................................. 9.20
References ............................................................................................................................... 9.21
10 Bituminous Surfacings .............................................................................................................................. 10.1
10.0 General ............................................................................................................................... 10.2
10.1 Priming ............................................................................................................................... 10.2
10.1.0 General ............................................................................................................................................... 10.2
Ministry of Works 11
10.1.1 Materials and construction ................................................................................................................. 10.2

10.2
Surface Dressing ................................................................................................................ 10.3
10.2.0 General ............................................................................................................................................... 10.3
10.2.1 Application rates for planning purposes ............................................................................................. 10.3
10.2.2 Aggregate requirements ..................................................................................................................... 10.3
10.2.3 Binder ................................................................................................................................................. 10.4
10.2.4 Traffic .................................................................................................................................................. 10.5
10.2.5 Single surface dressing - reseals ........................................................................................................ 10.5
10.2.6 Double surface dressing ..................................................................................................................... 10.6
10.2.7 Aggregate spread rates ....................................................................................................................... 10.8
10.2.8 Pre-coating of aggregate .................................................................................................................... 10.8
10.2.9 Emulsion fogspray .............................................................................................................................. 10.9
10.2.10 Adhesion agents .................................................................................................................................. 10.9
10.3 Otta Seal .............................................................................................................................. 10.9
10.3.0 General ............................................................................................................................................... 10.9
10.3.1 Aggregate and binder ...................................................................................................................... 10.10
10.3.2 Types of Otta Seals .......................................................................................................................... 10.10
10.3.3 Material requirements and design of Otta Seals ............................................................................. 10.10
10.3.4 Construction .................................................................................................................................... 10.11
10.4 Other Surface Treatments ................................................................................................ 10.12
10.4.1 Sand seals ........................................................................................................................................ 10.12
10.4.2 Combined seals using a sand cover-seal ......................................................................................... 10.13
10.5 Slurry Seals ....................................................................................................................... 10.13
10.5.0 General ............................................................................................................................................ 10.13
10.5.1 Materials, design and construction ................................................................................................. 10.13
10.6 Surface Enrichment .......................................................................................................... 10.14
10.6.0 General ............................................................................................................................................ 10.14
10.6.1 Materials and construction .............................................................................................................. 10.14
10.7 Surfacing for Shoulders ................................................................................................... 10.15
10.7.0 General ............................................................................................................................................ 10.15
10.7.1 Selection and design of shoulder seals ............................................................................................ 10.15
10.8 Asphalt Concrete .............................................................................................................. 10.16
10.8.0 General ............................................................................................................................................ 10.16
10.8.1 Required properties ......................................................................................................................... 10.17
10.8.2 Severely loaded areas ...................................................................................................................... 10.17
10.8.3 Mix requirements ............................................................................................................................. 10.18
10.8.4 Construction .................................................................................................................................... 10.19
References ............................................................................................................................. 10.20
11 Gravel Roads ............................................................................................................................................. 11.1
11.0 General ............................................................................................................................... 11.2
11.1 Design Principles ............................................................................................................... 11.2
11.1.0 General ............................................................................................................................................... 11.2
11.1.1 Pavement and materials ...................................................................................................................... 11.2
11.1.2 Crossfall and drainage ....................................................................................................................... 11.2
11.2 Material Requirements ....................................................................................................... 11.3
11.2.0 General ............................................................................................................................................... 11.3
11.2.1 Earthworks ......................................................................................................................................... 11.3
11.2.2 Gravel wearing course (GW) ............................................................................................................. 11.3
11.3 Improved Subgrade and Pavement Design ...................................................................... 11.4
11.3.1 Subgrade CBR .................................................................................................................................... 11.4
11.3.2 Major gravel roads ............................................................................................................................. 11.4

11.3.3 Minor gravel roads ............................................................................................................................. 11.5
References ............................................................................................................................... 11.6
Appendices
A1 Definitions of Terms ..........................................................................................................................A2
A2 Units of Measurements .....................................................................................................................A8
A3 Abbreviations ..................................................................................................................................A9
A4 Cross Section and Pavement Performance ................................................................................... A12
A5 Handling of Bitumen Products ...................................................................................................... A13
A5.1 Safety - General .................................................................................................................. A13
A5.2 Heating Procedures ........................................................................................................... A13
A5.3 Temperature for Storage .................................................................................................... A14
A5.4 Cutting-back Operations ................................................................................................... A14
A5.5 Anti-Stripping Additives ..................................................................................................... A15
A5.6 Check of Bitumen Distributors .......................................................................................... A16
A5.7 Waste Disposal and Spillage ............................................................................................. A16
A6 Problem Soils Investigation Procedures .................................................................................... A17
A6.1 Expansive Soils .................................................................................................................. A17
A6.2 Dispersive Soils .................................................................................................................. A18
A7 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) .................................................................................... A21
A8 Worked Examples .......................................................................................................................... A23
A8.1 Design Traffic Loading ...................................................................................................... A23
A8.2 Subgrade CBR design ............................................................................................................. A25
A8.3 The CUSUM Method to Establish Homogenous Sets of Data ....................................... A27
A8.4 Pavement Rehabilitation Design Maximum Deflection Method ................................. A28
A8.5 Pavement Rehabilitation Design Structural Number Method ..................................... A29
A8.6 Surface Dressing Design Including Determination of ALD ........................................... A31
A9 Maps
A9.1 Physical (topography)
A9.2 Geology
A9.3 Soils
A9.4 Vegetation
A9.5 Rainfall
List of Tables and Figures

Summary of Terminology
Figures
1 Cross section terms ..................................................................................................................7
2 Cross section elements .............................................................................................................7
3 Pavement details .......................................................................................................................7
Chapter 2 - Environment
Tables
2.1 Climatic zones ...................................................................................................................... 2.2
2.2 Design moisture .................................................................................................................... 2.4
Figures
2.1 Map showing climatic zones ............................................................................................... 2.3
Chapter 4 Traffic
Tables
4.1 Heavy vehicle categories .................................................................................................... 4.4
4.2 Traffic load distribution between lanes .............................................................................. 4.6
4.3 Traffic Load Classes - TLC .................................................................................................. 4.7
Figures
4.1 Design period ....................................................................................................................... 4.3
4.2 Procedure to determine the design traffic loading ............................................................ 4.3
Chapter 5 - Subgrade
Tables
5.1 Design depth ......................................................................................................................... 5.2
5.2 Minimum materials testing frequency ................................................................................ 5.3
5.3 Density for determination of CBR ...................................................................................... 5.5
5.4 Subgrade strength classes ................................................................................................... 5.6
5.5 Material requirements for improved subgrade layers ....................................................... 5.7
5.6 Required standards for fill ................................................................................................... 5.8
5.7 Required roadbed compaction ............................................................................................ 5.8
Figures
5.1 Design depth ......................................................................................................................... 5.2
5.2 Procedure to determine CBRdesign ........................................................................................ 5.4
5.3 CBRdesign as the 90%-ile value ............................................................................................. 5.5
5.4 Design of improved subgrade layers.................................................................................. 5.7
Chapter 6 - Problem Soils
Tables
6.1 Features of expansive soils soil descriptions ................................................................. 6.4
6.2 Expansive soils - classification ........................................................................................... 6.5
6.3 Expansive soils methods for treatment............................................................................ 6.6
Figures
6.1 Procedure to classify expansive soils ................................................................................. 6.3
6.2 Cross section and construction on expansive soils .......................................................... 6.7
6.3 Cross section and construction on expansive soils with soil replacement ..................... 6.7
Chapter 7 - Pavement Materials
Tables
7.1 Natural gravel, material classes ......................................................................................... 7.4
7.2 Material requirements G80 and G60 .............................................................................. 7.4
7.3 Material requirements G60 and G25 .............................................................................. 7.5
7.4 Crushed materials, material classes .................................................................................. 7.5
7.5 Material requirements CRR and CRS .............................................................................. 7.6
7.6 Cemented materials, material classes ................................................................................ 7.6
7.7 Material requirements C2, C1 and CM ........................................................................... 7.7
7.8 Selection of stabiliser for cemented materials ................................................................... 7.7
7.9 Cemented materials, time for completion of the layer ...................................................... 7.8
7.10 Bituminous base course material classes ..................................................................... 7.10
7.11 Material requirements DBM ........................................................................................... 7.10
7.12 Material requirements LAMBS ....................................................................................... 7.11
7.13 Material requirements penetration macadam .............................................................. 7.12
7.14 Requirements for foamed bitumen .................................................................................... 7.13
7.15 Material requirements FBMIX ....................................................................................... 7.14

7.16 Material requirements BEMIX ........................................................................................ 7.15
7.17 Sulphide minerals in aggregates ....................................................................................... 7.16
7.18 Borrow pits minimum test pit frequency prior to opening ............................................ 7.17
7.19 Geo-textile separating layers - required weight per m2 ................................................... 7.18
Chapter 8 Pavement Design New Roads
Tables
8.1 Traffic Load Classes - TLC .................................................................................................. 8.4
8.2 Pavement materials ............................................................................................................... 8.5
8.3 List of pavement design catalogues .................................................................................... 8.6
8.4 Pavements with granular base course - dry or moderate climatic zones ........................ 8.7
8.5 Pavements with granular base course - wet climatic zones .............................................. 8.8
8.6 Pavements with cemented base course ................................................................................ 8.9
8.7 Pavements with a bituminous mix in the base course ...................................................... 8.10
8.8 Pavements with penetration macadam base course ......................................................... 8.11
Chapter 9 Pavement Rehabilitation
Tables
9.1 Conditions that require scheme A or B respectively for frequency of investigations ..... 9.6
9.2 Required extent of pavement investigations ....................................................................... 9.6
9.3 Pavement distress criteria..................................................................................................... 9.7
9.4 Selection of appropriate design method ............................................................................. 9.9
9.5 Design parameters used in the deflection design charts ................................................ 9.12
9.6 Material coefficients (a) for existing pavement layers .................................................... 9.14
9.7 Determination of required structural number, SNrequired ................................................... 9.15
9.8 Material coefficients (a) for new pavement layers .......................................................... 9.17
9.9 Overlay design .................................................................................................................... 9.18
Figures
9.1 Pavement evaluation and rehabilitation procedure ........................................................... 9.3
9.2 Assessment of one homogenous section .............................................................................. 9.4
9.3 Interpretation of pavement data .......................................................................................... 9.8
9.4 Design procedure, maximum deflection method ............................................................... 9.10
9.5 Deflection design chart, graular base course ................................................................. 9.12
9.6 Deflection design chart, lightly cemented base course ................................................... 9.13
9.7 Determination of required strengthening SNdiff ................................................................ 9.13
Chapter 10 Bituminous Surfacings
Tables
10.1 Surface dressing application rates for planning purposes ......................................... 10.3
10.2 Aggregate requirements for surface dressing .................................................................. 10.4
10.3 Bitumen spray rates, single surface dressing and reseals .............................................. 10.6
10.4 Aggregate sizes for double surface dressing ................................................................... 10.7
10.5 Bitumen spray rates - 1st layer ........................................................................................... 10.7
10.6 Bitumen spray rates - 2nd layer .......................................................................................... 10.8
10.7 Recommended Otta Seal concept..................................................................................... 10.10
10.8 Material requirements for Otta Seals .............................................................................. 10.10
10.9 Design of Otta Seals ......................................................................................................... 10.11
10.10 Aggregate requirements for sand seals ........................................................................... 10.12
10.11 Bitumen and aggregate application rates for sand seals.............................................. 10.12
10.12 Aggregate requirements for slurry seals ......................................................................... 10.14
10.13 Mix requirements for asphalt concrete ............................................................................ 10.18
10.14 Mix proportions for asphalt concrete ............................................................................. 10.19

10.15 Temperature for field compaction of AC layers ............................................................. 10.19
Figures
10.1 Expected resurfacing frequency ........................................................................................ 10.2
Chapter 11 Gravel Roads
Tables
11.1 Material requirements - gravel wearing course (GW) ..................................................... 11.3
Figures
11.1 Expected performance of gravel wearing course materials ........................................... 11.4
11.2 Pavement and improved subgrade major gravel roads ............................................... 11.5
11.3 Pavement and improved subgrade minor gravel roads ................................................ 11.5
Appendices
Tables
A1.1 Definitions of Terms, CML Test Methods with References ............................................. A7
A2.1 Definition of prefixes ............................................................................................................ A8
A2.2 Basic units, multiples and sub-multiples ............................................................................. A8
A4.1 Cross section design for enhanced pavement performance ........................................... A12
A5.1 Maximum temperature for storage .................................................................................... A14
A5.2 Cutters ................................................................................................................................ A14
A6.1 Features of expansive soils - soil descriptions ................................................................. A17
Figures
A6.1 Crumb test bottom of the glass ....................................................................................... A19
A8.1 CBRdesign as the 90%-ile value for section 1 ..................................................................... A26
A8.2 CBRdesign as the 90%-ile value for section 3 ..................................................................... A26
A8.3 Determination of median size ............................................................................................. A31
A8.4 Determination of average least dimension ....................................................................... A32
Chapter 1
Introduction
Project appraisal
Ch
Environment
DESIGN ELEMENTS
Cross Section,
Shoulders and Drainage
Traffic
Subgrade
Ch
Problem Soils Pavement Design-
STRUCTURAL
New Roads
Pavement Materials Pavement

Rehabilitation
DESIGN
Bituminous
Surfacings
Gravel Roads
Comparison of alternatives and

selection of design
Refinement of design, if required
Ministry of Works
Chapter 1
Introduction
Comments: 1.1 The Manual Background

The need to update the Pavement Design and Materials part of the Draft
Road Manual of 1989 has been realised for some time. Preparation of the
new Pavement and Materials Design Manual 1999 was commissioned
following an extensive desk study of relevant road design manuals from
the region and other relevant guidelines with validity for countries with
similar environment. /1-17/. The Manual is a reflection of the Ministry of
Works experience gained in the road sector through the last 20 30 years.
1.2 Purpose of the Manual

The main purpose of this Manual is to ensure a standardised policy in the
procedures for structural pavement design of new roads and rehabilitation
of old pavements.
Although the Manual is primarily a standard for the design policy of the
Ministry of Works, the Manual may serve as a reference for other
authorities that design and construct roads and assist in training carried
out by educational institutions. The Ministry of Works has aimed to
present a user-friendly format of the Manual and worked examples are
provided as deemed necessary to improve clarity.
1.3 Structure of the Manual

1.3.1 Comment text
Comment text is clearly distinguished from the formal main text of this
Manual by separate columns. The purpose of the comment text is to
provide background and additional information to explain the main text and
to improve clarity.
1.3.2 Structure of the contents

The Manual is divided into 11 main chapters. Following the general
introduction given in Chapter 1 Introduction, the environmental
factors that affect pavements design and performance are dealt with in
Chapter 2 Environment. In this chapter 2 a country map defines three
climatic zones established for the purpose of pavement design. The
chapter furthermore offers guidance to engineers on the need for
Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA) and explains the use of an EIA
when available.
Chapter 3 Cross section, Shoulders and Drainage presents factors
affecting the function and performance of paved and unpaved shoulders
and outlines elements of cross section layout affecting structural pave-
ment performance. The basic requirements for drainage of the pavement
and subgrade are furthermore discussed in the chapter.
The effect of traffic loading on paved roads is described in Chapter 4
Traffic. The chapter sets out methods to assess design traffic loading,
division into traffic classes for the purpose of pavement design and gives
minimum requirements for presentation of data in project design reports.
1.2 Ministry of Works

Chapter 1
Introduction
The chapter establishes procedures to assess the effect of heavily loaded Comments:
axles in excess of 13 tonnes.
Chapter 5 Subgrade defines design depth, describes centreline soil
surveys, and sets out the required laboratory testing and material
requirements for earthworks. Subgrade strength classes are defined in this
chapter and the procedure for design of improved subgrade layers,
including fill and roadbed preparation, is given.
Occurrences of problem soils in the project area are too often neglected,
resulting in unnecessary high maintenance cost and even costly premature
pavement rehabilitation. Such conditions are brought to the designers
attention in Chapter 6 Problem Soils, which describes identification,
classification and construction methods on low-strength soils and
expansive soils. Other problem soils such as dispersive soil, saline soils,
organic matter in large quantities and deleterious minerals are also dealt
with in this chapter.
The required properties of materials to use in the pavement structure are
defined in Chapter 7 Pavement Materials. As far as possible all unbound
material types commonly used in the country are included. The chapter
describes the use of crushed materials, weathered rocks, laterite, coral rock,
calcrete and volcanic tuff. The chapter gives requirements for cemented
layers and bituminous mixes produced in a hot or cold process and gives
limits to the content of deleterious minerals in pavement layers. Minimum
frequencies of material testing to carry out at the time of prospecting are
given and the laboratory test standards of Central Materials Laboratory,
Ministry of Works are referred to wherever possible. Finally the chapter
gives requirements for geo-textile materials and provides directives for
use of geo-grids in reinforcement of earthworks.
Pavement design for new roads is dealt with in Chapter 8 Pavement
Design New Roads. The pavement design uses a catalogue format and
is based on a minimum subgrade strength of CBR 15%, that shall be
achieved by using improved subgrade layers where necessary. The design
is based on traffic loading, defined into seven Traffic Load Classes. The
consequences of heavy axle loads (above 13 tonnes) are shown in the
pavement design procedure, which puts restrictions on certain material types
in the base course under such conditions. A deeper structure is necessary
in such heavily loaded pavements requiring the addition of one additional
improved subgrade layer. The chapter describes flexible pavements and
pavements containing one or more cemented layers. Literature references
are made for design of concrete pavements, but detailed procedures for
design of such pavements are not given.
Chapter 9 Pavement Rehabilitation is based on measured properties
of materials and thickness of layers in the existing pavement, alternatively
criteria for maximum surface deflection. Based on either design method a
catalogue design for overlays is provided, alternatively partial or full
reconstruction is employed depending on the condition of the existing
pavement. Procedures for pavement evaluation and selection of
rehabilitation design methods and rehabilitation options are described.
Ministry of Works 1.3

Chapter 1
Introduction
Comments: Chapter 10 Bituminous Surfacings describes the design and material

requirements for surfacing layers of asphalt concrete and surface
treatments such as surface dressings, Otta Seals (using graded
aggregate), sand seals and slurry seals.
Material requirements and structural design procedures for gravel roads
are given in Chapter 11 Gravel Roads. Fully engineered gravel roads
and minor gravel roads are described separately in the chapter.
Nine appendices to the Manual include worked examples and five maps
presenting features that are useful in pavements design.
1.4 Design Aspects and Policy

1.4.1 Pavement design analysis
Distress is primarily induced by traffic loading while direct environmental
influence on pavement performance, such as thermal stress and associa-
ted damage, is not included. Indirect environmental influence, such as the
temperatures effect on the stability of bituminous layers and the moisture
contents effect on the strength soils and granular materials, is included
wherever necessary in the design procedure. Normal maintenance is
assumed to take place throughout the design period of the pavement.
Expected axle loading of this magnitude The method to determine the traffic design load includes procedures to
in the traffic stream is reflected in the assess the effect of heavily loaded axles in excess of 13 tonnes.
design of improved subgrade layers, and
in the design catalogue by limiting the
type of material allowed in the base This Manual assumes drained conditions for the pavement throughout its
course.
design period, ensured through adequate maintenance of the drainage
system. Methods to ensure internal drainage of the pavement layers are
described in the manual while surface drainage and flow calculations are not
included. Varying risk of moisture ingress, and associated loss of strength, is
reflected by the manner in which climatic zone influences the pavement
design. Climatic zone affects the selection of pavement material types,
material requirements for pavement and earthworks, moisture for testing
of CBR and design of improved subgrade layers.
The Manual gives requirements for soils and materials, and nominal
compaction requirements for pavement and earthworks layers. Statistical
acceptance criteria for assessment of field test data obtained during
construction control are given in Standard Specifications for Highway
Construction.
1.4.2 Material testing methods

In order to ensure consistency in road construction and maintenance
work, the material testing methods adopted in the Manual follows those of
the Central Materials Laboratory (CML) of Ministry of Works.
References to the CML test methods are shown tabulated in /Appendix A1/.
1.4.3 New roads
The aim of structural design of pavements is to protect the subgrade by
provision of appropriate pavement layers to achieve a determined level of

Chapter 1
Introduction
service - with maintenance - over a chosen design period. A successful Comments:

pavement design will meet these requirements at the lowest possible total
cost over the design period. The design catalogue for paved roads requires
that all subgrade is brought to a design strength of CBR minimum 15% by
constructing one or more improved subgrade layers before the pavement
is placed.
1.4.4 Pavement rehabilitation (paved roads)

General
Pavement rehabilitation is defined as taking constructive measures to
restore the structural and functional condition of roads where distress has
caused unacceptable pavement serviceability. It is normally understood to
mean measures whereby the structural strength of the existing pavement
is utilised to some extent in the design of the rehabilitated pavement.
Pavement evaluation
One of the most important steps in this procedure is the evaluation of the
existing pavement. This involves relating the symptoms of pavement
distress to their causes, explaining how the distress mechanism develops.
The outcome of this exercise is largely decisive in selection of the method
to rehabilitate a given section of distressed pavement.
Rehabilitation design
The Manual describes pavement rehabilitation based on the maximum
deflection method or the use of Structural Number determined on the basis
of laboratory tests to assess the existing pavement and calculate its strength
deficiency. Mechanistic design is not described in detail, but reference is
made to recommended procedures if such analysis is required.
Rehabilitation options
Rehabilitation measures may include the following options:
a) re-processing of one or more of the pavement layers, or
b) overlays with one or more new pavement layers
c) combinations of the two - a) and b)
The time of intervention determines the extent and degree of required The rate of deterioration is often rapid
towards the end of the service life and
rehabilitation measures. successful prediction of the pavements
condition at the time when physical
Pavement overlay may be the chosen option for pavement rehabilitation or construction work can start requires
be an exercise to strengthen an existing pavement although terminal good knowledge about contract
procurement besides sound technical
serviceability has in fact not been reached yet. Measured to minimise judgement.
reflective cracking through pavement overlays are specifically outlined.
1.4.5 Gravel roads

Design of gravel roads is limited to roads with a traffic volume up to AADT
of 300 at the time of construction. The manual sets out design standards
for fully engineered major gravel roads as well as minor gravel roads and
a catalogue format is used in structural pavement design. A flexible app-
roach is required in the design of gravel roads as construction economy is
usually of vital importance for successful execution of these projects.

Chapter 1
Introduction
Comments: Knowledge about past performance of locally occurring materials for gravel
roads is essential. One may divert from the given material standards if
necessary to take advantage of available gravel sources provided past
experience has proved they give satisfactory performance.
1.5 Construction and Maintenance

Considerations Affecting
Pavement Design
1.5.0 General
The design procedures set out in the Manual assume that appropriate
standards of construction and maintenance practice will be adopted.
However, several construction and maintenance considerations must be
taken into account in the pavement design because they can influence the
type of pavement that is adopted or material standards and type of
surfacing to be used. The significant construction and maintenance
factors are:
n extent and type of drainage
n use of stabilisation
n availability of equipment, materials and human resources
n construction under traffic
n maintenance strategy
n use of stage construction
1.5.1 Extent and type of drainage

Underestimation of the need for drainage Special drainage provisions such as subsurface drains may be desirable,
may cause early pavement distress and
premature need for costly rehabilitation.
but economically prohibitive. In such cases it may be possible to minimise
the risks of pavement failures by deepening of surface ditches and paying
particular attention to maintenance of the drainage system.
1.5.2 Use of stabilisation with lime or cement

Stabilisation can give increased speed Materials stabilised with lime or cement have minimal sensitivity to moi-
of construction and reduced need for
replacement or processing of soils in sture. Stabilisation can therefore give benefits during construction and
locations with high natural moisture reduce the risks of failure in locations where future upkeep of the
content.
drainage system is particularly difficult, like in cuts or near urban centres.
1.5.3 Availability of equipment and materials

The availability of specialised equipment and materials in the construction
industry needs to be considered when selecting material types in the pave-
ment design. This is particularly important when considering admixture of
stabilisers and the choice of bituminous seals or mixes. Specialised materials
or equipment requiring specialised skills shall as far as possible be avoided
in the design as these resources may not be readily available at competitive
prices.

Chapter 1
Introduction
1.5.4 Construction under traffic Comments:

Some projects may be particularly demanding with regards to the control
of public traffic during construction. Construction of the road while open
to traffic or with a minimum period of closure at a time may be necessary.
Such conditions can be decisive in the choice of material types for pave-
ment layers by provision of materials that can be trafficked soon after
construction.
1.5.5 Maintenance strategy

Certain conditions may justify periodic maintenance to be carried out at a Particular attention to maintenance
strategy is required for project roads
low frequency with extensive methods such as overlay being employed, as passing through urban or industrial
opposed to a conventional and more frequent resealing schedule using surface centres, or those carrying large amounts
treatments. Such conditions can include locations that are particularly of traffic.
hazardous for the traffic or where there is profound inconvenience and

cost to the public by disruption of traffic.
Aspects concerning maintenance strategy can affect the choice of sur-
facing type or pavement type and requires careful consideration with due
regard for current policies.
1.5.6 Type of surface on the shoulders

Surfacing for shoulders shall be bituminous, or concrete which is used only
under special site conditions encountered in urban areas.
Gravel surfaced shoulders are not part of standard cross sections for
paved roads, and shall not be used for reasons that include:
n exessive maintenance is required in order to ensure adequate
performance
n increased risk of water ingress into the pavement layers Unpaved shoulders will reduce traffic
n reduced traffic safety where shoulders are unpaved safety.
n edge drop from the surface to the gravel shoulders increases traffic
hazards
1.5.7 Use of stage construction

Stage construction consists of planned improvements to the pavement
structure at fixed times through the design period. Stage construction of
the pavement structure in paved roads shall not be employed because
such design systems carry risks that future upgrading does not take
place at the appropriate time thus resulting in lost benefits from the
project.
Stage construction shall be considered in the context of designing Bridges and other major structures are
normally designed with a longer time
appropriate parts of the work to give construction cost benefits at the horizon for their useful life than the rest
time of future upgrading of the road. Such parts of the work include: of the works.
n earthworks and culverts

n horizontal and vertical alignment
n bridges and other major structures

Chapter 1
Introduction
Comments:
References
1-1 AUSTROADS (1992). Pavement Design: A guide to the structural
design of road pavements. Sydney, Australia.
1-2 BOTSWANA ROAD DESIGN MANUAL (1994). Draft Volume 3,
Materials and Pavement Design. Ministry of Works, Transport and
Communications, Roads Department. Republic of Botswana.
1-3 BS 6100: Part 0: 1992. Glossary of Building and civil engineering terms.
Part 0. Introduction.
1-4 BS 6100: Subsection 2.4.1:1992. Glossary of Building and civil enginee-
ring terms. Subsection 2.4.1 Highway engineering.
1-5 COMMITTEE OF STATE ROAD AUTHORITIES. TRH 4 (1997):
Structural design of flexible pavements for interurban and rural roads.
CSRA, Pretoria, Republic of South Africa.
1-6 INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION FOR STANDARDIZATION. SI
units and recommendations for the use of their multiples and of certain
other units. International Standard ISO 1000-1981.
1-7 JONES T E, R ROBINSON and M S SNAITH (1984). A field study on
the deterioration of unpaved roads and the effect of different
maintenance strategies. Proc. 8th Regional Conference for Africa on
Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Harare, Zimbabwe.
1-8 MITCHELL, R L, C P VAN DER MERWE and H K GEEL (1975).
Standard Flexible Pavement Design For Rural Roads with Light to
Medium Traffic. Republic of Zimbabwe.
1-9 ROAD DESIGN MANUAL (1987). Part III, Materials and Pavement
Design for New Roads. Ministry of Transport and Comm., Roads
Department. Republic of Kenya.
1 - 10 SOUTHERN AFRICAN TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION
COMMISSION - SATCC (1998). Draft: Code of practice for pavement
rehabilitation. CSIR, Pretoria, South Africa, for SATCC.
COMMISSION - SATCC (1997). Draft: Pavement Design Guide. CSIR,
Pretoria, South Africa, for SATCC.
1 - 12 THE ASPHALT INSTITUTE (1969). Asphalt overlays and pavement
rehabilitation. Asphalt Institute manual (MS-17), USA.
1 - 13 TRANSPORT RESEARCH LABORATORY (1988). A guide to road
project appraisal. Overseas Road Note No. 5. TRL, Crowthorne, for
ODA, London, UK.
1 - 14 TRANSPORT RESEARCH LABORATORY (1993). A guide to the
structural design of bitumen-surfaced roads in tropical and sub-
tropical countries. Overseas Road Note No. 31. TRL, Crowthorne, for
ODA, London, UK.
1 - 15 WEINERT, H H (1980). The natural road construction materials of
Southern Africa. Academica, Pretoria, Republic of South Africa.
1 - 16 YODER E J, WITCZAK M W (1975). Principles of pavement design.
Second edition. A Wiley-Interscience Publication, USA and Canada.
1 - 17 CENTRAL MATERIALS LABORATORY (1997). Desk Study of Pave-
ment/Materials Design Manuals. CML Report No. I 010. Ministry of
Works, Tanzania.

Chapter 2
Environment
Project appraisal
Ch
Environment
DESIGN ELEMENTS
Cross Section,
Traffic
Subgrade
Ch
STRUCTURAL
New Roads

Rehabilitation
DESIGN
Bituminous
Surfacings
Gravel Roads

selection of design
Ministry of Works
Chapter 2
Environment
Comments: 2.0 General

This manual describes procedures which enable pavements to be
designed to withstand load-associated distress. Circumstances in which
environmentally induced distress is the major distress mode are not
specifically discussed although such cases have been noted elsewhere,
particularly in /Chapter 6 -Problem Soils/.
The environmental factors having the greatest effect on pavement

performance are:
n moisture regime in the pavement structure
n pavement temperature
n unfavourable subgrade conditions related to the environment
The purpose of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), and the procedure
for its commissioning and implementation, is briefly described in this chapter.
The inclusion of EIA has been made in order to highlight the importance
of EIA in all stages of road design and construction, to ensure that projects
do not achieve their own goals at the expense of loss or inconvenience to
non-beneficiaries or future generations.
2.1 Climatic Zones

For the purpose of pavement design, Tanzania can be divided into three
climatic zones:
n a dry zone in the interior
n a large moderate zone
n several wet zones, mainly at high altitudes
The length of time a pavement is exposed The three climatic zones are shown on a map in Figure 2.1. The climatic
to a surplus of moisture is a better
indicator of the likelihood of moisture
zones are demarcated on the basis of the number of months in a year with
ingress into the structure and associated surplus of rainfall over potential evaporation as presented in Table 2.1.
risks of failures than rainfall alone. This
parameter has been expressed as the
duration of the period when rainfall Table 2.1 Climatic zones
exceeds the potential evaporation from
an open surface of water.
C limatic z one N umber of months per y ear with
higher rainfall than ev aporation
D ry Less than 1 month

Moderate 1 to 3 months
Wet More than 3 months

Chapter 2
Environment
2.2 Moisture Regime Comments:
2.2.0 General
The moisture regime has a major influence on a pavements performance
as the stiffness and strength of subgrade soils and granular materials vary
with their moisture content.
The map reflects the macro-climate significant to pavement moisture
conditions. Within each climatic zone there may be localised areas with
different moisture conditions.
Figure 2.1 Map showing climatic zones

Chapter 2
Environment
Moisture changes in pavements usually ensue from one or more of the

Comments:
following sources:
/Chapter 3 - Cross Section, Shoulders A. relative permeability of pavement layers and subgrade, and
and Drainage/
B. infiltration from the surface and shoulders
Both can be controlled through appropriate design of the cross section and
internal drainage of the pavement layers
C. seepage from higher ground, and

D. fluctuation in the water table
Both can be controlled by adequately installed subgrade and pavement drains.
E. transfer of moisture within the structure due to differences in moisture

content or temperature
Cannot normally be controlled other than by attempting to keep the moisture
content near constant.
2.2.1 Design moisture

New roads
Nominal CBRdesign values of subgrade and pavement materials shall be
specified at the specimen moistures presented in Table 2.2. For dry
climatic zones, where nominal CBRdesign values are specified at OMC,
there are additional requirements for minimum CBR after 4 days soaking.
These limits are presented in the respective chapters where the material
requirements are set out.
Table 2.2 Design moisture
L ay er
C limatic
z one Subgrade Subbase B a se Gravel wearing
C BRDESIGN course course
OMC OMC OMC
Addi ti onal requi rements are gi ven for
D ry mi ni mum C BR after 4 days soaki ng. Both Soaked
C BR requi rements, soaked and un-soaked,
shall be met.
Moderate Soaked Soaked Soaked Soaked
Wet Soaked Soaked Soaked Soaked
'Soaked' and 'OMC ' refer to standard 4 days soaki ng and the opti mum moi sture content
determi ned i n accordance wi th C ML tests 1.9 and 1.11 at BS-Heavy compacti on effort.
Pavement rehabilitation
The design moisture content for the purpose of pavement rehabilitation
design is determined by estimation of likely future equilibrium moisture
contents of the subgrade and within the existing pavement structure.
The moisture contents presented in Table 2.2 shall be used where information
about the moisture regime under the existing pavement is lacking or is
deemed to be an unreliable indicator of future equilibrium moisture content.

Chapter 2
Environment
2.3 Pavement Temperature Comments:
2.3.0 General
The designer at project level shall obtain detailed data on the temperature Except for variation due to altitude, the
Tanzanian climate is broadly uniform
conditions in the project area and observe this when selecting material across the country. Temperature de-
types and design parameters for pavement layers. Temperature conditions creases with elevation by 0.60C per 100
can be expected to correlate closely with site altitude. metres. The influence of other local
factors on temperature are almost
insignificant.
2.3.1 Bituminous materials

Bituminous mixes
The pavement temperature is taken into consideration in mix designs,
having a significant effect on the performance of bituminous mixes with
regards to:
n load distributing properties
n resistance to deformation
n resistance to fatigue cracking
n rate of ageing
Surface treatments
/Chapter 7 - Pavement Materials/ and
The performance of surface treatments depends largely on pavement /Chapter 10 Bituminous Surfacings/
temperature and is taken into account in the surfacing design. This applies give requirements for design of all layers
to the short term performance related to bleeding and loss of aggregate, using bituminous material. The effect of
temperature in bituminous layers can be
and also to the rate of binder ageing in the long term. critical in combination with severe road
gradients and low traffic speed.
2.3.2 Non-bituminous materials

General
The effect of temperature in non-bituminous layers is not specifically
taken into account in the pavement design.
Cemented layers
The pavement temperature - and changes in temperature - affects the
performance of all cemented materials by inducing thermal stresses in
layers, with associated crack developments.
Granular layers
Within soils and granular layers, the movement of moisture caused by
changes in temperature can indirectly affect the strength of the layers.
2.4 Unfavourable Subgrade

Conditions
2.4.0 General
Unfavourable subgrade conditions are those that require special treatment For treatment of subgrade soils that, due
to their properties, require special
to be rendered suitable as foundation for the pavement. This is not due to attention to become suitable as
the properties of the subgrade soils, but rather the environment in which foundation for the pavement, refer to
they perform. Unfavourable subgrade conditions shall also be given /Chapter 6 - Problem Soils/.

Chapter 2
Environment
Comments: attention when they occur below design depth as defined in /Chapter 5 -
Method for classification of the subgrade Subgrade/.
into S15, S7 or S3: /Chapter 5
Subgrade/.
The objective of special treatment for unfavourable subgrade conditions is
to bring the subgrade to sufficient stability and strength to meet the design
classes S15, S7 or S3 for input into the pavement design procedure.
2.4.1 Identification
Unfavourable subgrade conditions include:
n cavities made by burrowing animals, like termites or rodents, or any
other flaws causing lack of support or non-uniform support and
potential for uneven settlement
n localised areas with high moisture content
n subsurface wells
n swamp areas
2.4.2 Treatment
The methods for treatment of unfavourable subgrade conditions depend
on site conditions and may include one or more of the following measures:
Cavities
n excavation and replacement with fill
n special compaction techniques
Localised areas with high moisture contents

n excavation and replacement with fill
n raising of the vertical alignment
n special drainage measures
n modification with lime or cement
Subsurface wells
n use of filter layers
n use of geotextile filter drains or other special materials or methods.
Areas with high water table or swamps

n use of geotextiles, geo-grids or other special materials or methods

Chapter 2
Environment
2.5 Other Physical Features Comments:
2.5.1 Topography
The country has four main topographic types: Topographical map: /Appendix A9.1/
Soil map: /Appendix A9.3/
n lowlands (mainly the coastal plain below 200 metres above sea Rainfall map: /Appendix A9.5/
level, with isolated hills up to 300 metres in height)
n broad nearly flat areas of inland drainage, notably the Malagarasi swamp
n plateau
n highlands
The highlands include the following mountain ranges of altitudes generally

between 1500 m and 3000 m:
n Northern Highlands - Usambara, Pare and the volcanic peaks stretching
from Kilimanjaro (5895 m) westwards to the Serengeti plains
n Central Highlands - stretching from Morogoro to the Iringa area
n Southern Highlands - Tukuyu - Mbeya - Sumbawanga
n Western Highlands - forming much of the western boundary of the country
The plateau rises from the coastal plains to an altitude between 1000 m
and 1500 m, adjoining the highlands listed above.
Except for the mountainous and steep rolling terrain of the highlands, the
terrain is generally flat to gently rolling in the plateau and lowland.
2.5.2 Geology
Metamorphic granitic rocks of the early Archaean - more than 2000 million Geological map: /Appendix A9.2/
years old - occupy much of the central plateau of Tanzania, forming a large
block surrounded by younger fold belts, also of Precambrian age.
Sedimentary rocks of the Karoo age - 220 to 140 million years old - occur
to the north-east of Lake Nyasa.
Distinctive volcanic features of Neogene age are the recent volcanic
centres in northern Tanzania and near Mbeya in the south. In the north,
widespread volcanic activity that probably started 13 to 15 million years ago,
stretches westwards from the Kilimanjaro peaks to Serengeti and into
Kenya. Some volcanic centres in this area are moderately active today.
Younger marine deposits, associated with reef formation, are seen along
the coast line and are in places raised by local warping to form low hills of
reef limestone, commonly called coral rock.
Lake beds and Neogene deposits of limestone, sand, silts and clays that
are formed in basins with restricted drainage, are widespread in the
interior of the country.
2.5.3 Vegetation
The vegetation of Tanzania is characterised by large areas of woodland, Vegetation map: /Appendix A9.4/
bushland and thicket. However considerable stretches of savannah,
grassland and cultivation are found in several locations and occupy large
areas in the northern part of the country. Forests and swamps occur in
comparatively small localised areas, and mangrove forests are found
in the tide zone along the coast line.

Chapter 2
Environment
Comments:
2.6 Environmental Impact
Assessment (EIA)
2.6.1 Purpose of EIA
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) The purpose of EIA is to ensure that a project does not achieve its own
discovers unintended consequences of
a project. Those are impacts. Such goals at the expense of loss or inconvenience to non-beneficiaries or
impacts may affect: future generations.
- cultural heritage
- society
- the local economy
- natural resources, now or in the future 2.6.2 Commissioning of EIA
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is commissioned by the Ministry
Advice may be sought from National
Environment Management Council of Works. The conduct of EIA is a mandatory requirement in Tanzania, for
(NEMC) on any aspect of EIA in Tanzania new roads and road up-grading, as for other substantial developments.
/Appendix A7/.
EIA is not required for regravelling and similar periodic maintenance.
Environmental assessment is conducted in three stages:
1. scoping, parallel to feasibility study (reported as preliminary
Environmental Impact Statement - EIS)
2. detailed EIA, conducted at the same time as preliminary design
(reported as full EIS, for implementation mainly by detailed design)
3. continued EIA (by monitoring throughout the project)
2.6.3 Implementing EIA

Mitigation measures
Very rarely will an EIA conclude that a Usually the Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) includes a set of
project should be halted.
mitigation measures to bring potentially adverse impacts within tolerable
limits. This is done in three ways.
n Vulnerable ecosystems or land uses may be by-passed by realignment
of the road.
n Recommendations may be made for conditions to be observed during
construction and maintenance.
n Compensation is the mitigation measure of the last resort, to be used
when potentially adverse impacts cannot be avoided by either
realignment or operational conditionalities.
Implementing RAP
Implementing a Resettlement Action Plan (RAP) requires detailed records
of persons and properties affected, negotiation of compensation in keeping
with prevailing regulations, and satisfactory conclusion of the actual resett-
Displacement of illegal structures within lement. The principle of fair compensation is that compulsory resettlement
a road reserve does not normally require
a RAP; but the Ministry of Works should should leave the displaced persons and businesses no worse off, and pre-
be consulted on a case-to-case basis. ferably slightly better off, than they were previously.

Chapter 2
Environment
References Comments:
2-1 AUSTROADS (1992): Pavement Design: A guide to the structural

2-2 BROOKS, A, F BROWN, T COLES AND C. EASTMAN et al. (1997).
Guidelines for the environmental assessment of road traffic. Guidelines
Notes nº 1. Institute of Environmental Assessment, Lincoln (UK).
2-3 CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY RESEARCH AND INFORMATION
ASSOCIATION (1988). Laterite in road Pavements. Special
Publication 47. CIRIA, London, UK.
2-4 HATHOUT, A S (1983). Soil atlas of Tanzania., University of Dar es
Salaam, Geography Department.
2-5 LANTRAN, J M, J BAILLON AND J-M PAGÈS (1994). Road Main-
tenance and the Environment. Contracting out road maintenance
activities: Volume 5. Guidance for taking care of environment when
preparing and carrying out road maintenance activities. The World
Bank, Economic Commission for Africa and the Sahelian Operations
Review. Sub-Saharan Africa Transport Program. Road Maintenance
Initiative.
2-6 MINERAL RESOURCES DIVISION, TANZANIA. Summary of the
geology of Tanzania.
2-7 PENNY ANDERSON ASSOCIATES (1993). Roads and Nature
Conservation. Guidance on impacts, mitigation and enhancement.
English Nature, Peterborough, UK.
2-8 SOUTHERN AFRICAN TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION
COMMISSION - SATCC (1997). Draft: Pavement Design Guide.
Report CR-97/105, CSIR, South Africa, for SATCC.
2-9 STEVENSON, S R (1994). Environmental impact assessment of
transportation projects in Africa. Paper presented at the All-Africa
Engineers Conference on the Role of the Engineer in Sustainable
Development, 1994, Nairobi, Kenya.
2 - 10 STEVENSON, S R (1997). Environmental considerations in respect of
road transport in Tanzania. Tanzania Roads Association,. Proc. 1st
Annual Roads Convention, Dar Es Salaam.
ODA, London, UK.
ODA, London, UK.
2 - 14 WORLD BANK. Environment Department (1991). Environmental
Assessment Sourcebook. Volume II, Sectoral Guidelines. World Bank
Technical paper Nº 140. Washington DC, USA.
2 - 15 WORLD BANK. Transport, Water & Urban Development Department
(1994). Roads and the Environment: a Handbook. Washington DC, USA.

Chapter 3
Cross Section,
Shoulders and
Drainage
Project appraisal
Ch
Environment
DESIGN ELEMENTS
Cross Section, Shoulders

and Drainage
Traffic
Subgrade
Ch
STRUCTURAL
New Roads

Rehabilitation
DESIGN
Bituminous
Surfacings
Gravel Roads

selection of design
Ministry of Works
Chapter 3
Cross Section,
Shoulders and Drainage Pavement and Materials Design Manual - 1999
Comments: 3.1 Standard Cross Section

Required alterations to standard cross The cross section design for a road is normally determined by current
sections for design on problem soils are
described in /Chapter 6 - Problem Soils/.
geometric standards applied to the project, including technical
considerations such as problem soils in the subgrade. Standard cross
/Appendix A4/ outlines various cross sections are given by the Ministry of Works for the various road types and
section features that give technical
benefits to the performance of the are not included in this manual.
pavement.
3.2 Shoulders
3.2.0 General
Bitumen surfaced shoulders will normally Shoulders are particularly important when granular materials are used in
be part of standard cross sections.
the base course, requiring lateral support for the layer.
Gravel surfaced shoulders are in general
not recommended for reasons that Important functions of paved shoulders are:
include:
- high demands for maintenance to n provision of lateral support for pavement layers
perform adequately
- increased risks of water ingress n minimising risks of moisture ingress into load bearing parts of the
into the pavement layers pavement
- disadvantages to traffic safety,
often made worse by a typical n reducing changes in moisture contents in pavement layers
development of an edge drop from
the surface to the gravel shoulder n improved traffic safety by allowing occasional traffic outside the
carriageway
Use of the same pavement structure for the shoulders as for the adjacent
carriageway is the preferred method. The additional costs of using more
expensive materials in the shoulders may be offset by simplified
construction methods provided the shoulder widths are not excessive.
3.2.1 Bearing capacity of the shoulders

Bearing capacity of the shoulders must be ensured by appropriate selection
of materials and layer thickness where shoulders are designed with a
different pavement than the carriageway. Site conditions will determine the
required strength of the pavement depending on the likelihood of heavy traffic
using the shoulder, such as built-up areas or adjacent to climbing lanes.
Use of the same pavement structure for the shoulders as for the adjacent
carriageway eliminates problems in achieving sufficient bearing capacity
of the shoulders.
3.2.2 Surface treatments for shoulders

General
A durable and water proof type of bituminous surfacing shall be used on
paved shoulders. Priming alone is inadequate for treatment of shoulders
and shall not be used without being followed by a bituminous seal.
Type of surfacing
Type of seals with a closed texture shall be the preferred type of
surfacing for the shoulder in order to prevent disintegration following loss
of aggregate by drying out of the surfacing. Economical types of
surfacing that provide a favourable texture and good durability are:

Chapter 3
Cross Section,
Pavement and Materials Design Manual - 1999 Shoulders and Drainage
n single surface dressing with a sand cover seal Comments:

n single Otta Seal with a sand cover seal
Where a considerable amount of traffic is expected to use the shoulders, Single surface dressing is not a
preferred option as it tends to dry out
e.g. in towns and built up areas consideration shall be given to applying quickly. /Chapter 10 - Bituminous
the same type of surfacing on the shoulders as on the adjacent Surfacings/.
carriageway.
Colour and texture of the surface

Surface treatments for shoulders should wherever economically possible Traffic safety benefits can be achieved
be designed to give the shoulders a different texture or colour than the by selecting aggregates of a different
colour for surface treatments of the
adjacent carriageway. shoulders than the carriageway,
alternatively aggregate with a different
size, or a different type of surfacing
altogether.
3.2.3 Preventing cracks to develop in the shoulders
Longitudinal cracks
Longitudinal cracks in shoulders are normally associated with: Additional maintenance effort on manual
sealing of cracks before the first
n shrinkage in earthworks or pavement layers, often in conjunction with scheduled reseal is often sufficient to
arrest cracks reoccurring once they
road widening, due to differential changes in moisture contents over have emerged. However, expansive
the cross section after construction soils that produce very active cracks
normally require repeated crack repairs
n settlement in earthworks, particularly in conjunction with road if design and construction counter-
widening measures have been insufficient to fully
prevent damage.
n expansive soils in the roadbed
Favourable cross section details that minimise the movement of moisture
over the cross section, thus the risk of cracks developing in the shoulders,
are described in /Appendix A4/. Good earthworks techniques for road
widening, in accordance with Standard Specifications for Highway
Construction minimise the risk of cracks caused by settlement in
conjunction with road widening. Design and construction measures to
minimise the risk of cracks developing in the shoulders due to expansive
soils are set out in
/Chapter 6 Problem Soils/.
Transversal cracks
Transversal crack that develop in shoulders are commonly associated with
thermal movements in bituminous layers, but can also be caused by
shrinkage in cemented pavement layers or self-cementing properties of
natural gravel. There are no particular measures to be taken against this
form of cracking than to ensure that normal periodic maintenance by
resealing is duly carried out.
3.2.4 Unpaved shoulders

Shoulder materials shall meet the requirements for gravel wearing course
in the event that the shoulders will not receive a bituminous seal for any
reason. This cross section requires particular attention to the internal
drainage of the pavement layers as suitable gravel for the shoulders is
likely to be nearly impermeable thus preventing drainage from the base
course /Chapter 11 Gravel Roads/.

Chapter 3
Cross Section,
Comments: Where the base course in the carriageway is made of permeable materi-
75 mm als, e.g. crushed stone, the following alternative measures are required:
Base Alt.1: Place a 75 mm thick drainage layer of pervious material
Water
Pervious material
course immediately below the layer of shoulder gravel, see illustration.
Subbase
Alt.2: Install a special drainage facility.
3.3 Drainage
3.3.1 Drainage of the road surface
The costs and construction problems Drainage of the road surface is ensured by providing sufficient crossfall of
involved in ensuring proper internal
drainage of the pavement under these the carriageway and shoulder in accordance with the standard cross
circumstances may justify the technically sections.
preferred method of extending the base
course through the shoulder and
applying a bituminous seal. 3.3.2 Drainage of the pavement layers
Proper drainage of granular pavement layers is essential for their
performance and is ensured by appropriate attention to cross section
details.
Granular base course

Where a granular base course and paved shoulders are used, the base
Water Granular course and subbase layers shall be extended to the full width of the
base course
shoulders.
Subbase
Cemented or bituminous base course
Where economically possible the base course should be extended to the
full width of the shoulders.
Boxed-in pavements
Boxed-in pavement structures, where water may be trapped in the pave-
ment, shall not be used. Appropriate measures to ensure proper drainage
of the pavement layers shall be included in the design where internal
drainage of the layers may be impaired for any reason. The following
circumstances carry particular risks of attaining a boxed-in structure:
n where shoulders are designed with different materials than the
carriageway using unfavourable combinations of materials
n where kerbstones are extended into granular layers of the pavement
n where un-paved shoulders made of near impermeable materials are used
3.3.3 Drainage of the subgrade

General
Provision of sufficiently deep open side drains or alternatively, special
drainage facilities such as subsurface drains will ensure proper drainage
of the subgrade. Special consideration to design and construction details
is required where the occurrence of rock may trap water in the subgrade
or pavement structure.
Sufficient depth of open side drains is
essential for the proper drainage of the
subgrade.

Chapter 3
Cross Section,
Pavement and Materials Design Manual - 1999 Shoulders and Drainage
Open side drains - general

Comments:
Open side drains shall at no point be less than 0.5 metres deep, measured General requirement
from the bottom of the drain up to the formation level. min 0,5 m
Pavement
Open side drains in cuttings Formation
The general requirement for the depth of open side drains in cuttings is
level
minimum 1.0 metres measured from the bottom of the drain up to the
Cuttings - general requirement
Formation level. This depth can be reduced to 0.5 metres provided min 1,0 m
cement or lime modification of the subgrade is employed. In such cases Pavement
the minimum depth of cement or lime modification is 200 mm. The given Formation
level
requirements refer to cuttings in soils. For cuttings in solid rock the

required drainage measures depend on site conditions and shall be
decided in each individual case. Cuttings - lime modified subgrade
The method for drainage of cuttings shall be specifically described in the min 0,5 m
Pavement
detailed design of projects. The need for subsurface drains as an alterna-
tive to open side drains in cuttings shall be assessed. Formation
level
Subsurface drains
The need for subsurface drains depends on site conditions and requires Proper drainage in cuttings is often critical
for the performance of the pavement.
careful consideration due to the high construction cost of these facilities.
Urban areas, occurrence of subsoil wells and cuttings are among typical The traffic safety hazards of deep open
conditions where use of subsurface drains shall be considered. side drains may in urban areas prompt
the use of subsurface drains in
combination with a subsurface storm
water system.
Lined drains are often used where the

amount and speed of water is high.

Chapter 3
Cross Section,
Comments: References
3-2 COMMITTEE OF STATE ROAD AUTHORITIES. Draft TRH 15
(1994): Subsurface drainage for roads. CSRA, Pretoria, Republic of
South Africa.
COMMISSION - SATCC (1998). Draft: Code of Practice for the Design
of Road Pavements.CSIR, Pretoria, South Africa, for SATCC.
3-6 TRANSPORT RESEARCH LABORATORY (1993). A guide to the
ODA, London, UK.

Chapter 4
Traffic
Project appraisal
Ch
Environment
DESIGN ELEMENTS
Cross Section,
Traffic
Subgrade
Ch
STRUCTURAL
New Roads

Rehabilitation
DESIGN
Bituminous
Surfacings
Gravel Roads

selection of design
Ministry of Works
Chapter 4
Traffic

This chapter describes the procedure for establishing the design traffic
loading, selection of traffic load class and presentation of traffic data.
Other elements of loading arising from The structural deterioration of paved roads caused by traffic mainly
axle combinations, suspension system, depends on:
tyre types, load distribution over the
pavement surface and the type of load, n magnitude of the loads (axle loads)
i.e. static, dynamic and breaking, would
be difficult to investigate and impossible n contact pressure from the loads (mainly from tyre pressure)
to apply in practice for the purpose of n number of load repetitions
structural pavement design.
4.0.1 Magnitude of the loads

The damage that vehicles do to a road depends greatly on the magnitude
tonnes load of the axle loads as reflected in the system used for determination of design
loading, where the damaging effect of an axle loading follows an exponential
function. The traffic stream may however, contain heavier loads than the
range where these calculation models are valid. Special concessions have
therefore been made for roads where a large proportion of the design load
consists of very heavy axles.
4.0.2 Contact pressure

Contact pressures set up by vehicles in the traffic stream are difficult to
contact pressure estimate practically and thus cannot be expressed with any confidence as
a quantity that is useful in structural pavement design. The main factors
affecting levels of contact pressure from the traffic are however known.
These are primarily related to type of tyres used, tyre pressure and in-
directly influenced by the axle loading. Potential damage to the pavement
kPa
by high contact pressures is offset by the provision of material types with
sufficient strength in the base course and surfacing layers. The pavement
design procedure indirectly compensates for high contact pressures by
load per area
setting limits for the material types allowed in the base course and sur-
facing layers for the respective traffic load classes.
4.0.3 Load repetitions

loads
Depending on site conditions - a sufficiently large number of load repetitions
t1 t2 t3 t4.......tn above a certain magnitude causes fatigue of bound layers and deforma-
tions in granular pavement layers.
The damaging effect of all axles expected to traverse the road is converted
into Equivalent Standard Axles (E80) and added up over a chosen design
period to become the basis for the structural pavement design. This figure
is termed the design traffic loading and is expressed in millions E80. The
design traffic loading is the cumulative traffic expected to use the heaviest
loaded lane during the design period.
4.1 Design Period

The design period is defined as the number of years until a terminal value
of accepted serviceability is expected to be reached. The design period
starts when the completed pavement is opened to public traffic over the
entire length of a construction project or a pre-determined part of a
project. Any public traffic or construction traffic using the completed
pavement before the start of the design period shall be estimated

Chapter 4
Traffic
separately and included in the design traffic loading for the purpose of Comments:
pavement design Chapter 4.2 - Design Traffic Loading.
Strengthening of the pavement is normally required for the road to carry
further traffic at an acceptable level of serviceability after the end of the
design period. Normal maintenance is assumed to take place throughout the
design period for the design to be valid. Premature failures may result if
normal maintenance is neglected during the design period. The specified Design period must not be confused with
length of the design period shall be 20 years for new or rehabilitated bitumen pavement life or surfacing life since the
pavement may have a considerable
surfaced pavements. However, the Ministry of Works may, at its discretion, residual life at the end of the design period.
change the design period depending on circumstances of individual projects. The pavement life may be extended by
periodic strengthening of the pavement
Figure 4.1 illustrates the definition of the design period in relation to structure /Chapter 9 Pavement
Rehabilitation/.
terminal serviceability and required maintenance during the design period.
Pavement serviceability
Reseal
rehablitation
Pavement
Reseal
(no
res
eal
)
Terminal value
of serviceability
Design Period
Project construction, the
pavement being
completed in parts.
pavement on
Completed
the entire
project
Figure 4.1 Design period
4.2 Design Traffic Loading

The flow chart in Figure 4.2 shows the procedure to determine the design
traffic loading. Worked Example
Traffic count Vehicle Proportion of /Appendix A8.1/
for each equivalency E80 made up
direction factor from axles
Chapter 4.2.1 Chapter 4.2.3 heavier than 13t
Chapter 4.2.4
Apply
Axle load survey traffic growth Include
Classify Chapter 4.2.5
for each construction
as'heavy' or not and lane
direction traffic
Chapter 4.2.4 distribution Chapter 4.2.7
Chapter 4.2.2
Chapter 4.2.6
Design traffic
Vehicle Proportion of loading
equivalency E80 made up
factor from axles
Chapter 4.2.3 heavier than13t Classify into
Chapter 4.2.4 Traffic Load Class
Socio -economic Chapter 4.3
studies
Figure 4.2 Procedure to determine the design traffic loading

Chapter 4
Traffic
Comments: 4.2.1 Traffic counts

Light traffic affects the performance of Only heavy vehicles should be counted for the purpose of structural
surface treatments and gravel wearing pavement design. Heavy vehicles are defined as those having a registered
courses, but has an insignificant effect in
the context of structural pavement design. un-laden weight of 3 tonnes or more. Large buses having a seating capacity
of 40 or more are included as heavy vehicles.
Traffic counts shall be carried out in a manner that results in a grouping of

vehicle types into the categories given in Table 4.1. Inclusion of other
vehicle categories, or a further sub-division of the categories may be
desirable for other purposes. However, manipulation of data shall not
obscure the prescribed division into the four heavy vehicle categories.
Table 4.1 Heavy vehicle categories
H eav y v ehicle category D efinition
Medi um Goods Vehi cle - 2 axles, i ncl. steeri ng axle, and

MGV - 3 tonnes empty wei ght, or more
Heavy Goods Vehi cle - 3 axles, i ncl. steeri ng axle, and
HGV - 3 tonnes empty wei ght, or more
Very Heavy Goods Vehi cle - 4 or more axles , i ncl. steeri ng axle, and
VHGV - 3 tonnes empty wei ght, or more
Buses Seati ng capaci ty of 40, or more
4.2.2 Axle load surveys

All design of bitumen surfaced road pavements shall be based on project-
dedicated axle load surveys. The surveys shall be carried out separately
from weigh-bridge measurements undertaken for the purpose of enforcing
axle load limits.
The measurements shall include minimum one survey of 7 days duration -
over 24 hours - covering each lane. The method for conducting axle load
surveys shall follow current procedures of the Ministry of Works.
It is not necessary to distinguish between The required minimum information from the axle load survey shall
single wheels, and between dual wheels include the following:
and steering axles and fixed axles for the
purpose of determining design load. The n axle loads of all heavy vehicles whether they are empty or loaded
varying effect on pavement structures
from such differences in wheel n vehicle category
configuration are likely to be offset by other
inherent inaccuracies in all pavement n loading in each lane (direction) of the road
design methods.
Each axle in a multi-axle combination (e.g. bogie, triple, etc.) shall be
measured separately.
The survey point shall be equipped with sufficient capacity to weigh all
heavy vehicles that are passing in one direction at a time, both empty and
loaded.

Chapter 4
Traffic
4.2.3 Equivalency factors Comments:

The damaging effect of an axle passing over the pavement is expressed by
the equivalency factor related to an equivalent standard axle (E80) of
8160 kg load:
Equivalency factor = [Axle Load (kg) / 8160] 4.5
The Vehicle Equivalency Factor (VEF) for every vehicle in the axle load
survey is determined and an average value is subsequently calculated for
each heavy vehicle category, for each lane separately. The average VEF
for each heavy vehicle category, for each lane, can then be applied to the
results from traffic counts to give the cumulative E80s traffic loading the
pavement is subjected to over a given period.
4.2.4 Axles loaded to above 13 tonnes

The proportion of the design traffic loading as a result of axles loaded to /Chapters 5, 8, 9 and 10/ set out measures
in the design of pavement and improved
above 13 tonnes shall be calculated from axle load survey data. If this subgrade layers to offset the effect of a
proportion is 50% or higher then the design traffic loading is defined as large proportion of very heavy axle loads.
Heavy, denoted by an index to the Traffic Load Class as input to the
pavement design catalogue. One should not confuse the proportion of the
design traffic loading as a result of axles loaded to above 13 tonnes with
the counted proportion of these axles in the traffic stream, the latter being
incorrect. A moderate number of very heavy axles will make up a conside-
rable proportion of the design traffic loading.
The percentage of the design traffic load (E80) attributed to axles loaded
to above 13 tonnes shall be calculated based on detailed data from project
dedicated axle load surveys. The axle load data from the lane with the
highest value of E80 shall be used.
The heavy axles proportion of E80 is calculated as follows:
Heavy Axles Number of E80 from axles of 13 t and heavier in the survey
Proportion = x 100 Research is not yet conclusive on issues
of E80 [%] Total number of E80 from all heavy vehicles in the survey related to the effect of very heavy axle
loads on a variety of pavement types.
4.2.5 Traffic growth

General
The following estimations of future growth are required: There is a considerable uncertainty and
risk of making large errors in estimations
n growth in the number of heavy vehicles of traffic growth since a number of
individually uncertain factors are brought
n growth in the number of E80 per vehicle (Vehicle Equivalency Factor) together in the analysis. Where little
information is available, historical data,
origin-destination surveys and records
Types of traffic from Ministry of Works and Statistical
The forecasting of traffic growth shall include separate estimates for the 4 Bureau are among the sources of
information for assessment of traffic
vehicle categories. It is necessary to assess future traffic in respect of the growth. The designer may have to resort
following types: to the use of growth figures for GDP in
the estimation of movement of goods.
n normal traffic:
that would use the route regardless of the condition of the road
n diverted traffic:
that moves from an alternative route due to the improvement of the
road, but at otherwise unchanged origin and destination
n generated traffic:
additional traffic occurring due to the improvement of the road

Chapter 4
Traffic
Comments: Total growth rate

For each heavy vehicle category the total E80 growth rate is calculated
from the formula:
E80 growth rate = [(1+h/100) x (1+v/100) - 1] x 100
where:
h= growth rate in traffic volume for the heavy vehicle category
v= growth rate in vehicle equivalency factor (E80 per vehicle) for the heavy
vehicle category
4.2.6 Lane distribution

The design traffic loading shall be corrected for the distribution of heavy
vehicles between the lanes in accordance with Table 4.2.
Table 4.2 Traffic load distribution between lanes
C ross P av ed C orrected design Explanatory notes

section width traffic loading E80
D ouble the sum of The d riving p atte rn o n this
< 3.5 m E80 in both cro ss se ctio n is ve ry
directions channe lle d
Mi n. 3.5 m,
The sum of E80 i n Traffic in b o th d ire ctio ns use
but less
both di recti ons the same lane
Si ngle than 4.5 m
carri ageway Mi n. 4.5 m, 80% of the sum of
To allo w fo r o ve rlap in the
but less E80 i n both ce ntre se ctio n o f the ro ad
than 6 m di recti ons
Total E80 i n the
Minimal traffic o ve rlap in the
6 m or wider heavi est loaded ce ntre se ctio n o f the ro ad
di recti on
More than
90% of the total
one lane i n The majo rity o f he avy ve hicle s
- E80 i n the studi ed
e a ch use o ne lane in e ach d ire ctio n
di recti on
di recti on
4.2.7 Construction traffic

Loading from construction traffic can The calculation of design traffic loading shall include construction traffic
have a significant effect on pavements
designed for low traffic. and public traffic that is expected to use the completed pavement before
the start of the design period.
4.3 Traffic Load Classes (TLC)

After finally determining the design traffic loading, E80, and the heavy
axles proportion of E80, the values are placed into their correct class in
accordance with Table 4.3.

Chapter 4
Traffic
Table 4.3 Traffic Load Classes - TLC Comments:
Design traffic loading [ E80 x 106 ] Traffic Load C lass (TLC )

< 0.2 TLC 02
0.2 to 0.5 TLC 05
0.5 to 1 TLC 1
1 to 3 TLC 3
3 to 10 TLC 10
10 to 20 TLC 20
20 to 50 TLC 50
Where the heavy (>13 t) axles proportion of E80 is 50% or higher the Insufficient sample of data for these low
Traffic Load Class shall be given an index, i.e.: traffic roads < 0,2 million E80, makes it
difficult to achieve a realistic traffic loading
design. Hence, a traffic load class
TLC 05-H TLC 1-H TLC 3-H TLC 10-H TLC 20-H TLC 50-H TLC 0,2 -H is not established.
4.4 Presentation of Data

The following information for each direction of the road shall be
presented in the detailed design report for paved roads:
n cumulative E80 over the design period
n the proportion of the design traffic loading that is a result of axles
above 13t (in %)
n assumed construction traffic before the start of the design period
n the Traffic Load Class for use in the pavement design
The above is the minimum information required. Additional information

may be necessary.
The following details shall be presented, for each of the four heavy
vehicle categories classified:
n weighing data for all axles on heavy vehicles as obtained in the axle
load survey
n summary of traffic counts
n Vehicle Equivalency Factors used
n growth rate in average E80 per vehicle
n total growth rate in E80 for each heavy vehicle category
The background data used in estimates of growth rates and construction
traffic shall be presented.

Chapter 4
Traffic
4-1 AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR TESTING AND MATERIALS (1987).
Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 4.08. Philadelphia, USA.
(1997): Bituminous pavement rehabilitation design. CSRA, Pretoria,
Republic of South Africa.
Guidelines for roads construction materials. CSRA, Pretoria, Republic
of South Africa.
4-6 HIGHWAY RESEARCH BOARD (1962). The AASHO Road Test.
Report 5, Pavement Research. Highway Research Board Special
Report No. 61E. National Research Council, Washington DC, USA.
4-7 PINARD M I and KGOBOKO K (1990). Issues associated with the
choice of vehicle load limits in Southern Africa. Proc. TRL - Regional
Roads Course, Gaborone, Botswana.
COMMISSION - SATCC (1998). Draft: Code of Practice for the
Design of Road Pavement. CSIR, Pretoria, South Africa, for SATCC.
ODA, London, UK.
ODA, London, UK.

Chapter 5
Subgrade
Project appraisal
Ch
Environment
DESIGN ELEMENTS
Traffic
Subgrade
Subgrade
Ch
STRUCTURAL
New Roads

Rehabilitation
DESIGN
Bituminous
Surfacing
Gravel Roads

selection of design
Ministry of Works
Chapter 5
Subgrade

This chapter describes the methods for subgrade evaluation for structural
pavement design of new roads, conventional sampling and laboratory testing.
Subgrade strength is classified on the basis of CBR values. Strength
indicators other than CBR may be used provided they are adequately
correlated to CBR values and are approved by the Ministry of Works at
project level.
/Chapter 9 Pavement Rehabilitation/ Alternative field investigation methods to determine subgrade strength may
be employed for the purpose of pavement rehabilitation or overlay design.
5.1 Design Depth

Properties of soils below the design depth The design depth is defined as the depth from the finished road level to
may indirectly affect pavement per- the depth that the load bearing strength of the soil no longer has an effect
formance, but are generally unrelated to
traffic loading. on the pavements performance in relation to traffic loading. Figure 5.1
shows the design depth in relation to the main structural components of
pavement and earthworks and Table 5.1 gives the design depth values in
relation to design road type.
Table 5.1 Design depth
D esign depth [m]

R oad ty pe General requi rements Heavy load classes
TLC 05-H to TLC 50-H
Paved trunk roads 0.8 1.2

Other roads 0.6 1.0
Original ground level Design depth

Finished road level
Pavement layers
Other roads
Paved trunk roads
Figure 5.1 Design depth
5.2 Centreline Soil Surveys

A desk study shall always be carried out to gather available information
about previous investigations, topography, climate, geology, soils, known
material sources, road type, design standard and expected traffic load
conditions (i.e. whether large number of very heavy axle loads are likely).
Issues related to slope stability and foundation of structures shall be
addressed separately.
5.2.0 General
Subgrade soils and their properties, including strength, shall be classified
based on soil surveys by the use of trial pits excavated along the road line.

Chapter 5
Subgrade
5.2.1 Depth of investigations Comments:

General
Soil surveys shall be planned and conducted in a manner that classifies all Initial contingency sampling at depths
materials according to their suitability in load bearing layers within the zone outside the assumed design depth can
minimise re-sampling later in the design
of the design depth. A preliminary vertical alignment shall be assumed at process in the case of major changes to
the time of the soil survey in order to ensure that soil samples for subgrade the final vertical alignment.
classifications are actually taken at levels that fall within the design depth
of the road.
Investigations shall be extended to below design depth as required to
detect problems that need special consideration. These include:
n presence of problem soils
n unfavourable subgrade conditions
n features associated with slope and embankment stability
Investigations in cuttings
Excavation of sample pits may be impractical in cuts deeper than 3 metres, The time consumption and cost of the
where special equipment may have to be employed. If possible, postponement investigations in deep cuttings should be
carefully assessed against the urgency of
of sampling until the time of construction should be considered under obtaining soil characteristics for the
such conditions. particular section.
Embankment areas
Evaluation of subgrade strength in embankment areas shall be based on the
best possible information about likely sources of earthworks fill materials
for use within the design depth.
5.2.2 Materials testing frequency

Test pits shall be excavated for the purpose of sampling the subgrade
along the road line, and materials testing carried out at a minimum average
frequency as shown in Table 5.2.
Table 5.2 Minimum materials testing frequency
R oad ty pe Indicator C B R strength Minimum number of

testing testing C B R tests for any
homogenous section
Min. for Absolute
statistical minimum
analy sis
Paved trunk
Mi n 4 per km Mi n 2 per km
roads
5 3
Other paved
Mi n 2 per km Mi n 1 per km
roads (ref. Chapter
5.2.3)
Gravel roads Mi n 2 per km Mi n 1 per 2 km
Indicator testing referred to in Table 5.2 includes Atterberg limits and

grading of particles larger than 75mm. Additional investigations, such as
hydrometer analysis, field measurements or specialised tests shall be
scheduled separately as required. The test methods referred to in Table 5.2
refer to CML test methods 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.7, 1.9 and 1.11.

Chapter 5
Subgrade
Comments: The testing frequencies in Table 5.2 are minimum averages and shall be
increased as required according to site conditions.
Occurence of more than one significant The test pit locations may be distributed un-evenly along the road line to
soil horizon requires increased material capture changes in soil conditions and as required for optimum use of
testing accordingly.
resources allocated for investigations.
5.2.3 Determination of CBRdesign

General
The CBRdesign is the CBR value of a homogenous section, for which the
subgrade strength is classified into S15, S7 or S3 for the purpose of
pavement design. The procedure to determine CBRdesign is shown in the
flow chart in Figure 5.2.
Worked Example Compilation Demarcation of Min 3 CBR

Site
homogenous tests per uniform
/Appendix A8. 2/ reconnaissance of input data
sections section
Yes
Design improved CBRdesign :
subgrade as Classify Use lowest
Cut ?
CBR value
required S3, S7, S15 Yes
No
Special
assessment No Min 5 CBR
of the tests per uniform
section section
Determine 90%-ile value Plot values

at the 0.1 X (n-1) point in ascending Yes
on the curve order
Figure 5.2 Procedure to determine CBRdesign
Homogenous sections
There is potential for confusion on site if Identification of sections deemed to have homogenous subgrade conditions
the demarcation of homogenous sections is carried out by desk studies of appropriate documents such as geological
is excessively detailed and leads to
frequent changes of construction methods. maps, followed by site reconnaissance that includes excavation of inspection
Identification of homogenous sections pits and initial indicator testing for confirmation of the site observations.
should therfore take into account
constructibility and potential cost
Due regard for localised areas that require individual treatment is an
implications. essential part of the site reconnaissance. Demarcation of homogenous
sections shall be reviewed and changed as required when the CBR test
results of the centreline soil survey are available.
Statistical analysis
The flow chart in Figure 5.2 shows the procedure to determine CBRdesign.
The CBRdesign for a section is the 90%-ile value of the CBR test results for
a section with homogenous strength. The method illustrated in Figure 5.3
shall be used for determination of CBRdesign of each homogenous section.
CBRdesign in cuttings
Worked Example The lowest CBR value encountered shall be used as the CBRdesign for
sections through cuttings.
/Appendix A8. 3/

Chapter 5
Subgrade
CBR values plotted 16 Comments:

in ascending order
14
The 90%-ile value for a section is the
Example 12 CBR value which 10% of the test results
CBR data fall below. The use of normal distribution
6 CBR(%) 10 and standard deviation is an unsuitable
8 method for determining CBRdesign.
8 n = 9 tests
9
6 A statistical method, cumulative sums
9 d = 0.1 x (n-1) (CUSUM), can be used to establish
9 4 = 0.8 homogenous sections. /Appendix A8.3/
11 90% -ile d=0.8
12 7.6 2
12 CBRdesign 0
14 8% 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Test
Figure 5.3 CBRdesign as the 90%-ile value
5.3 Laboratory Testing

CBR measurements in the laboratory shall be carried out at minimum three
density values to give a CBR Density relationship for the material.
4 days soaked (%)

100
The CBR value is determined at the nominal field density specified for
the respective earthworks operations, as set out in Table 5.3.
10
CBR
Table 5.3 Density for determination of CBR
1
L ay er D epth below D ensity for deter-
88
90
92
94
96
98
100
102
104
formation lev el mination of C B R % of MDD
[mm] [% of MD D ]
Upper subgrade 95
95
0 - 150 BS-Heavy compaction is used for all
(i mproved layer or i n-si tu) BS-Heavy imported materials.
Lower subgrade 93
93
150 - 300 The savings in earthworks as a result of
(i mproved layer or i n-si tu) BS-Heavy
upgrading of sections to a higher subgrade
90
90 class can be substantial under the
Fi ll More than 300 following conditions:
BS-Heavy - in cuttings
- on sections where improved
100
In-si tu More than 300 subgrade layers are constructed
BS-Li ght solely for the purpose of providing
foundation strength for the
BS-Li ght compacti on effort i s used on poor i n-si tu soi ls and deep i n-si tu soi ls rather than pavement
BS-Heavy due to i ts better correspondence wi th the actual effect from compacti on - on projects where earthworks
equi pment under condi ti ons wi th poor support for compacti on.
materials are particularly scarce
CBR can alternatively be determined at a higher density to upgrade sections The specified nominal field density and
the respective acceptance criteria shall
to a higher subgrade class if this can be realistically achieved in the field. be adjusted accordingly in the contract
documents for construction.
Specimen moistures to apply in determination of CBRdesign are given in
Table 5.4.
5.4 Subgrade Classes

The subgrade shall be classified according to its CBR strength as shown
in Table 5.4.

Chapter 5
Subgrade
Comments: Table 5.4 Subgrade strength classes
Subgrade CBRdesign [%] Density for

class Wet or moderate Dry climatic zones determination
climatic zones (both requirements shall be met) of CBRdesign
4 days soaked value Tested at OMC 4 days soaked value [% of MDD]
S15 Min 15 Min 15 Min 7 95 BS-Heavy
S7 7 - 14 7 - 14 3 - 14 93 BS-Heavy
S3 3-6 3-6 2-6 100 BS-Light
Problem soils: Special treatment is required. /Chapter 6/
‘Soaked’ and ‘OMC’ refer to standard 4 days soaking and the optimum moisture content determined in
accordance with tests CML1.9 and CML 1.11. Climatic zones are shown in /Figure 2.1/.
BS-Light compaction effort is used on poor in-situ soils and deep in-situ soils rather than BS-Heavy due to its
better correspondence with the actual effect from compaction equipment under conditions with poor support
for compaction. The referred laboratory test methods are CML 1.9 and 1.11.
Comments:
The design catalogue requires that all

subgrade is brought to a design strength 5.5 Improved Subgrade Layers
with a minimum CBR of 15% by con-
structing one or more improved subgrade 5.5.0 General
layers before the pavement is placed.
All subgrade shall be brought to a strength of CBR minimum 15% by
constructing one or more improved subgrade layers where necessary. The
use of improved subgrade layers has a number of advantages, such as:
n provision of a deeper pavement structure, having advantages under given
conditions such as occurrence of heavy axle loads in the traffic stream
n protection of earthworks below
n provision of a running surface for the traffic during construction
n improved compaction of pavement layers above
n provision of homogenous subgrade strength
n the improved subgrade acts as a filter layer between pavement layers
and poorer soils below
n provision of a gravel wearing surface in the case of stage construction
for future upgrading to a bitumen surfaced road
n economical use of local materials
5.5.1 Design of improved subgrade

Figure 5.4 shows the design of improved subgrade layers depending on the
subgrade CBRdesign determined in soil surveys and assessments of field data.

Chapter 5
Subgrade
Subgrade classes Comments:

Heavy traffic classes:
S7 S3 /Chapter 4 Traffic/
S15 General Heavy traffic General requirements Heavy traffic classes (-H) Climatic zones:
requirement classes (-H) Moderate Wet Moderate Wet /Chapter 2 Environment/
or dry climate or dry climate
Lower layer *) Upper layer *)
300mm 300mm 300mm
150mm 150mm 150mm

layer to be constructed
G15 G15 G15

Improved subgrade
none G15 G15 G15
300mm 300mm
150mm 150mm
G7 G7
none none none G7 G7
*) Material requirements for improved subgrade layers, including limits for maximum compacted layer
thickness are given in Table 5.5.
Figure 5.4 Design of improved subgrade layers
5.5.2 Material characteristics

Soils
Soils used in improved subgrade layers shall be non-expansive, non-
dispersive and free from any deleterious matter. Laboratory test results
shall meet the requirements in Table 5.5.
Material standards for dump rock are
presented in Table 5.5.
Dump rock
Dump rock is un-graded waste rock where the content of fines is suffic-
subgrade layers Compacted layer
Formation level (150 +150 mm) thickness (max 1m)
iently low so that the larger particles rest against each other when placed
in earthworks layers. Dump rock (DR) can be used as improved subgrade
when constructed in sufficiently thick layers, if necessary constructed dMAX
together with fills in one operation, so that the maximum particle size
does not exceed 2/3 of the compacted layer thickness. Max 2/3 of compacted
Roadbed or previous fill layer layer thickness
Construction of improved subgrade made of dump rock shall be finished Dump rock - cross section
off by filling in the voids in the surface with subgrade soils meeting the
Modification with lime or cement is the
requirements in Table 5.5. The filter criteria are given in Chapter 5.8. preferred method where soils meeting the
required standards are unavailable at
economical haulage distances.
Table 5.5 Material requirements for improved subgrade layers /Chapter 7 Pavement Materials/
CBR [%], wet or moderate
Min 15 after 4 days soaking Min 7 after 4 days soaking
climatic zones 1)
CBR [%], dry climatic zones 1) Min 15 at OMC Min 7 at OMC 1.9 and
(both requirements shall be met) Min 7 after 4 days soaking Min 3 after 4 days soaking 1.7
CBR-swell [%] 2) Max 1.5 Max 2.0
PI [%] Max 25 Max 30 1.2 and 1.3
Max particle size, dMAX 2/3 of layer thickness 2/3 of layer thickness 1,7
Compacted layer thickness [mm] Max 250 Max 250
1) Climatic zones are shown in /Figure 2.1/. CBR values shall be assesed at density as given in Table 5.3.
‘Soaked’ and ‘OMC’ refer to standard 4 days soaking and the optimum moisture content determined in
accordance with tests CML test methods 1.9 and 1.11
2) CBR-Swell is measured at 100% BS-Heavy compaction effort.

Chapter 5
Subgrade
Comments: 5.6 Fill

Soils used in fill shall be non-expansive, non-dispersive and free from any
deleterious matter. Laboratory test results shall meet the requirements in
Table 5.6.
Table 5.6 Required standards for fill
Better soil qualities than G3 should be used
wherever possible. Dump rock is normally Material G3
G3 DR
DR C ML test
a preferred type of fill material wherever properties (Soils ) (D umprock) method
available.
Mi n C BR [%] Mi n 3
-
4 days soaked value at 90% BS-Heavy 1.11
C BR-swell *) Max 2.0% -
Max parti cle si ze, 2/3 of layer 2/3 of layer
1.17
dM A X thi ckness thi ckness
C ompacted layer
Max 250 mm Max 1 m -
thi ckness
*) C BR-Swell i s measured at 100% BS-Heavy compacti on effort.
5.7 Roadbed Preparation

Future formation level After clearing of all topsoil the roadbed shall be scarified to a depth of
150mm, mixed and compacted. The compaction requirements depend on
the level of the roadbed in relation to the formation level. The compaction
requirements are given in Table 5.7. The density requirements in Table
Depth 5.7 are minimum values and shall be increased if higher densities have
150mm been assumed in the design of improved subgrade.
Table 5.7 Required roadbed compaction
Scarify & compact D epth below formation R equired field density

lev el [mm] [ % of MD D ] 1)
0 - 150 97
97 BS-Heavy
150 - 300 95
95 BS-Heavy
300 - 600 93
93 BS-Heavy
> 600 100 BS-Li ght 2)
1) Reference to C ML test 1.9.

2) BS-Li ght compacti on effort i s used on poor i n-si tu soi ls and deep i n-si tu soi ls rather
than BS-Heavy due to i ts better correspondence wi th the actual effect from
compacti on equi pment under condi ti ons wi th poor support for compacti on
Cohesive soils are unlikely to infiltrate a

5.8 Filter Layers
coarser material where water is not
present, thus making use of filter layers
5.8.0 General
or geo-textiles unnecessary. Such special Large difference between the grading of materials in adjacent layers carries
circumstances should be assessed risk of undesirable infiltration of fines into the matrix of the coarser mate-
carefully, taking into account potential risks
of prolonged access of water into the rial, e.g. between earthworks and pavement layers. In such cases the
structure, e.g. by flooding, and also the grading of the materials shall be assessed against the filter criteria given
consequences of damage due to
infiltration of fine soils into the coarser
below and construction of a filter layer shall be carried out if required.
material. Alternatively, geo-textiles can be used where cost calculations show this
option to be more economical.

Chapter 5
Subgrade
5.8.1 Filter criteria for soils/gravel Comments:

The criteria for grading of materials in adjacent layers are fulfilled when
the following two requirements are met:
d15 for the filter material
<5
d85 for the subsoil
and
< 25
d50 for the subsoil
5.8.2 Draining properties of filter layers

The criteria below should be met if a filter material with better drainage Situations may arise whereby the filter
properties than the subsoil is desired, such as in locations where water layer causes ingress of moisture instead
of draining the water out of the subsoil.
flows out of the subsoil. The designer should carefully consider whether a This may damage the road structure,and
filter layer with draining properties benefits the integrity of the structure. should therefor be avoided.
/Chapter 6 Problem Soils/.

>5
d15 for the subsoil
and minimum 50% should be retained on the 2 mm sieve.
5.8.3 Geo-textiles as filter

The requirements for geo-textile materials depend on site conditions and are
given in /Chapter7.7.1/. Geo-textiles shall not be used as filter unless cost
analysis has shown that alternative use of soils/gravel is uneconomical.
Increased bearing strength of earthworks or pavement shall not be attributed
to the presence of geo-textiles in the structure.
5.8.4 Cost
Cost calculations shall take into account the benefits of filter layers of
soils/gravel in respect of the structures bearing strength, by considering
the filter layer as part of the improved subgrade or subbase depending on
the material quality of the layer and its position in the structure.

Chapter 5
Subgrade
5-4 COMMITTEE OF STATE ROAD AUTHORITIES. TMH 5 (1981):
Sampling methods for road construction materials. CSRA, Pretoria,
Selection and design of hot-mix asphalt surfacings for highways.
Guidelines for roads construction materials. CSRA, Pretoria, Republic
of South Africa.
5 - 10 MITCHELL, R L, C P VAN DER MERWE and H K GEEL (1975).
5 - 11 ROAD DESIGN MANUAL (1987). Part III, Materials and Pavement
Design of Road Pavement. CSIR, Pretoria, South Africa, for SATCC.
ODA, London, UK.
structural design of bitumen-surfaced roads in tropical and
subtropical countries. Overseas Road Note No. 31. TRL,
Crowthorne, for ODA, London, UK.

Chapter 6
Problem Soils
Project appraisal
Ch
Environment
DESIGN ELEMENTS
Cross Section,
Traffic
Subgrade
Ch
STRUCTURAL
New Roads

Rehabilitation
DESIGN
Bituminous
Surfacings
Gravel Roads

selection of design
Ministry of Works
Chapter 6
Problem Soils

Problem Soils categorises subgrade materials with low strength, or other
unfavourable properties such as for:
n expansive soils
n dispersive soils
n organic soils
n saline soil or presence of saline water
These soils require special treatment before acceptance in the pavement
foundation. After appropriate treatment, they are re-classified to fall into one
of the subgrade categories S15, S7 or S3 for the purpose of pavement design.
6.1 Low-Strength Soils (CBR <3%)

CBR referred to is determined at 100% Soils with CBRsoaked less than 3% (< 2% in dry climatic zones) occurring
MDD of BS-Light compaction. The BS- within the design depth are described as Low Strength Soils. Before
Light compaction effort is used on poor
in-situ soils rather than BS-Heavy due to acceptance as foundation of the pavement within the design depth these
its better correspondence with the actual soils require special treatment that may include one or more of the
effect from compaction equipment under
conditions with poor support for com-
following measures:
paction /Chapter 5 Subgrade/. n removal and replacement of soils
Climatic zones: /Figure 2.1/ n chemical stabilisation or
n modification with e.g. lime
n mechanical stabilisation
n raising of the vertical alignment to increase soil cover and thereby
redefine the design depth within the structure
Further details on the respective methods for treatment of these soils need
to be established in the design at project level and will vary depending on
soil properties, site conditions, available equipment, available materials,
experience from other sites with similar conditions and construction
economy.
The subgrade is re-classified according to the new subgrade strength
after treatment.
6.2 Expansive Soils

6.2.0 General
Expansive soils are those that exhibit particularly large volumetric changes
(swell and shrinkage) following variations in their in-service moisture
contents. Expansive soils shall be assessed also when they occur below
design depth. The chosen measures to minimise or eliminate the effect of
expansive soils shall be economically realistic and proportionate to the
risks of potential pavement damage and increased maintenance costs.
Large volumetric changes (swell and This chapter describes procedures to identify and to classify expansive
shrinkage) are common features for
expansive soils.
soils according to their expansiveness and includes required construction
methods to minimise pavement damages where roads are crossing expansive
soils. The flow chart in Figure 6.1 shows the procedure to classify
expansive soils For further details: /Appendix A6/.

Chapter 6
Problem Soils
Routine investigations Comments:
No
Expansive
Perhaps
Normal Extended investigations
design
No Yes Severe consequences

Expansive? to the construction
economy? Yes
No
Design and construction

In-depth study Differential movements over the cross
measures for expansive soils
section of the road causes development
of longitudinal cracks, first occuring in
the shoulder area.
Figure 6.1 Procedure to classify expansive soils
6.2.1 Type of distress
Particular problems associated with road construction over expansive soils
movement
movement
Seasonal
Seasonal
are commonly the seasonal volumetric changes in these soils rather than
low bearing strength, since expansive soils are often relatively strong at
equilibrium moisture content. Typical distress is from seasonal wetting and Cross section
drying whereby soils at the edge of the road wet up - and dry out - at a
different rate than those under a bituminous surfacing. This mechanism
causes differential movements over the cross section of the road and
associated crack developments, first occurring in the shoulder area, Expansive soils
subsequently developing in the carriageway. Outer zones having large seasonal

variations in moisture content
6.2.2 Identification of expansive soils

General
Investigations shall be undertaken as described in this chapter and at
further detail in /Appendix A.6/ following test programmes employed at
an appropriate extent of details as described below. The stages of the
investigation programme are:
n Routine investigations are those carried out during surveys of all
projects.
n Extended investigations include simple additional indicator testing
in the laboratory where expansive soils are suspected.
n In-depth studies include specialised laboratory testing and is employed
where the extended investigations have shown occurrence of expansive
soils, and the required countermeasures have far reaching budgetary
consequences.
Routine Investigations
Routine Investigations include analysis of routine data from ordinary Simple geological and geomorphological
assessments are carried out during desk
centreline soil surveys and site observations carried out during normal studies of projects for supplementary infor-
design work on projects. Routine investigations include: mation about the likelihood of encountering
expansive soils.
n simple geological and geomorphological assessments
n field reconnaissance
n routine indicator testing of Atterberg limits and grading
[CML tests 1.2, 1.3, 1.4 and 1.7]
n analysis of routine test data

Chapter 6
Problem Soils
Comments: The information in Table 6.1 is routinely collected as part of proper field
reconnaissance, with typical features of expansive soils given in keyword
form:
Table 6.1 Features of expansive soils soil descriptions
The purpose of analysing routine test
results is to establish whether it is Soil Ty pical features of
necessary to apply Extended Investi- description expansiv e soils
gations or not.
Soi l type The more clayey the soi l, the
more li kely to be expansi ve
C onsi stency Sti ff to very sti ff
when sli ghtly moi st to dry
C onsi stency when wet Soft to fi rm and sti cky
Structure Typi cal cracked surface, sli cked-
si ded fi ssures
C olour Only a reli able i ndi cator when
combi ned wi th local knowledge
Local knowledge from road projects i n the area i s i nvaluable
It is advisable to keep archive samples A soil is potentially expansive and requires Extended Investigations if
from the centreline soils survey for
Extended Investigations on projects where exhibiting both of the following properties:
expansive soils are likely to be encountered.
n the result of the field reconnaissance indicates expansive soils, and
n PIW is greater than 20%
PIW = Plasticity Index tested on fraction <425 mm according to CML tests 1.2 and
1.3 and weighted for the samples actual content of particles <425 mm , as follows:
PIW = PI x (% passing 425mm ) / 100
Extended Investigations
Extended Investigations are carried out where routine investigations
indicate potentially expansive soils. They include simple additional
laboratory tests to estimate expansiveness and shall be employed routinely
whenever special measures against damage from expansive soils are
proposed in the design. Extended Investigations shall include:
n testing of Shrinkage Limit [ASTM D4943-89]
n calculation of expansiveness from given formulas
n classification into Low/Medium/High expansiveness
In-depth Studies
In-depth Studies are carried out where the Extended Investigations have
shown occurrence of expansive soils, and the required countermeasures
have far reaching budgetary consequences. In-depth Studies include
specialised laboratory testing to quantify swell potential and are required
when extensive areas of expansive soils are encountered thus warranting
a relatively costly testing programme.
6.2.3 Classification of expansive soils

Expansiveness of the soil is a convenient expression to classify predicted
heave as a result of swelling in expansive soils, although heave depends

Chapter 6
Problem Soils
on a number of other factors such as the conditions under which the soil Comments:
performs in the road including initial moisture content, density and suction,
plus lateral support, vertical stress and stress history. The expansiveness
of the soil is however a practically measurable parameter that makes it
possible to classify the expected severity of the problem. Inclusion of
other parameters becomes too complex for practical assessment of
expansive soils in road design and construction. The system for relative
classification expansive soils is given in Table 6.2 based on their
expansiveness. /Appendix A6/ gives the procedure to determine e ex..
Table 6.2 Expansive soils classification
Expansiv eness e exex C lassification
< 20 Low
20 50 Medi um
> 50 Hi gh
6.2.4 Design on expansive soils

General
Extended Investigations shall be carried out before specifying special design For calculations of expansiveness for
or construction measures to minimise damage caused by expansive soils. classification into Low/Medium/High:
/Appendix A6/
In-depth studies shall only be carried out on specific agreement with
Ministry of Works.
The prescribed methods for design on expansive soils are given in Table 6.3.
Design principles
Cost considerations may prohibit full replacement of expansive soils - Widening of shoulders is always
beneficial in construction on expansive
particularly if they occur over large areas - although this is the technically soils and should be applied whenever
ideal solution. The following principal methods are prescribed in the design economically possible. The zone of
severe seasonal changes in moisture
in order to minimise seasonal movements in expansive soils and thereby content is thereby moved further away
reduce the risk of associated damage to the pavement. The methods are from the roadway.
compromises specified for the purpose of providing the most favourable Chemical stabilisation, normally by the use
conditions possible under the circumstances: of lime, to counteract volumetric changes
in expansive soils is technically possible,
n provide nearest possible constant moisture contents over the full width but requires careful appraisal of the
associated construction costs as well as
of the carriageway below the embankment the potential practical problems in
n replace the upper layer of the expansive soil, i.e. the zone where the admixing stabilisers into deep layers of
clayey soils. The method is generally not
largest proportion of the volumetric changes takes place recommended.
n provide a minimum cover
Side drains and slope protection

Side drains should be avoided in areas with expansive soils. If side drains
cannot be avoided due to site conditions then they shall be kept at a minimum min. 6 m (4 m)
distance of 6 metres from the toe of the embankment, however a distance embankment
side drain
of 4 metres is allowed for roads other than trunk roads. Side fill made of

Chapter 6
Problem Soils
Comments: expansive soils requires erosion protection by grassing, but no trees shall
be planted on the embankment slope.
Table 6.3 Expansive soils methods for treatment
Alternativ e methods for construction ov er

Expansiveness expansiv e soils
of the soils
Pav ed trunk roads Other pav ed roads
Low sealed shoulders

e ex < 2 0 si de slopes 1: 6 or flatter *) -
Figure 6.2
Medium - sealed shoulders
e ex 2 0 - 5 0 - si de slopes 1: 6 or flatter *)
mi n. earthworks cover 1 m min. earthworks cover 0.6 m
Figure 6.3
- excavate and replace 0.6 m of clay according to Fig. 6.3.
- min. earthworks cover 1 m
- sealed shoulders
- si de slopes 1: 6 or flatter *)
H igh mi n. shoulder wi dth 2 m

e ex > 5 0 Alternati ve: Alternati ve:
Figure 6.2
N one - sealed shoulders
- mi n. shoulder wi dth 2 m
- min. earthworks cover 1 m
- side slopes 1: 6 or flatter*)
*)
Where the earthworks cover is larger than 2 metres the side slopes can be made
1:4 or flatter.
6.2.5 Construction on expansive soils

Moisture
Processing and compaction of expansive The roadbed of expansive soil shall be kept moist and be covered with
soils does not improve their swell earthworks fill without undue delays.
properties, neither is their strength
significantly increased. Attempts to adjust
their moisture content or to achieve an Compaction
optimum by mixing, is time consuming,
operationally impractical and unnecessary. Attempts to densify expansive soils by processing and compaction are not
Nominal rolling of the roadbed is optional required.
to provide a working surface for con-
struction of subsequent layers.
Fill for replacement of expansive soils
Requirements for fill materials: /Chapter Fill materials used for replacement of expansive soils shall be soils
5 Subgrade/
meeting the general requirements for fill, and be as impermeable as
possible. Plastic soils (PI min. 15%) shall be used wherever available at
economical haulage distances.

Chapter 6
Problem Soils
Freely draining material Comments:

Pavement layers
1:6 or flatter
Fill and improved subgrade 1:2 Side-fill
Expansive soil
Figure 6.2 Cross section and construction on expansive soils
Embankments 2 m or higher
Freely draining material Temporary stockpile of
Pavement layers 1:4 or flatter excavated expansive soil
to be used for side-fill
Fill and improved subgrade 1:2
>2m
Side-fill
Max. the width of the surfacing
Expansive soil excavated 0.6 m

deep and replaced with fill
Embankments less than 2 m in hight

Freely draining material Temporary stockpile of
Pavement layers 1:6 or flatter excavated expansive soil
to be used for side-fill
<2m Fill and improved subgrade 1:2
Side-fill
Expansive soil excavated 0.6 m deep and replaced with fill
Figure 6.3 Cross section and construction on expansive soils with soil
replacement Comments:
6.3 Other Problem Soils

6.3.0 General
This chapter discusses a variety of soil types or soil properties that could
be problematic depending on site conditions and the intended function of
the soils. Such soils include:
n dispersive soils
n saline soils or presence of saline water
n organic matter in high quantities
n deleterious minerals such as micas and sulphides
The subgrade shall be re-classified according to the new subgrade
strength after appropriate treatment of the problem soils.
6.3.1 Dispersive soils

General
Dispersive soils are clays that behave as single grained, very fine particles, The behaviour of dispersive soils is due
to the electro-chemical composition of
rather than as a cohesive mass like a clay is expected to perform. As single these clays that results in particle
grained with very fine particles, these soils have almost no resistance to repulsion rather than attraction.
erosion, are susceptible to pipe developments in earthworks, crack easily
and have low shear strength. Their excessively erodible nature is the
major problem associated with dispersive soils for road construction

Chapter 6
Problem Soils
Comments: Identification
A combination of simple indicator tests, observations of erosion patterns in
Known laboratory tests to confirm the field, soil colour, terrain features and vegetation, will together give
dispersive properties require specialised
procedures and have generally poor
sufficient indications that dispersive soils are present, and shall prompt
repeatability. Indicator test, compre- precautions in design and construction of road projects. Dispersive soils
hensive laboratory test methods and cannot be identified by gradation and Atterberg limit tests only.
observation features to identify dispersive
soils are described in /Appendix A6.2/.
Design and construction
The general properties of dispersive soils are usually poor and likely to
exclude them from use in the earthworks due to non-compliance with the
general material standards. The following is required if dispersive soils are
encountered:
n particular attention to erosion protection of cut slopes and in drainage
channels is required
n dispersive soils in unmodified form shall not be used for fill
n modification with 2% to 3% lime is required if their use in the
earthworks is unavoidable for whatever reason
The typical damage from soluble salts is 6.3.2 Saline soils or presence of saline water
by blistering of the surface, often seen
already after application of the prime. Potential damage
Fretting of the surface edge can be seen
after a length of time in service and Presence of soluble salts in pavement or earthworks can cause damage to
excessive pothole developments can a bituminous surfacing due to pressures set up just under the bituminous
occur bearing no apparent relation to other seal by crystallisation of salts migrating upwards as a result of evaporation.
pavement defects.
cross section The problem is related to the use of thin bituminous surfacings, primarily
in surface treated pavements. Soluble salt contents in excess of 0.2% in
the base course are potentially harmful in these type of pavements.
See detail Soluble salt contents in excess of 0.5% in the subbase, or high salinity of
A thin bituminous seal
gets pushed up by the
groundwater or earthworks layers, may cause migration of soluble salts to
crystallisation forces
and blistering occurs,
the base course leading to critically high percentages in this layer.
having a diametre of
5 to 10 cm initially, Crystallisation of
subsequently developing soluble salts under
into a pothole. the bituminous seal.
Locations
Areas where damage due to soluble salts can occur in the dry climatic
zone and in areas along the coast with influence of sea water.
Soluble salts migrate towards the
surface within granular layers
Identification
Soluble salts in soils and in construction water is identified indirectly by
laboratory tests of electric conductivity. Construction water shall be
admixed to the sample at 1.5 times the required amount to obtain OMC
before the sample is taken for testing of electric conductivity.
Construction
The following construction measures shall be specified where soluble salts
Close-up of salt blisters.
are present in the pavement materials and alternative sources are not
The test of electric conductivity indicates economically obtainable:
the content of all salts in the sample - both
harmful and not harmful - and will therefore
in general give results on the conservative
n allowing the layer to dry and remove crystallised salts from the surface
side. Exhaustive testing to assess the before construction of following layers
presence of damaging soluble salts is
complex and will only be required under n priming and construction of the bituminous surfacing immediately
special circumstances. after processing of the base course
n the use of bitumen emulsion prime instead of cutback bitumen

Chapter 6
Problem Soils
6.3.3 Other deleterious matter Comments:
Organic matter
Organic soils, e.g. in swamp areas, require special investigations to assess Recommended limits of organic matter
for cemented materials: /Chapter 7 -
ground stability and potential for excessive settlements. High contents of Pavement Materials/
organic matter is undesirable in pavement materials, particularly when
used in cement or lime stabilised layers. Excessive amounts of organic
matter causes increased demands for stabiliser to achieve the required
unconfined compression strength.
Deleterious minerals
High contents of muscovite mica or sulphides are not allowed in pave- Limits for contents of mica and sulphide
ment layers. minerals in pavement materials: /Chapter
7 - Pavement Materials/
The potential risks of damage due to presence of other deleterious miner-
als, such as nepheline or others, and chemical contaminants in mine
tailings or industrial waste products, shall be assessed as required at
project level depending on the intended use of the materials.

Chapter 6
Problem Soils
6 -1 BOTSWANA ROAD DESIGN MANUAL (1994). Draft Volume 3,
6 -2 COMMITTEE OF STATE ROAD AUTHORITIES. TRH 14 (1985):
Guidelines for road construction materials. CSRA, Pretoria, Republic of
South Africa.
6 -3 GOURLEY, C S and H D SCHREINER. TRANSPORT RESEARCH
LABORATORY (1993). Assessment of the expansiveness of soils.
Transport Research Laboratory, Project Report PR/OSC/012/93.
Crowthorne, UK.
6 -4 GOURLEY, C S and H D SCHREINER. TRANSPORT RESEARCH
LABORATORY (1994). Geotechnical properties of expansive soils.
Transport Research Laboratory, Project Report PR/OSC/015/94.
Crowthorne, UK.
6-5 GOURLEY, C S and H D SCHREINER. TRANSPORT RESEARCH
LABORATORY (1993). The extent and engineering significance of
expansive soils. Transport Research Laboratory, Project Report PR/
OSC/021/93. Crowthorne, UK.
6-6 GOURLEY, C S and H D SCHREINER. TRANSPORT RESEARCH
LABORATORY (1993). A new approach to the determination of the
expansiveness of soils. Transport Research Laboratory, Project Report
PR/OSC/011/93. Crowthorne, UK.
6 -7 HATHOUT, A S (1983). Soil atlas of Tanzania. Geography department,
University of Dar es Salaam.
6-8 McCOOK, D K (1980). The identification and treatment of dispersive
clay soils. Oral presentation to AEG 1980 Annual meeting, Dallas, Texas,
USA.
6 - 10 MITCHELL, R L, C P VAN DER MERWE and H K GEEL (1975).
Standard Flexible Pavement Design For Rural Roads with
Light to Medium Traffic. Republic of Zimbabwe.
6 - 11 OCONNELL M J and C S GOURLEY (1993). Expansive clay road
embankments in arid areas: moisture-suction conditions. Proc. First
International Symposium on Engineering Characteristics of Arid Soils,
City University. London, UK.
6 - 12 OBIKA, B and R J FREER-HEWISH (1990). Soluble salt damage to thin
Bituminous surfacings of roads and runways. Australian Road
Research, 20(4).
6 - 15 WESTON D J (1980). Expansive soil treatment for southern Africa.
Proc. 4th International Conference on Expansive Soils, Denver, USA.

Chapter 7
Pavement
Materials
Project appraisal
Ch
Environment
DESIGN ELEMENTS
Cross Section,
Traffic
Subgrade
Ch
STRUCTURAL
New Roads
Pavement Pavement
Materials Rehabilitation
DESIGN
Bituminous
Surfacings
Gravel Roads

selection of design
Ministry of Works
Chapter 7
Pavement Materials

This chapter defines the physical properties for materials to be used in the
pavement structure and forms an essential part of the method for design
of new roads as given by the design catalogue, and rehabilitation design
for existing roads. Requirements for materials in bituminous surfacings
and gravel roads are given in /Chapter 10/ and /Chapter 11/ respectively.
Within the limitations given in this chapter, materials used in the structural
layers of the pavement shall be selected according to criteria of availability,
economic factors and previous experience.
Details on the method to assess data from All materials are indicated by means of codes, e.g. G80, C2, CM, etc.,
the quality control of material properties
are given in Standard Specifications for which refer to materials with certain defined properties prescribed in this
Highway Construction. chapter. For the sake of consistency and ease of reference, the same codes
are used in the pavement design catalogue and elsewhere in the manual
where reference is being made to material types with specific properties.
References to the relevant standards As far as possible all material types commonly used in the country are
are given in Standard Specifications for
Highway Construction for manufactured included, e.g. natural gravel/soils, processed or crushed materials, materi-
materials such as lime, cement and als stabilised with cement or lime and bituminous materials.
bitumen.
.
7.1 Material Types

7.1.1 Crushed, fresh rock or boulders
Materials made by crushing and screening of hard rock sources of a variety
of rock types can be used in layer work and in bituminous materials
provided they meet the respective material standards. Two different
qualities are used for layer work, CRR or CRS, depending on the type of
source and the refinement of the quarry product. Crushed materials of
qualities falling below the material classes CRR and CRS shall be denoted
G80 or lower as appropriate.
7.1.2 Weathered rocks and laterites
General
Weathered rocks and laterites are common sources for pavement materials
in the category of natural gravel and as a source for production of chemically
stabilised materials. Laterites are highly weathered materials formed in a
secondary process where the hydrated oxides of iron or aluminium have
been accumulated in sufficient concentrations to affect the physical
character of the deposits where they occur /7 - 8/.
Basic igneous rocks

One test method alone is often insufficient Weathered rocks of basic igneous origin, such as basalt and dolerite, may
to describe the durability of the rock and
observations of past performance is in- release additional plastic fines during construction and in service, and
valuable supplementary information thereby cause loss of strength over time. Such materials may require
where the deposit has been used
previously. It is important to consider specialised additional laboratory testing to verify their long term durability.
quality variations within one rock deposit Tests of durability /7 - 3/ may include.
where performance data are used in the
assessment of durability. n chemical tests such as Sodium or Magnesium Sulphate Soundness
tests (SSS or MSS)

Chapter 7
Pavement Materials
n investigations of mineralogy by counts of secondary minerals Comments:

n physical tests by aggregate crushing in wet vs. dry condition or
modified ball mill tests with studies of associated changes in grading
and Atterberg limits after testing
Reference is made to the Central Materials Laboratory of Ministry of

Works for appropriate procedures to test durability.
7.1.3 Coral rock and calcrete

General
Coral rock is a major source for pavement materials along the coast, where
alternative sources of hard rock or good gravel are generally unavailable
within short distances. Calcretes are formed under favourable conditions
in dry and moderate climatic zones in a secondary process where calcium
carbonate have been accumulated in sufficient concentrations to partly or
fully alter or replace the host material thereby affecting the physical character
of the deposits where they occur. Both calcretes and coral rocks typically
have large variations in quality within a deposit and require careful
selection and stockpiling.
Laboratory tests
The Atterberg limits of coral rocks and calcretes will appear artificially high Drying of material during testing of
Atterberg limits is carried out at 60oC for
as a result of the typical low specific gravity and the high water absorption calcrete and coral rock, in accordance with
of the particles often seen in these materials. Standard grading tests may guidelines of Central Materials Laboratory
of Ministry of Works.
give a distorted impression of the particle distribution in the material due
to varying specific gravity of particles having different size within one
sample. The design limits of coral rocks and calcretes are therefore modified
compared to the general requirements and grading envelopes are not given
for these types of materials.
.
7.1.4 Volcanic tuff (scoria)

Volcanic tuff often fail to meet pavement material standards due to low The use of special compaction equipment
such as grid rollers can be beneficial under
particle strength and can give construction problems even when meeting circumstances where breaking of particles
required material standards for layer work. This is due to poor is desirable.
compactability caused by their open grain structure and a rough particle
shape. Admixture of suitable fines can greatly improve workability, reduce
the breaking of particles during construction and give acceptable results.
7.1.5 Self-cementing materials

Certain types of natural gravel such as some pedogenic materials - e.g. Petrifaction test of the soil fines and tests
calcrete and laterite - are known to exhibit self-cementing properties in of CBR after wet/dry cycles or others may
be used to identify self-cementing
pavement layers, possibly caused by suction. Such materials would properties in soils /7 - 3/ and /7 - 4/.
require specialised testing and evaluation before any favourable self-
cementing properties can be taken advantage of in the pavement design.

Chapter 7
Pavement Materials
Comments: 7.2 Unbound Materials

7.2.1 Natural gravel
Classification
The natural gravel category includes granular materials - without any
admixture of stabilisers - having the following composition:
n 100% natural gravel, or
n natural gravel with such small proportions of crushed particles that
the material properties are almost identical to the uncrushed portion
Pavement materials falling into this category are shown in Table 7.1.
Table 7.1 Natural gravel, material classes
Material class C haracteristics

- C BR mi n. 80%
G 80 - the class i ncludes crushed materi als where less than 50% by
mass of particles retained on the 5 mm sieve has a crushed face
G 60 C BR mi n. 60%
G 45 C BR mi n. 45%
G 25 C BR mi n 25%
Material requirments
Natural granular pavement materials shall comply with the requirements
in Tables 7.2 and 7.3.
Table 7.2 Material requirements - G80 and G60
Material Material class CML test

properties G80 G60 method
Wet or moderate climatic zones: min 80 after 4 days soak Wet or moderate climatic zones: min 60 after 4 days soak
CBR [%] Dry climatic zones (both requirements shall be met): Dry climatic zones (both requirements shall be met):
at 98% MDD of min 80 at OMC of BS-Heavy min 60 at OMC of BS-Heavy 1.7 and
BS-Heavy min 60 after 4 days soaking min 45 after 4 days soaking 1.11
max 0.5 max 1.0
CBR - swell [%]
measured at BS-Heavy compaction measured at BS-Heavy compaction
General Coral rock, calcrete or General Coral rock, calcrete or
Atterberg requirements other calcified materials requirements other calcified materials
limits 1) Wet or Dry Wet Dry or Wet Dry or Wet Dry or
moderate climate climate moderate climate moderate climate moderate
max LL [%] 30 40 35 45 35 45 40 45 1.2
max PI [%] 8 14 10 16 10 16 12 18 1.3
max LS [%] 4 7 5 8 5 8 6 9 1.4
Grading, sieve Grading envelope, G80
(no envelope for G60, coral rock, calcrete or other calcified materials)
sizes [mm] [% passing]
63 100
37.5 80 - 100 Grading requirements:
20 60 - 95 - dMAX shall be maximum 2/3 of the compacted layer thickness
5 30 - 65 - Grading Modulus (GM *) ): min 2.0 1.7
2 20 - 50 *)
0.425 10 - 30 GM = [ 300 - (% passing 2mm) - (% passing 0.425mm) - (% passing 0.075mm) ] / 100
0.075 5 - 15
Particle TFVdry : min 80 kN TFVdry : min 50 kN
2.7
strength TFVsoaked : min 60% of TFVdry TFVsoaked : min 60% of TFVdry
Soluble salts Where the gravel is used under a surface treatment, soluble salt content is assessed in accordance with /7-11/.
Field density Nominal value: min 98% of MDD, BS-Heavy
1) It is emphasised that the Atterberg limits shall be measured according to CML test methods 1.2, 1.3 and 1.4. These methods follow BS procuders and
utilise BS equipment. Other laboratory test procedures are likely to give results that are not comparable with the given material requirements.

Chapter 7
Pavement Materials
Table 7.3 Material requirements - G45 and G25

Comments:
Material Material class

CML test
properties G45 G25 method
Wet or moderate climatic zones: min 45 after 4 days soak Wet or moderate climatic zones: min 25 after 4 days soak
CBR [%] Dry climatic zones (both requirements shall be met): Dry climatic zones (both requirements shall be met):
at 95% MDD of min 45 at OMC of BS-Heavy min 25 at OMC of BS-Heavy 1.7 and
BS-Heavy min 25 after 4 days soaking min 15 after 4 days soaking 1.11
max 0.5 max 1.0
CBR - swell [%]
measured at BS-Heavy compaction measured at BS-Heavy compaction
General Coral rock, calcrete or General Coral rock, calcrete or
Atterberg requirements other calcified materials requirements other calcified materials
limits 1) Wet or Dry Wet Dry or Wet or Dry Wet Dry or
moderate climate climate moderate moderate climate climate moderate
max LL [%] 40 45 45 50 45 50 45 55 1.2
max PI [%] 14 18 16 20 16 20 18 24 1.3
max LS [%] 7 9 8 10 8 10 9 12 1.4
*)
Grading min 1.5 min 1.2
*) 1.7
Modulus (GM) GM = [ 300 - (% passing 2mm) - (% passing 0.425mm) - (% passing 0.075mm) ] / 100
Particle size dMAX shall be maximum 2/3 of the compacted layer thickness
Soluble salts Where the gravel is used under a surface treatment, soluble salt content is assessed in accordance with /7-11/.
Field density Nominal value: min 95% of MDD, BS-Heavy
1) It is emphasised that Atterberg limits shall be measured according to CML test methods 1.2, 1.3 and 1.4. These methods follow BS procuders and utilise
BS equipment. Other laboratory test procedures are likely to give results that are not comparable with the given material requirements.
Comments:
7.2.2 Crushed materials
Classification
The category includes crushed granular materials - without any admixture
of stabilisers - where the full range of particle sizes from fines up to the
max. nominal size are included. The pavement design catalogue uses two
basic qualities of crushed base course materials, as described in Table 7.4.
The classes of pavement materials falling into this category are shown in
Table 7.4.
Table 7.4 Crushed materials, material classes
It should be noted that the requirements
Material class C haracteristics for compaction of CRR materials are very
high and are normally not achieved unless
- fresh, crushed rock or large, crushed boulders, special techniques such as slushing with
>0.3 m di ameter water are applied during construction. This
C RR type of material is therefore never
- requi rements are restri cti ve
prescribed unless a subbase stabilised
- compacti on requi rements are restri cti ve with cement or lime is used in order to
provide a firm platform for construction of
- the class i ncludes crushed oversi ze from gravel the base course enabling slushing to be
sources, crushed all-i n sources of boulders and safely carried out without softening of the
C RS crushed coral rocks of selected quali ti es subbase.
- mi n. 50% by mass of parti cles retai ned on the
5 mm si eve shall have at least one crushed face
Material requirements
Crushed granular materials for pavement layers shall comply with the
requirements in Table 7.5.

Chapter 7
Pavement Materials
Comments: Table 7.5 Material requirements - CRR and CRS

properties CRR CRS method
Crushed rock. Shall be made by crushing and Crushed stone. Made by crushing and screening of
screening of fresh quarried rock or clean, un-weathered blasted rock, stones, boulders and oversize from natural
Material source boulders of minimum 0.3 m diameter. All particles shall gravel. Min 50% by mass of particles larger than 5 mm
be crushed, no soil fines allowed. shall have at least one crushed face. Max 30% of
material passing 5 mm can be soil fines.
1)
max LL [%] 30 35 1.2
1)
max LS [%] 3 4 1.4
Grading, sieve [% passing] [% passing]
sizes [mm] Coarse Type Fine Type Coarse Type Fine Type
50 100
37.5 100 90 - 100 100
28 87 - 97 100 75 - 95 90 - 100
20 75 - 90 87 - 97 60 - 90 65 - 95
10 52 - 68 62 - 77 40 - 75 40 - 70 1.7
5 38 - 55 44 - 62 29 - 60 29 - 52
2 23 - 40 27 - 45 20 - 45 20 - 40
1,18 18 - 33 22 - 38 17 - 40 15 - 33
0,425 11 - 24 13 - 27 12 - 31 10 - 24
0,075 4 - 12 5 - 12 5 - 15 4 - 12
Aggregate TFVsoaked : min 75% of TFVdry TFVsoaked : min 60% of TFVdry
2.7
strength TFVdry : min 110 kN
Soluble salt content For aggregate used under a surface treatment, soluble salt content is assessed in accordance with /7-11/.
Field density Nominal value: min 88% Nominal value: min 100%
requirements of Aggregate Density of MDD BS-Heavy
Comments:
7.3 Cemented materials

7.3.1 Classification
Cemented materials described in this manual include all natural or
crushed materials where a stabiliser of cement or lime has been admixed.
The classes of cemented materials are shown in Table 7.6.
Table 7.6 Cemented materials, material classes
Material class C4 will normally be used as
subbase in concrete pavements and Material class C haracteristics
material standards are not given here.
- UC S mi n. 4 MP a - used as subbase i n concrete

pavements
C4
- made from source materi als of quali ty nomi nally as
C RS - wi th modi fi ed requi rements
- UC S mi n. 2 MP a
- made from source materi als of quali ty nomi nally as
C2
G45 - wi th modi fi ed requi rements
- UC S mi n. 1 MP a
C1 - made from source materi als of quali ty nomi nally as
- UC S mi n. 0.5 MP a modi fi ed materi al
CM - made from source materi als of quali ty nomi nally as
7.3.2 Material requirements

Cemented materials shall comply with the requirements in Table 7.7.

Chapter 7
Pavement Materials
Table 7.7 Material requirements - C2, C1 and CM.

Comments:

properties C2 C1 CM method
Subbase quality soils/gravel Earthworks quality soils/gravel
Source material
Nominal quality of source material - with requirements as given here
min UCS [MPa] 2,0 1,0 0,5 1.21
ICL - test Stabiliser content [ % design ] shall be minimum the initial consumption of lime (ICL) value 1.22
1)
max PI after stabilisation [%] 8 8 8 1.2 and 1.3
Before stabilisation:
min CBRsoaked [%] 30 20 - 1.11
at 95% MDD of BS-Heavy
1)
max PI [%] 20 25 35 1.2 and 1.3
*) min 1.5 min 1.2 -
Grading modulus *)
GM = [ 300 - (% passing 2mm) - (% passing 0.425mm) - (% passing 0.075mm) ] / 100 1.7
Particle size, d MAX d MAX to be max 2/3 of compacted layer thickness
Aggregate strength TFVdry : min 50 kN - - 2.7
Field density Nominal value: min 97% of MDD BS-Heavy
The content of organic matter should not exceed 0.5% - 1% - 2% for C2 - C1 - CM materials respectively.
Comments:
7.3.3 Type of stabiliser
The stabiliser shall be Ordinary Portland Cement or lime meeting the High contents of organic matter will
requirements of BS-890. Hydrated lime or quicklime may be used, but a increase the demand for stabiliser to
achieve the required Unconfined Com-
programme describing the safety precaution for protection of personnel pression Strength (UCS) for the material.
shall be established on sites where quicklime is used.
Table 7.8 gives the best suited type of stabiliser to use depending on the
soil properties.
Table 7.8 Selection of stabiliser for cemented materials
Lime can be successfully used for
stabilisation of some calcified materials
% passing the PI
PI B est suited even when the PI is low.
75 mm siev e [% ] stabiliser
TRL-Road Note 31 /7 - 7/ and South Africa
PI i s less than 6% or TRH 13 /7 - 9/ refers for guidelines on the
PI x (%pass. 75 mm) cement only 1 ) use of pozzolans and for further details
about the stabilisation process in general.
i s less than 60
Less than 25%
6 - 10 cement preferred
more than 10 cement or li me
less than 10 cement preferred
More than 25% 10 - 20 cement or li me
more than 20 li me preferred 2)
1)
Li me requi res presence of clay parti cles to react and i s therefore used for materi als
wi th hi gh PI. Admi xture of pozzolans, such as pulveri sed fuel ash from coal fi red power
plants, can make stabi li sati on wi th li me possi ble also for materi als wi th low PI.
2)
C ement i s the preferred stabi li ser for materi als wi th low PI. However, cement can be
used for stabi li sati on of materi als wi th hi gh PI provi ded the workabi li ty of the materi al i s
i mproved by pre-treatment wi th 2% li me pri or to cement stabi li sati on. The ICL is the amount of stabiliser
consumed in the initial ion exchange
reaction and is a required minimum
content when using cement or lime. Below
7.3.4 Content of stabiliser this amount of stabiliser one will not
The design content of stabiliser, expressed as a percentage of the dry weight achieve a permanent gain in strength.
of the soil, is determined according to CML tests 1.19, 1.20,1.21 and 1.22
and shall not be less than the minimum content found in the test of Initial Large amounts of stabiliser causes
Consumption of Lime (ICL). Where mixing on the road is employed the excessive crack developments in the
content used in the field shall exceed the design content from laboratory cemented layer.
tests by 1% - point.

Chapter 7
Pavement Materials
Comments: If a stabiliser content in excess of 4-5% is required then consideration

shall be given to selecting better qualities of materials to stabilise.
7.3.5 Construction
Time limits
It is recommended practice to mix in water Table 7.9 gives the maximum allowed time from the stabiliser has come
to at least OMC of BS-Heavy before
adding the stabiliser, thereby minimising
in contact with the material until compaction and finishing of the layer is
the required time for watering and mixing completed.
after the stabiliser has come in contact with
the material. Table 7.9 Cemented materials, time for completion of the layer
Stabiliser and material class Allowed time for completion
C ement - C 4, C 2, C 1, C M max 4 hours

Li me - C 4, C 2, C 1 max 8 hours
Li me - C M max 48 hours
Hi gh contents of calci um carbonate i n calcretes may cause a more rapi d reacti on wi th li me
than expected. In such cases the maxi mum allowed ti me for completi on shall be altered as
requi red after tri als on si te.
Curing - general
Curing by continuous watering is likely to The cemented layer shall be kept moist and sealed off as soon as possible
cause leaching out of stabilisers in the
surface, there is a risk of detrimental
after completed compaction. Curing is essential for proper gain in strength
wetting/drying cycles to take place and the by preventing drying out of the layer. Curing is also important to prevent
method is overall unlikely to be effective future loss of strength in the cemented material by carbonisation caused
in practice.
by exposure to air. Curing by continuous watering shall be restricted to the
period from completed construction until the curing methods described
below are in place according to the time limits given.
Curing method - cemented base course

Penetration of bituminous prime into fresh A bituminous curing membrane shall be applied without undue delays
cemented materials is not desirable as this
can cause impaired conditions for curing
and within 24 hours after completion of the layer. Drying out of the layer
of the upper part of the layer. must not be allowed. The curing membrane shall be applied at a spray
rate that gives minimum 0.5 l/m2 of residual bitumen.
Bitumen emulsion is the preferred type of bituminous curing membrane.
curing membrane However cutback bitumen, MC30 or MC70 prime, may be used if trials
show no adverse effect such as loosening of the surface of the layer.
Traffic shall be kept off the completed layer for minimum 7 days after
cemented base course
completed compaction. The curing membrane shall be protected from
damage by traffic. Sanding-off after the curing period shall be employed if
required due to site conditions.
Curing method - cemented subbase

Granular base course material shall be placed on the cemented subbase in
Loose - 50 mm - a loose thickness of minimum 50 mm - and watered - without undue delays
granular layer to
be kept wet.
and within 48 hours after completion of the cemented layer. Drying out of
the layer must not be allowed. Alternatively a temporary granular layer of
minimum 50 mm loose thickness can similarly be spread and watered,
and removed immediately before placing the base course.
cemented subbase The cemented subbase shall receive a bituminous curing membrane in the
cases where a bituminous base course is used. The applied method shall
be as described for curing of cemented base courses.

Chapter 7
Pavement Materials
7.3.6 Other chemical stabilisers Comments:

Chemical stabilisers other than bitumen, cement or lime, may only be used
on agreement with the Ministry of Works at project level. Such alternative Alternative chemical constituents
stabilisers include ionic soil stabilisers and other chemical products sold including ionic soil stabilisers and various
products from the chemical industry have
under various brand names. been used in soil stabilisation in some
countries and there are reports on
The following issues shall be clarified for each project before use of successful use under given conditions.
alternative chemical stabilisers are allowed in structural layers: These stabilisers should be reserved for
trials unless the long-term stabilising effect
n certification of the chemicals effect on personnel and environment of the particular product is properly
n required properties of the stabilised material to suit the requirements documented.
of the structural layer in question

n required properties of the source materials and their availability
n mix formula
n routines for laboratory testing and quality assurance
n assessments of material properties over time
n contractual obligations of suppliers
n the possibility for competitive bidding
7.4 Bituminous Base Course

Materials
7.4.0 General
Scope
This chapter includes bitumen penetrated macadam and bituminous mixes There is a considerable amount of
used in the base course - whether mixed in plant or mixed on the road. innovative work being done in the field of
bituminous materials and this manual
The appropriate use of each individual material type, such as limitations cannot fully include specialised material
with regards to traffic, is set out in the pavement design catalogue types which may be proposed for projects.
/Chapter 8.3.2/.
Alternative bituminous base course materials that are not included here,
shall have their properties measured against the requirements for the
material types described in this chapter prior to approval for use.
Structural function of bituminous mixes for base course

Bituminous mixes for base course function as main structural layers and It is considered risky to compromise
resistance against deformation of the
the desired properties are therefore primarily high stiffness and resistance bituminous base course for high res-
against deformation. The ability of the bituminous mix to withstand istance against fatigue cracking under the
plastic deformation is emphasised due to the severe consequences with prevailing temperature conditions.
costly repair of such type of distress. The method to minimise the risk of
fatigue cracking is primarily by providing the stiffest possible support and
thereby minimising strain in the base course layer.
The largest possible aggregate size corresponding to the layer thickness is
desirable for economical reasons and to provide high shear strength in the layer.
Description and structural function of penetration macadam

Construction of penetration macadam involves spraying of relatively large Penetration macadam base course has
been used successfully in this country on
amounts of bitumen on a layer of coarse aggregate without fines, and a large scale giving excellent service life.
subsequently rolling in a layer of chipping as a key stone to provide The high flexibility allows penetration
interlocking and stability of the layer. Alternatively a bituminous mix can macadam to be used successfully in
pavements with marginal stiffness in
be used instead of key stone. The function of the penetration macadam is supporting layers, such as on lightly
fundamentally different from the bituminous mixes - being exceptionally

Chapter 7
Pavement Materials
Comments: flexible and able to absorb deficiencies in the strength of sub-layers, and
(contd.) at the same time providing high shear strength. Penetration macadam is
trafficked roads. Penetration macadam particularly well suited on roads with low traffic speed such as urban
can be constructed by the use of labour roads. On roads with high traffic speed a levelling layer of a bituminous
intensive methods and is well suited for
construction in areas with restricted mix will provide the required riding quality.
access by heavy plant and where it is
difficult to perform good layer-work
techniques which are often critical with 7.4.1 Classification
alternative material types.
Classes of bituminous base course materials are shown in Table 7.10.
Table 7.10 Bituminous base course - material classes
C haracteristics
Material class
Name Process Mi xi ng method
D ense bi tumen
D BM Hot
macadam Mi xi ng plant,
Large aggregate mi x Chapter 7.4.2
LAMBS Hot
for bases
Penetrati on On the road, sprayed,
PM C old
macadam Chapter 7.4.3
FBMIX Foamed bi tumen mi x C old

Mi xi ng plant or on the
road, Chapter 7.4.4
BEMIX Bitumen emulsion mix C old
7.4.2 Hot bituminous mixes

Dense Bitumen Macadam (DBM)
Dense bitumen macadam for base course layers shall comply with the
Table 7.11 Material requirements DBM
Material class
Material
properties DBM 40 DBM 30
Dense bitumen macadam Dense bitumen macadam CML
Max nominal size 40 mm 30 mm test
Grading, sieve method
sizes [mm] % passing % passing
50 100 -
37.5 95 - 100 100
28 70 - 95 90 - 100
20 - 70 - 95
14 56 - 76 58 - 82
10 53 - 70 52 - 73
5 39 - 56 40 - 56 1.7
2 24 - 40 24 - 40
1,18 19 - 35 19 - 35
0,425 9 - 25 9 - 25
0,300 7 - 21 7 - 21
0,075 2-9 2-9
Bitumen content nominally 4.0% nominally 4.5% 3.22
Type of bitumen 60/70 or 40/50 penetration grade
Aggregate TFV soaked : min 75% of TFV dry
2.7
strength TFV dry : min 110 kN
Layer thickness 80 - 200 mm 60 - 150 mm

Chapter 7
Pavement Materials
Large Aggregate Mix for Base Course (LAMBS) Comments:

LAMBS is a hot mixed bituminous material for base course on heavily
trafficked roads and areas of extreme loading, such as climbing lanes. The aim in the design of LAMBS is to
optimise the properties of available
Large Aggregate Mixes (LAMBS) obtain their strength and resistance to materials and plant and grading envelopes
deformation primarily from aggregate interlock and exhibit the following are therefore not specified.
typical features:
n large upper nominal particle size (dMAX up to 50 mm) and flexibility in
grading requirements, giving good crushing economy
n high stability and shear strength, providing good resistance against
deformation caused by heavy loading
n low required bitumen contents for good economy
LAMBS shall comply with the requirements in Table 7.12. The design met-
hod for LAMBS shall be carried out in accordance with /7 - 5/. The design
method for LAMBS requires special equipment for preparation of test
specimens due to the large aggregate size. If such equipment is not available
the material type DBM 40 shall be the alternative for the base course.
Table 7.12 Material requirements - LAMBS
Material LAMBS CML test

properties Large aggregate mix for base course method
Aggregates shall be made by crushing of fresh rock
Aggregate type
or clean, large boulders with a diametre >0.3 m.
min 37.5
Max particle size, dMAX [mm]
max 50
1.7
Shape of the grading min 0.4 *)
curve, n-value max 0.7
Aggregate TFVsoaked 24hrs : min 75% of TFV dry
2.7
strength TFVdry : min 110 kN
Water absorption [%] max 3 3.13
Aggregate LS [%] max 2 1.4

Filler content, pass. 0.075 mm [%] 5-8 1.7
Traffic TLC 20 and TLC 50: 40/50 pen. grade
Bitumen grade 3.5
Traffic TLC 1 to TLC 10: 60/70 pen. grade
Bitumen content [%] 3.5 to 4.5 to be determined in the mix design 3.22
Mix design Shall be carried out in accordance with Ref/7- 4/
min 1.5 x ( dMAX ), preferably 2 x ( dMAX )
Layer thickness
80 - 200 mm compacted thickness
The target grading curve is derived from the formula given below. The shape of the
*)
Values of n higher than 0.7 may result in
grading curve shall be such that it falls within the outer limits defined by an n value from segregation and poor workability.
0.4 to 0.7 as specified in Table 7.12. The formulae for the n value is the following:
(100 - F) ( dn 0.075n)
P= +F
(Dn - 0.075n)
where:
P = percentage passing sieve size d (mm)
D = max particle size ( dMAX )
F = filler content
n = a parameter to describe the shape of the grading curve

Chapter 7
Pavement Materials
Comments: 7.4.3 Penetration macadam

Penetration macadam base course materials shall comply with the
Table 7.13 Material requirements penetration macadam
Material Material class CML

test
properties PM 80 PM 60 PM 30 method
Max nominal size [mm] 80 60 30
125 100 50
Layer thickness [mm] The layer thickness of the penetration macadam should correspond with the
aggregate fraction in order to obtain stability of the layer.
2 *)
Bitumen spray rate [l/m ] 3- 4 3-4 2-3
3.5
Bitumen type 80/100 or 60/70 penetration grade
Aggregate strength TFV soaked : min 75% of TFV dry TFV dry : min 110 kN 2.7
Grading, sieve Main fraction
sizes [mm] % passing % passing % passing
100 100 - -
75 75 - 100 100 -
63 - 80 - 100 -
50 0 - 50 0 - 50 -
37,5 0 - 25 0 - 25 100 2.3
28 0-5 0-5 80 - 100
20 - - 0 - 50
14 - - 0 - 25
10 0-5
Flakiness Index - - 35 2.4
Grading, sieve Key stone *)
sizes [mm] % passing % passing % passing
50 100 - -
37,5 85 - 100 100 -
28 0 - 50 85 - 100 -
20 0 - 25 0 - 50 100
14 0-5 0 - 25 85 - 100 2.3
10 - 0-5 0 - 55
6.3 - - 0 - 25
5 - - 0 - 10
Flakiness Index - 35 35 2.4
*) Requirements for alternative use of a bituminous mix instead of key stone are set out in the text.
Comments:
Penetration macadam made by use of a A bituminous mix can be used instead of key stone to provide stability in
bituminous mix instead of key stone gives
the following advantages:
the penetration macadam. The bituminous mix shall meet the
- improved riding quality requirements in Chapter 7.4.2 or /Chapter 10.8/ in the case of hot mixed
- a better surface texture for subsequent material and Chapter 7.4.4 for cold mixed material. The upper nominal
application of a surface treatment,
whereby full waterproofing of the aggregate size of the bituminous mix shall be adjusted as required to
surface is more easily achieved provide sufficient interlocking with the macadam layer. The bitumen
spray rates for penetration, as given in Table 7.13, can be reduced in the
case a bituminous mix is used instead of key stone. Site trials shall be
undertaken to prove that the proposed reduction is possible without
causing instability of the layer.
7.4.4 Cold bituminous mixes

General
Cold bituminous mixes have the advantage that they can be mixed on the
road because they need no heating, thus making it possible to reuse and
improve existing layers in place by in-situ milling. In order to enable
mixing and coating of aggregate particles in cold bituminous mixes it is
necessary to use bitumen that is either:

Chapter 7
Pavement Materials
n emulsified to reduce viscosity at the time of mixing, or Comments:

n foamed in order to greatly expand its volume and thereby
facilitate coating of the particles
This chapter sets out requirements for cold mixes where foamed bitumen Due to the alternative use of natural
gravel aggregates in cold mixes the
or bitumen emulsion is used. Cutback bitumen shall not be used in mixes density of the mix may vary considerably
due to potential stability problems during curing and for environmental thus rendering conventional expression
reasons associated with the use of large amounts of solvents. of bitumen content as a percentage by
weight misleading, unless accompanied
by the density of the actual mix.
Foamed bitumen mix FBMIX
Foaming of bitumen is temporary expansion of the bitumen to 15-20 times
its original volume by controlled introduction of small amounts of water
in hot bitumen, carried out in a special processing plant. Foamed bitumen
shall meet the requirements in Table 7.14.
Table 7.14 Requirements for foamed bitumen
Properties of the foamed bitumen R equirements
Rati o between volume of bi tumen i n a foamed state

mi n 15
and i n an un-foamed state
At least one of the followi ng requi rements shall be
fulfi lled:
1. Ti me unti l the volume of the foam has decreased mi n 15

to half of i ts maxi mum volume seconds
2. Rati o between volume of bi tumen i n a foamed mi n 7.5

state and i n an un-foamed state after 15 seconds
The test of foamed bi tumen uti li ses a 10 li tre cyli ndri cal bucket.
Cold bituminous mixes for base course, made with foamed bitumen, shall Plastic aggregates may give operational
problems during mixing and laying even
comply with the requirements in Table 7.15. Aggregate for foamed if the requirement of PI max 14% is
bitumen mixes can be natural gravel or crushed materials. The required fulfilled.
moisture content in the mix is determined in the mix design and shall be /Appendix A1- Definitions of Terms/
within the limits given in Table 7.15 at the time of laying. includes the definition of dry density of
mixes where both bitumen and water is
present.

Chapter 7
Pavement Materials
Comments: Table 7.15 Material requirements FBMIX
Material Material class

properties FBMIX CML test
method
Foamed bitumen mix
Aggregate source Natural gravel or crushed material, free from lumps of clay or other deleterious matter.
1)
PI [%] max 14 before admixture of bitumen 1.2 and 1.3
CBRsoaked [%] min 30 before admixture of bitumen, tested at 95 % MDD of BS-heavy 1.11
strength Traffic TLC 3 and TLC 10: TFV dry : min 110 kN 2.7
Traffic TLC 1 and lower: TFV dry : min 80 kN
Grading, sieve
sizes [mm] % passing
37,5 100
28 80 - 100
20 60 - 95
10 42 - 78 1.7
5 30 - 65
2 20 - 50
0,425 10 - 30
0,075 5 - 15
o
E-Modulus [MPa] min 1600, measured by indirect tensile strength, tested at 29 C 3.21
o
Marshall stability [N] min 6000 tested at 40 C
3.18
Marshall flow [mm] 2-4
Moisture content at min: mix design moisture less 1.5% points
1.1
the time of laying [%] max: mix design moisture plus 0.5% points
Type of bitumen 80/100 or 150/200 penetration grade 3.5
Adhesion agents Approved adhesion agents shall be admixed at min 0.5% by weight of bitumen
Bitumen content 3
Consumption, residual bitumen: 80 to 100 litres per m of compacted material 3.22
Field density min 96% of Marshall dry density
1) It is emphasised that Atterberg limits shall be measured according to CML test methods 1.2, 1.3 and 1.4. These methods follow
BS procuders and utilise BS equipment. Other laboratory test procedures are likely to give results that are not comparable with
the given material requirements.
Comments:
Bitumen emulsion mix - BEMIX
When bitumen emulsion is used, as Cold mixed bitumen emulsion for stabilisation of base course layers with
opposed to foamed bitumen, the material
is more sensitive to aggregate properties minimum 3.5% residual bitumen content shall comply with the
such as grading, plasticity index and fines requirements in Table 7.16. Materials with smaller amounts of binder
content and correct moisture content, and
is also more prone to damage by rain. shall be classified as bitumen modified and the design of such materials
shall be carried out in accordance with /7 - 10/.
In many cases the adding of a cement
slurry with 1 - 2% cement may be
beneficial.
7.4.5 Construction
Penetration macadam
Penetration macadam base course normally requires no special preparat-
ion of the underlying surface. Compaction shall be carried out with
vibrating rollers and the number of passes shall be min 3 max 5. The
number of passes after application of keystone shall be min 2 max 4.
Hot mixes
Tack coat of bitumen emulsion shall be applied at a rate giving minimum
0.3 l/m2 residual binder on all joints and surfaces where hot mixed
bituminous base course is laid. The required minimum temperature for
compaction shall be in accordance with /Chapter 10.8.4/.

Chapter 7
Pavement Materials
Table 7.16 Material requirements - BEMIX

Comments:
Material class
Material CML test
properties BEMIX method
Bitumen emulsion mix
Aggregate source Natural gravel or crushed material, free from lumps of clay or other deleterious matter.
1)
PI [%] max 8 before admixture of bitumen 1.2 and 1.3
CBRsoaked [%] min 30 before admixture of bitumen, tested at 95 % MDD of BS-heavy 1.11
strength Traffic TLC 3: TFV dry : min 110 kN 2.7
Traffic TLC 1 and lower: TFV dry : min 80 kN
Grading, sieve
sizes [mm] % passing
37,5 100
28 80 - 100
20 60 - 95
10 35 - 70 1.7
5 25 - 50
2 18 - 35
0,425 10 - 25
0,075 5-8
o
E-Modulus [MPa] min 1200, measured by indirect tensile strength, tested at 29 C 3.21
o
Marshall stability [N] min 4500 tested at 40 C
3.18
Marshall flow [mm] 2-4
Moisture content at min: mix design moisture less 1.5% points
1.1
the time of laying [%] max: mix design moisture plus 0.5% points
Type of base bitumen 80/100 or 150/200 penetration grade 3.5
3
Bitumen content Consumption, residual bitumen: 80 to 100 litres per m of compacted material 3.22
Field density min 96% of Marshall dry density
1) It is emphasised that Atterberg limits shall be measured according to CML test methods 1.2, 1.3 and 1.4. These methods follow
BS procuders and utilise BS equipment. Other laboratory test procedures are likely to give results that are not comparable with
the given material requirements.
Comments:
Cold mixes
Subbase made of cemented materials
Tack coat of bitumen emulsion shall be applied at a rate giving minimum will have a bituminous curing membrane
0.3 l/m2 residual binder on all joints and on surfaces towards other and may not require any further
application of tack coat. Subbase made
bituminous layers and between adjacent layers placed in succession of natural gravel can normally receive a
where the same type of material is used. Priming or application of tack bituminous cold mix without use of prime.
coat shall be carried out as required if problems with slippage of the
bituminous base course occur.
Compaction trials
Detailed compaction trials shall be carried out at the beginning of
laying operations and when a new mix formula or production
procedure is introduced. The compaction trial shall show compliance
with mix formulas and demonstrate the adequacy of the proposed
compaction procedures. The compaction trial shall also confirm that
equipment and procedures are adequate for paving at the proposed
layer thickness while achieving satisfactory riding quality and sufficient
density to the bottom of the layer.

Chapter 7
Pavement Materials
Comments: 7.5 Deleterious Minerals

Sulphide minerals
The maximum allowed /7 -21/ content of sulphide minerals such as pyrite,
marcasite, and chalcopyrite, in aggregates are given in Table 7.17.
Table 7.17 Sulphide minerals in aggregates
Max content of sulphide minerals

Intended use
[% ]
Bi tumi nous materi als max 2

Granular materi als for base
max 1
course or subbase
C ement or li me stabi li sed
Zero allowed
materi als
Mica
The effect of mica is particularly adverse Muscovite mica (light colour) causes difficulties in achieving compaction
when the mica plates are larger than 0.5 of granular layers and the initial density may decrease in service and
mm diameter. A content higher than 10%
by volume means that the mica is easily promote ingress of water. Biotite mica (black colour) tends to break
detectable at a glance during visual rather than behave like flexing plates in the soil matrix and is therefore of
inspection.
less concern. Contents of muscovite mica above 10% by volume are not
allowed in granular pavement layers. No specific limit is set for biotite mica.
Soluble salts
Testing of electric conductivity is the preferred, simple, method to
/Chapter 6 Problem Soils/. indirectly determine the content of soluble salts in soils and construction
water. Special methods for design and construction of pavements with
presence of soluble salts, including the setting of appropriate design limits,
are discussed in /7-11/.
Rapidly weathering minerals

Rapidly weathering minerals, e.g. nepheline, or rock types such as some
Testing to identify rapidly weathering basic igneous rocks, require special testing to identify their potential for rapid
minerals: /7-3/ and /7-9/.
weathering and to verify sufficient durability for use in pavement layers.
7.6 Surveys for Construction

Materials
7.6.1 Borrow pits
Potential borrow pits shall be surveyed by trial pit excavations and sampling
at the stage of detailed design. The survey shall prove sufficient quantities
for all pavement and earthworks materials. The sampling frequency shall
be minimum that given in Table 7.18.

Chapter 7
Pavement Materials
Table 7.18 Borrow pits - minimum test frequency prior to opening

Comments:
Max m3 to be represented by one test

Intended use
Gradi ng Aggregate
C BR
and PI strength
Bi tumi nous base course 5 000 3 000 10 000
C emented base course 5 000 5 000 20 000
C emented subbase 10 000 10 000 -
Base course - nat. gravel 5 000 3 000 20 000
Subbase - natural gravel 10 000 5 000
Improved subgrade 10 000 10 000
Fi ll 20 000 20 000 -
No less than four tri al pi ts shall be excavated i n each borrow pi t.
7.6.2 Quarries
All new quarry sites of massive rock shall at the design stage be invest- Existing quarries may be investigated by
igated by core drilling to establish sufficient quantities for the project. The proof drilling, core drilling, trial blasting or
as required depending on site conditions
extent of investigations shall be determined depending on site conditions such as the size of current operations
and the type of project. compared to required future operations for
the project.
7.7 Manufactured Materials

7.7.1 Geo-textiles used as separating layers
General
Geo-textiles are used for separation of materials of different grading where Geo-textile used for prevention of
reflective cracking in pavement
there is a risk of undesirable infiltration of fines into the matrix of a rehabilitation works is discussed in
coarser material. Chapter 9.4. Other possible uses of geo-
textiles, such as in drainage works, are
not included in this manual.
Manufacture
The basic type of geo-textile shall be non-woven, manufactured by needle
punching, thermal bonding, or both. The fibres shall be continuous or staple
fibres made of either polyester or polypropylene.
Material requirements
Table 7.19 shows the minimum weight per m2 for geo-textiles depending Both cost and quality of geo-textiles are
in general proportional to their weight per
on the site conditions. m2, and the required quality depends on
the maximum particle shape, particle size
and compression strength of the material
to be placed against the geo-textiles.

Chapter 7
Pavement Materials
Comments:
Table 7.19 Geo-textile separating layers required weight per m2
Aggregate placed adjacent Geo-textile, weight per area [g/m2]

to the geo-textile
dMAX Placed on fi rm, Placed on soft,

Aggregate type
[mm] dry subsoi l 1) wet subsoi l 2)
Gravel, sand or
graded crushed max 50 mi n 140 mi n 200
materi al
Sorted crushed
max 200 mi n 200 mi n 320
rock
Speci al
D ump rock
- mi n 320 rei nforcement shall
(D R)
be consi dered
1) D ry subsoi l refers to moi sture contents below OMC of BS-Li ght.
2) Soft, wet subsoi l i s normally si lty or clayey materi als i n water logged areas.
Storage
Geo-textiles made of polypropylene are Geo-textiles shall be kept away from direct sunlight during storage.
particularly sensitive to the effect of direct
sunlight.
7.7.2 Geo-grids for reinforcement

General
Geo-grids within the embankment itself Geo-grids are intended for use as reinforcement of earthworks and pave-
have doubtful effect and should only be
considered when used in specially ment layers. Geo-grids shall only be considered in special cases due to
designed systems of earth reinforcement their high cost. The technical and economical effectiveness of their use
for construction of steep slopes.
shall be carefully assessed and documented before application in the works.
Earthworks
Geo-grids may be considered in special cases such as to prevent tensile
failure at the bottom of embankments when crossing soft areas.
Pavements
Use of geo-grids to prevent reflective Geo-grids do not add strength to the pavement structure to an extent that
cracking in pavement rehabilitation works
is discussed in /Chapter 9.4/.
make them economically justified in new pavements. No reductions in
pavement layer thickness shall be made due to the use of geo-grids. Geo-
grids may be considered under special circumstances for use in an
interlayer system to prevent reflective cracking through overlays.
References
7-2 AUSTRALIAN ASPHALT PAVEMENT ASSOCIATION (1997). Cold
Mix Granular Materials Guide.
7-3 HOSKING, J R and TUBEY, L W (1969). Research on low-grade and
unsound aggregates. RRL Report LR 293. Transport research
laboratory, Crowthorne, London, UK.
7-4 NETTERBERG, F (1985). Pedocretes. From Engineering Geology of
Southers Africa. NITRR report 430 Pretoria, Republic of South Africa.

Chapter 7
Pavement Materials
7-5 NETTERBERG, F and M I PINARD (1991). Derivation of interim

Comments:
performance-related specifications for coarsely-graded plastic calcrete
basecourse gravels. Proc. 10th Regional Conference for Africa on Soil
Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Maseru, Leshoto.
7-6 SOUTHERN AFRICAN BITUMEN ASSOCIATION - SABITA (1993).
LAMBS The design and use of large aggregate mixes for bases.
ODA, London, UK.
7-8 CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY RESEARCH AND INFORMATION
(1986): Cementitious stabilisers in road construction. CSRA, Pretoria,
7 - 10 SOUTHERN AFRICAN BITUMEN ASSOCIATION - SABITA (1993).
Draft guidelines on the use of bitumen emulsion treated materials.
7 - 11 OBIKA, B and R J FREER-HEWISH (1990). Soluble salt damage to
thin Bituminous surfacings of roads and runways. Australian Road
Research, 20 (4.)
7 - 12 BOTSWANA ROAD DESIGN MANUAL (1994). Draft Volume 3,
7 - 13 COMMITTEE OF STATE ROAD AUTHORITIES. TMH 5 (1981):
7 - 14 COMMITTEE OF STATE ROAD AUTHORITIES. TRH 8 (1987):
Guidelines for road construction materials. CSRA, Pretoria, Republic
of South Africa.
7 - 16 LIONJANGA, A V and T TOOLE and P A K GREENING (1987). The
use of calcrete in paved roads in Botswana. Ninth regional conference
for Africa, Lagos, Nigeria.
7 - 17 NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF AUSTRALIAN STATE ROAD
AUTHORITIES (1986). Guide to stabilisation in roadworks.
NAASRA, Sydney, Australia.
7 - 18 OCONNELL M J and C S GOURLEY (1993). Expansive clay road
embankments in arid areas: moisture-suction conditions. Proc. First
International Symposium on Engineering Characteristics of Arid Soils,
City University. London, UK.
7 - 20 TOOLE, T and D NEWILL (1987). A Strategy for assessing marginal
quality materials for use in bituminous roads in the tropics. Proc.
seminar H, PTRC Transport and Planning Summer Annual Meeting,
University of Bath, London, UK.

Chapter 8
Pavement
Design - New
Roads
Project appraisal
Ch
Environment
DESIGN ELEMENTS
Cross Section,
Traffic
Subgrade
Ch
Problem Soils
Pavement Design
- New Roads
STRUCTURAL

Rehabilitation
DESIGN
Bituminous
Surfacings
Gravel Roads

selection of design
Ministry of Works
Chapter 8
Pavement Design-
New Roads Pavement and Materials Design Manual - 1999
Comments: 8.1 Objectives

Pavement design procedures for gravel The objective of structural pavement design is to provide a road surface
roads are set out in /Chapter 11 Gravel
Roads/. which can withstand the expected traffic loading over a specified time
without deteriorating below a predetermined level of service. This is
achieved by providing a pavement structure whereby stresses on the
subgrade - induced by traffic - are reduced to acceptable levels. Stresses
within pavement layers must in addition be kept within acceptable limits
depending on the properties of the materials being used.
8.2 Pavement Types

8.2.1 Flexible pavements
General
A commonly used pavement structure in the country is the flexible pave-
ment type whereby a surface treatment or a bituminous mix is placed over
a base course made of granular materials. Other flexible pavement types
being used consist of base courses made of bituminous mixes or pene-
tration macadam.
granular Granular base course and subbase

granular
The typical mode of distress in fully granular pavements is deformation
arising from shear or densification within the granular pavement materials
riding quality
themselves - commonly the base course. The pavement type is highly
sensitive to timely periodic maintenance by resealing.
rut depth
Cemented subbase and granular base course

cracking
The use of a cemented subbase improves the load bearing capacity of the
time and traffic pavement by reducing surface deflections, hence strain in the bituminous
granular
surfacing. The typical mode of distress is by fatigue cracking of the
cemented
cemented subbase until its structural behaviour eventually approaches
that of a granular layer. It is however unlikely that the cracking will reflect
pre-cracked post-cracked phase influence to the surface and there is likely to be little rutting or longitudinal
phase
deformation after the subbase layer has fully cracked. The post-cracked
of water
curvature
phase of the cemented subbase can be expected to add considerable
deflection useful life to the pavement because the subbase will then function as a
deformation granular layer of good subbase quality. The use of a cemented subbase
traffic
under granular base courses has a number of additional technical benefits
that include:
n increased in-service strength of the granular base course is realised
n high compacted density of the granular base course can be achieved
by having a firm platform underneath and safe use of slush
techniques is enabled by the low sensitivity to moisture in the subbase
material
n the strength of the subbase is maintained should the drainage of the
pavement be impaired in service for any reason
The use of cemented subbase shall be the preferred method in areas with
scarcity of natural gravel for subbase, provided this is economically equal
to alternative use of crushed materials or importation of subbase from
outside the project area.

Chapter 8
Pavement Design-
Pavement and Materials Design Manual - 1999 New Roads
Bituminous mixes for base course Comments:

The modes of distress in bituminous base courses can be deformation or
fatigue cracking depending on site conditions and material properties. The The consequences of deformation
occurring are more severe than cracking,
subbase used in this pavement is either granular or lightly cemented. The since the useful life of the pavement can
preferred method to minimise the risk of fatigue cracking is primarily by be considerably prolonged if cracks are
attended to in time and kept sealed.
providing the stiffest possible support for the base course and thereby
minimising strain in the layer. Strongly cemented subbase, i.e. stronger bituminous mix
than material class C2, however may lead to crack reflection from the granular or cemented
subbase through the bituminous base course and is not a desirable option.
It is considered risky to compromise resistance against deformation of the riding quality
bituminous base course for high resistance against fatigue cracking under
the prevailing temperature conditions in the country. rut depth
Penetration macadam base course cracking
Penetration macadam is made by spraying relatively large amounts of time and traffic
bitumen ( 2,0 - 4,0 l/m2) on a layer of coarse aggregate without fines, and
subsequently rolling in a layer of chipping as a key stone to provide Roads with high traffic speed require a
levelling layer made of a bituminous mix
interlocking and stability of the layer. Alternatively a bituminous mix can in order to achieve good riding quality.
be used instead of key stone. The penetration macadam base courses are
exceptionally flexible, and at the same time providing high shear strength.
Penetration macadam effectively arrests crack reflection from underlying
layers when used in overlays. The penetration macadam can be conside- penetration macadam
red a freely draining layer and it is important that the internal drainage of granular or cemented
the pavement is in accordance with /Chapter 3 Cross Section,

Shoulders and Drainage/. riding quality
The mode of distress in penetration macadam pavements is normally

deformation
deformation in the subbase or subgrade. Disintegration of the base course
takes place if periodic maintenance by resealing has been insufficient for
cracking
any reason.
time and traffic
8.2.2 Semi-rigid pavements

General
Semi-rigid pavements are those utilising cemented materials in the base Pavements where only the base course
is cemented with granular subbase -
course layer or both the base course and subbase layer. Where both base are sensitive to high axle loading and loss
course and subbase are cemented this pavement type is a viable option for of strength by ingress of water through
high traffic conditions. Pavements with only the base course cemented - surface cracks.
with granular subbase have limitations in the upper ranges of traffic It is particularly important that the first
loading. scheduled reseal is not missed or deferred
due to the early development of block
cracks in this pavement type.
Mode of distress
In semi-rigid pavements most of the traffic stresses are absorbed by the
cemented layers - little by the subgrade - and fatigue of the cemented cemented
layers is the dominant mode of distress. Initial block cracking from cemented (preferred)
shrinkage or thermal forces is likely to develop soon after construction of

cemented base courses. These cracks are normally of little concern if riding quality
sealed by normal recurrent and periodic maintenance. Later development

of traffic induced cracks may lead to ingress of water and pumping of cracking
fines. While this pavement type normally gives good user service up to
this point, deformation tends to accelerate after water gets free access into rut depth
the structure. Loss of the bituminous surfacing takes place if periodic
time and traffic
maintenance by resealing has been insufficient for any reason.

Chapter 8
Pavement Design-
Comments: 8.2.3 Rigid pavements

Rigid pavements are made of concrete, where most of the traffic loading
The concrete may be either conventional is carried by the concrete slab and less by the foundation. Good resistance
jointed slabs, a continuously reinforced type
or roller compacted concrete. against the effect of traffic loading and high tyre pressures, are typical
features of concrete pavements. However due to the large investment cost,
their use is normally limited to heavily trafficked interurban and urban
roads. The design method for concrete pavements is not included in this
manual, however references is made to /8-10/ for further details on the
principles of rigid pavement design.
8.3 Structural Design

8.3.0 General
Pavement design catalogues are provided for the following pavement
types and site conditions:
n granular base course, dry or moderate climatic zones
n granular base course, wet climatic zones
n cemented base course
n bituminous mix base course
n penetration macadam base course
The design catalogue aims to provide sufficient support for the layer in
the design of the subbase and subgrade and thereby reducing strain, hence
minimising the risk of fatigue cracking in bituminous layers.
8.3.1 Input data

Climate
A separate design catalogue is provided in respect of wet climatic zones
for pavements with granular base course.
Traffic
Climatic zones for the purpose of The Traffic Load Class (TLC) determined according to /Chapter 4
pavement design: /Chapter 2 Traffic/ is input to the catalogue and the classes are shown in Table 8.1.
Environment/.
Table 8.1 Traffic Load Classes - TLC
D esign traffic loading Traffic Load C lass (TLC )

[million E80]
< 0.2 TLC 02
0.2 to 0.5 TLC 05
0.5 to 1 TLC 1
1 to 3 TLC 3
3 to 10 TLC 10
10 to 20 TLC 20
20 to 50 TLC 50

Chapter 8
Pavement Design-
Heavy load conditions Comments:

Where more than 50% of E80 is a result of axles heavier than 13 tonnes,
Insufficient data normally makes it
the Traffic Load Class is given an index, i.e.: unrealistic to determine the proportion of
E80 that is a result of axles loaded above
TLC 05-H TLC 1-H TLC 3-H TLC 10-H TLC 20-H TLC 50-H 13 tonnes where the design traffic loading
is less than 0.2 million E80. A traffic load
class TLC02-H is therefore not established.
Subgrade
The design catalogue requires that all subgrade is brought to a design Procedures to evaluate subgrade
strength of CBR minimum 15% by constructing one or more improved strength and to design improved
subgrade layers:
subgrade layers - where necessary - before the pavement is placed. /Chapter 5 Subgrade/.
Climate is part of the input data to design improved subgrade layers.
Pavement materials
Pavement materials used in the design catalogue are those shown in Table
8.2. where references are given to the respective chapters where material
quality requirements are set out.
Table 8.2 Pavement materials
Material Material Material requirements,

class ty pe references
Surfacing:
ST Surface treatments C hapter 10.2 to 10.4
AC Asphalt concrete C hapter 10.8
B ase course:
D BM - LAMBS Bi tumi nous hot mi x C hapter 7.4.2
PM Penetrati on macadam C hapter 7.4.3
FBMIX - BEMIX Bi tumi nous cold mi x C hapter 7.4.4
C RR - C RS Granular, crushed C hapter 7.2.2
C2 - C1 - CM C emented, li me or cement C hapter 7.3
G80 - G60 Granular, natural C hapter 7.2.1
S u b b ase:
C1 - CM C emented, li me or cement C hapter 7.3
G45 - G25 Granular, natural C hapter 7.2.1
Substitutes of subbase material

Substitutes of subbase materials can be made as listed below. The layer
thickness shall not be changed when doing the substitutes. No other
substitutes of subbase material shall be made in the pavement design.
n C1 can be replaced by C2
n CM can be replaced by C1 or C2
n G45 can be replaced by CM, C1, G60, G80 or CRS
n G25 can be replaced by CM, C1, G45, G60, G80 or CRS

Chapter 8 6
Pavement Design-
Comments: 8.3.2 Pavement design catalogues

The pavement design catalogues are presented in the respective tables
listed in Table 8.3.
Table 8.3 List of pavement design catalogues
Table reference Pav ement ty pe in design catalogue
Table 8.4 Granular base course Dry or Moderate climatic zones

Table 8.5 Granular base course Wet cli mati c zones
Table 8.6 C emented base course
Table 8.7 Bi tumi nous mi x base course
Table 8.8 Penetrati on macadam base course
Urban areas have a large number of The design catalogues specify surfacing types for rural- and interurban
junctions and other areas where
construction of surface treatments is
roads. On all major urban roads, where the base course is not of a
difficult to carry out with good workmanship. bituminous type, consideration should be given to the use of asphalt
concrete surfacing irrespective of traffic loading due to the common
excess of slow moving and turning traffic. This traffic pattern is
unfavourable for the use of surface treatments and may lead to premature
damage of thin surfacings.

Chapter 8
Pavement Design-
Table 8.4 Pavements with granular base course dry or moderate climatic zones
Traffic:
- Traffic Load Classes, including the heavy ( -H )
classes: /Chapter 4/ Base course type:
Subgrade design:
- Design for CBR less than 15%: /Chapter 5/
- Material standards of improved subgrade
layers: /Chapter 5/
Granular
Surfacing design:
- Surface treatments, carriageway:
/Chapter 10.2 to 10.4/
- Shoulders: /Chapter 10.7/
- Asphalt concrete: /Chapter 10.8/
Material requirements:
- Granular or cemented materials for subbase Climatic zones:
layers or base course: /Chapter 7/
- Bituminous surfacings: /Chapter 10/ /Figure 2.1/
Dry / Moderate
Heavy Traffic Load Classes (-H) apply for
E80 >0.2 million under conditions where Traffic Load Classes (million E80)
more than 50% of E80 comes from axles < 0.2 0.2 - 0.5 0.5 - 1.0 1-3 3 - 10 10 - 20 20 - 50
loaded to above13 tonnes. TLC 02 TLC 05 TLC 1 TLC 3 TLC 10 TLC 20 TLC 50
For the heavy Traffic Load AC
Surfacing
as as as 100mm
(not below below below AC
Classes (TLC 05-H to TLC 20-H ) 50mm
applicable)
AC
General requirements 50mm
ST ST ST ST ST
For the heavy Traffic Load

Base course
150mm 150mm
Classes (TLC 05-H to TLC 20-H ) 125mm as as
(not
below below
applicable) CRS CRS CRR
2)
150mm 150mm 150mm 150mm 150mm 150mm
General requirements
G60 G80 G80 CRS CRR CRR
For the heavy Traffic Load 200mm

Classes (TLC 05-H to TLC 20-H ) (not as as as as
applicable) below below CM below below
Subbase 1)
150mm
+
150mm
General requirements 200mm 200mm 200mm C2

150mm 150mm
G45 G45 C1
G25 G45 C1
Subgrade CBR > 15%

1) If other types of subbase materials are preferred, the substitute shall meet the requirements set out in Chapter 8.3.1
2) G80 can be used up to 2 million E80 in dry climatic zone /Figure 2.1/

Chapter 8
Pavement Design-
Table 8.5 Pavements with granular base course wet climatic zones
Traffic:
- Traffic Load Classes, including the heavy (-H )
lasses: /Chapter 4/ Base course type:
Subgrade design:
layers: /Chapter 5/
Granular
Surfacing design:
Wet
E80 >0.2 million under conditions where
Traffic Load Classes (million E80)
For the heavy Traffic Load AC AC
Surfacing
as as AC 100mm 100mm
Classes (TLC 05-H to TLC 20-H ) (not below below
50mm
applicable)
AC AC
General requirements 50mm 50mm
ST ST ST ST

Base course
150mm 150mm
Classes (TLC 05-H to TLC 20-H ) 125mm as as
(not
below below
applicable) CRS CRR CRR
150mm 150mm 150mm 150mm 150mm 150mm

G80 G80 CRS CRS CRR CRR

Classes (TLC 05-H to TLC 20-H ) (not as as as as
Subbase 1)
applicable) below CM below below below
150mm
+
150mm
General requirements 200mm 200mm 200mm C2

150mm 150mm
G45 CM C1
G25 G45 C1
Subgrade CBR > 15%


Chapter 8
Pavement Design-
Table 8.6 Pavements with cemented base course
Traffic:
- Traffic Load Classes, including the heavy ( -H )
classes: /Chapter 4/ Base course type:
Subgrade design:
layers: /Chapter 5/
Cemented
Surfacing design:
All
E80 >0.2 million under conditions where
AC
Surfacing
For the heavy Traffic Load as as as

AC 100mm
Classes (TLC 05-H to TLC 20-H ) (not below below below
50mm
applicable)
AC
General requirements 50mm
ST ST ST ST ST

Base course
Classes (TLC 05-H to TLC 20-H ) as as as as as

(not
below below below below below
applicable)
150mm 150mm 150mm 150mm 150mm 150mm

CM C1 C1 C2 C2 C2

Classes (TLC 05-H to TLC 20-H ) 150mm 150mm
(not as as
applicable) C1 below below
Subbase 1)
CM CM
125mm 150mm
+ +
125mm 150mm
General requirements 200mm C1

150mm 150mm 150mm C1
G45
G25 G45 G45 CM C1
Subgrade CBR > 15%


Chapter 8
Pavement Design-
Table 8.7 Pavements with a bituminous mix in the base course
Traffic: Base course type:

- Traffic Load Classes: /Chapter 4/
Subgrade design:
layers: /Chapter 5/ Bituminous
mix
Surfacing design:
- Granular or cemented materials for subbase
layers: /Chapter 7/ Climatic zones:
- Bituminous base course: /Chapter 7/
All
No special pavement design alternatives
are required for the heavy Traffic Load
Classes (TLC 05-H to TLC 50-H for) < 0.2 0.2 - 0.5 0.5 - 1.0 1-3 3 - 10 10 - 20 20 - 50
this pavement type. TLC 02 TLC 05 TLC 1 TLC 3 TLC 10 TLC 20 TLC 50
Surfacing
AC AC
50mm 50mm
ST ST ST ST ST
LAMBS LAMBS LAMBS LAMBS LAMBS

DBM 40 DBM 40 DBM 40 DBM 40 DBM 40
Base course
DBM 30 DBM 30 DBM 30 DBM 30 DBM 30

FBMIX FBMIX FBMIX FBMIX FBMIX
Alternative material types: BEMIX BEMIX BEMIX BEMIX
200mm
175mm
150mm
125mm
100mm
80mm
60mm
1)
Subbase
125mm
+
125mm
200mm 200mm 200mm
150mm 150mm 150mm CM
G45 G45 CM
G45 G45 G45 CM
Subgrade CBR > 15%


Chapter 8
Pavement Design-
Table 8.8 Pavements with penetration macadam base course
Traffic: Base course type:

- Traffic Load Classes: /Chapter 4/
Subgrade design:
layers: /Chapter 5/
Penetration
Surfacing design:
Macadam
- Granular or cemented materials for subbase
layers: /Chapter 7/ Climatic zones:
- Penetration Macadam: /Chapter 7/
All
No special pavement design alternatives
are required for the heavy Traffic Load
Classes (TLC 05-H to TLC 50-H) for < 0.2 0.2 - 0.5 0.5 - 1.0 1-3 3 - 10 10 - 20 20 - 50
this pavement type. TLC 02 TLC 05 TLC 1 TLC 3 TLC 10 TLC 20 TLC 50
Surfacing
AC AC
AC AC 100mm 100mm
50mm 50mm
ST ST ST
Base course
125mm 125mm 125mm

100mm 100mm
50mm 50mm
PM60 PM60 PM80 PM80 PM80
PM30 PM30
1)
Subbase
150mm
125mm +
+ 150mm
125mm
200mm C1
150mm 150mm 150mm 150mm C1
CM
G45 G45 CM CM CM CM
Subgrade CBR > 15%


Chapter 8
Pavement Design-
8-5 MITCHELL, R L, C P VAN DER MERWE and H K GEEL (1975).
8-7 ROLT, J (1994). The performance of a full scale road pavement design
experiment in Jamaica. In: Proc. of Institution of Civil Engineers.
Transport. August 1994.
Design of Road Pavements. CSIR, Pretoria, South Africa, for SATCC.
ODA, London, UK.

Chapter 9
Pavement
Rehabilitation
Project appraisal
Ch
Environment
DESIGN ELEMENTS
Cross Section,
Traffic
Subgrade
Ch
STRUCTURAL
New Roads

Rehabilitation
DESIGN
Bituminous
Surfacings
Gravel Roads

selection of design
Ministry of Works
Chapter 9
Pavement Rehabilitation
9.0.1 Rehabilitation needs

Strategies for rehabilitation, i.e. whether The purpose of pavement rehabilitation is commonly related to
short term or long term measures are
desired, may differ between projects due inadequate service levels for the road users in combination with excessive
to funding conditions or overall strategies costs in maintaining the existing pavement structure. Rehabilitation may
for the part of the network where the
project is located. however be required for reasons not directly related to the present surface
condition, i.e. due to expected dramatic increase of traffic or as a
strengthening combined with upgrading the geometry of the road.
9.0.2 Pavement evaluation

The purpose of pavement evaluation is primarily to determine the present
pavement condition so that appropriate rehabilitation measures can be
identified. Cost effective pavement evaluation involves collection of only
the necessary types of data, or amounts of data to establish the cause of
distress and for carrying out rehabilitation design with sufficient
confidence.
9.0.3 Rehabilitation design

Three rehabilitation design methods are prescribed in this chapter:
n maximum deflection method
n structural number method
n mechanistic method
9.0.4 Rehabilitation options

Rehabilitation design only forms part of the process to establish
appropriate rehabilitation measures. Other factors such as agency policy,
practical construction aspects, availability of skills, materials and other
resources, environmental mitigation and maintenance aspects shall be
taken into consideration in selection of the appropriate rehabilitation
option. Rehabilitation options are classified into:
n overlays
n partial reconstruction
n full reconstruction
9.1 Pavement Evaluation

9.1.0 General
The initial survey will rule out obvious The purpose of pavement evaluation is primarily to determine why the
rehabilitation options, such as where full
reconstruction or realignment is required, present pavement condition prevails so that appropriate rehabilitation
and thereby exclude collection of measures can be identified. Pavement evaluation involves detailing
unnecessary information.
appropriate methods for pavement investigations, relating the symptoms
of distress to their causes and explaining the reason for distress. The
outcome of the study forms the basis to carry out a rehabilitation design
using appropriate design methods.

Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 illustrates the procedure for pavement evaluation up to Comments:

completion of the rehabilitation design.
Start Establish homogenous sections

Carry out desk study Carry out initial assessment of
based on initial assessment of
pavement condition
pavement condition
Carry out structural surveys as Carry out detailed condition survey Assess each homogenous section
required based on the detailed if required in accordance with according to /Fig 9.2/
condition survey /Fig. 9.2/
Re-assess demarcation into Carry out pavement rehabilitation Combine sections with similar
homogenous sections based on all design for each homogenous rehabilitation measures into
available data section practical lengths for construction
Figure 9.1 Pavement evaluation and rehabilitation procedure
9.1.1 Confidence level

The confidence level for pavement data processing shall be 90%, i.e. that
10% of the length of the road is allowed to perform unsatisfactorily at the
end of the design period when the design is based on current pavement data.
9.1.2 Design traffic loading

General
Collection of traffic loading data shall be carried out in accordance with
/Chapter 4 Traffic/.
Past traffic loading

Past traffic received by the pavement shall be calculated for the purpose
of estimating residual pavement life.
Design traffic loading

Design traffic loading for the design period shall be projected in
accordance with /Chapter 4 Traffic/.
9.1.3 Pavement investigation procedure

General
The extent of the pavement investigation depends on prevailing conditions
on site as detailed in this chapter and in Chapter 9.1.4 Extent of
investigation, and shall be carried out in the following sequence:
n desk study (shall always be carried out)
n initial assessment (shall always be carried out)
n detailed condition surveys (if required)
n structural surveys (if required)
Figure 9.2 illustrates the procedure for pavement investigations of each

section deemed to be homogenous based on initial assessment. The
procedure is shown up to the completion of detailed condition surveys
and identification of sections that require structural surveys.

Chapter 9
Comments: Traffic
Start projection
/Chapter 9.1.2/
Any possibilities
YES Section with of salvaging the NO
only localised pavement ?
distress ?
Establish the cause of the
localised distress, if necessary
carry out additional field NO YES
testing.
NO Carry out detailed condition Determine
Section with surveys: subgrade CBR
no distress ? - rutting /Chapter 5/
Traffic YES - roughness
projection - surface defects
NO /Chapter 9.1.4/
/Chapter
9.1.2/
Section with
YES only surface
defects ?
Determine the need for Design full pavement

Recommend corrective structural surveys: reconstruction without any
measures. Further - DCP further investigation of the
NO - deflection section.
investigation of the section is
normally not necessary. - sampling (lab. testing) /Chapter 9.3.3/
/Chapter 9.1.4/
Figure 9.2 Assessment of one homogenous section
Desk study
A desk study shall always be carried out to gather available information
about the road section, which may include:
n as-built data including construction records and information about
geometry and drainage
n maintenance records
n data from previous traffic counts and axle load surveys
n data from previous investigations such as measurements of deflection,
DCP, rutting, roughness, surface defects, sampling, rutting,
roughness, cracks, and others
n data on climate, geology and topography
Initial assessment
Initial assessment of the road shall be carried out before the schedules for
condition surveys or structural surveys are being established. Initial asses-
sment includes visual inspection and examination of data obtained in the
desk study. The objectives of the initial assessment are those given below.
A. Initial assessment shall establish the length of sections with :
n no significant problems
n localised distress clearly related to specific problems such as poor
drainage, expansive subgrade soils, or others
n distress obviously related to the surfacing only
n possibilities of inadequate structural strength
n obviously no possible salvage of the existing pavement hence full
reconstruction is the only possible rehabilitation measure
B. Initial assessment shall provide:

Chapter 9
n a record of observation data and any initial measurements carried Comments:

out during the visual inspection
n quantified data on serviceability of sections with obviously no
possible salvage of the existing pavement. These include
measurements of driving speed, PSI or estimated International
Roughness Index
C. Initial assessment shall give recommendations on:

n remedial action for the localised distress
n remedial action for the surface distress
n a further field test programme for sections with possibilities of
inadequate structural strength or with distress where the existing
pavement may be salvaged
Homogenous sections A statistical method, cumulative sums

(CUSUM), can be used to establish
Homogenous sections shall initially be established on the basis of pave- homogenous sections for each type of
ment condition after the initial assessment. The demarcation of measured data. /Appendix A8.3/.
homogenous sections shall be revised and changed if required after the
detailed condition survey and structural surveys are carried out. Worked Example
/Appendix A8. 3/
Detailed condition surveys
Detailed condition surveys shall be carried out where the existing pave-
ment may be salvaged and where distress is not obviously related to the
either surfacing only or localised problems. Detailed condition surveys The required test frequencies: Chapter
include measurements of the following parameters: 9.1.4 Extent of investigations.
n rutting
n surface defects
n potholes
n cracks, all cracks and wide cracks >3 mm
n loss of stones (ravelling)
n patches
n roughness
n shoulder conditions
n drainage conditions
Structural surveys
Structural surveys shall be scheduled according to Chapter 9.1.4 Extent
of investigations and include collection of one or more of the following data:
n Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP)
n maximum surface deflection with Benkelman beam (8175 kg axle) or
equivalent equipment approved by the Ministry of Works, correlated
back to Benkelman beam measurements
n pit logs and laboratory tests of samples such as moisture content,
grading, Atterberg limits, CBR, or others as required

Chapter 9
Comments: 9.1.4 Extent of investigations

The conditions that require the investigation frequency of scheme A
or B respectively are given in Table 9.1. The extent of investigations
for the purpose of pavement evaluation are given in Table 9.2.
Table 9.1 Conditions that require scheme A or B respectively for frequency of

investigations
- All trunk roads
Scheme A - Other i mportant mai n roads, e.g. strategi c routes

or major li nks i n towns, deemed to be of parti cular
i mportance
Scheme B - Other roads
Table 9.2 Required extent of pavement investigations
Min test
frequency [m]
Test
Scheme Scheme
A B
Rut depth, measured both si des i n 50 100

outer wheel path only
D etailed
condition Surface defects such as patches,
surv ey s cracks, loss of stones, or others C onti nuously
Roughness, Internati onal Roughness measured
Index (IRI)
500 1000
D C P, the si de wi th hi ghest rutti ng
values mi n 3 per
homogenous
secti on
Structural
surv ey s Maxi mum surface deflecti on,
measured on the si de wi th hi ghest 100 200
rutti ng values, i n outer wheel path only
Test pi ts excavated to desi gn depth as
defi ned i n /Chapter 5.1/.Pi t log, testi ng 1000 2000
of C BR, i ndi cators, moi sture content
The test frequenci es are the mi ni mum acceptable. Addi ti onal tests may be requi red
dependi ng on si te condi ti ons and i n the case of anomali es i n the tested values. The
demarcati on of homogenous secti ons may be revi sed after analysi s of the test results.
Roughness shall be measured with the MERLIN apparatus or alterna-

tive high-capacity equipment of a type approved by the Ministry of
Works. Alternative equipment shall be calibrated against the MER-
LIN.

Chapter 9
9.1.5 Distress criteria Comments:
Distress criteria for use in pavement evaluation are given in Table 9.3.
The following is the meaning of the terms sound, warning and severe
in the condition rating:
n sound: adequate condition
n warning:uncertainty exists about the adequacy of the condition
n severe: inadequate condition
Table 9.3 Pavement distress criteria
C ondition rating
Parameter Traffic class TLC 1 or lower Traffic class TLC 3 or higher
Sound Warni ng Severe Sound Warni ng Severe
< 10 10 - 20 > 20 <5 5 - 15 > 15

Rutti ng, 90%-i le over a
Rutti ng caused by shovi ng wi thi n bi tumi nous layers shall be assessed separately. Rutti ng i s a more severe
secti on [mm] defect than what i s reflected above when combi ned wi th a cracked surface. Figure 9.3 gi ves the
procedure to i nterpret these data
Potholes < 0.01% 0.01% > 0.2% < 0.01% 0.01% > 0.1%
- 0.2% - 0.1%
All cracks < 20 20 - 50 > 50 < 10 10 - 30 > 30
Surface defects Wi de cracks
[% of
carri ageway >3mm [i n % < 20 20 - 50 > 50 < 10 10 - 30 > 30
area] of all cracks]
L o ss o f <5 5 - 15 > 15 <5 5 - 10 > 10

stones
Loss of stones on pavements wi th a surface treatment over a base course made of unbound materi als
(ravelli ng) shall be rated severe wherever the affected area exceeds 5%
Patches 0.3% 0.2%

< 0.3% > 1.0% < 0.2% > 0.6%
[% of carri ageway area] - 1.0% - 0.6%
Roughness, IRI [m/km] <3 3-6 >6 <3 3-6 >6
Max deflecti on [mm]

90% -ile over a section [mm]
- granular base course < 0.7 0.7 - 1.3 > 1.3 < 0.5 0.5 - 1.0 > 1.0
- li gthtly cemented base < 0.55 0.55 - 1.15 > 1.15 < 0.35 0.35 - 0.85 > 0.85

Chapter 9
Comments: 9.1.6 Data interpretation

The procedure for interpretation of data is illustrated in Figure 9.3.
Major mode of distress

RUTTING: SOUND WARNING or SEVERE WARNING or SEVERE
CRACKING: WARNING or SEVERE SEVERE SOUND or WARNING
If rutting is due to shoving in the asphalt:

carry out special investigations.
Consider whether full reconstruction Consider whether full reconstruction
applies /Chapter 9.3.3/ applies /Chapter 9.3.3/
NO Good correlation rutting / deflection, or

roughness / deflection?
YES
NO Design traffic loading is less than

10 million E80?
YES
Structural number method /Chapter 9.2.2/, or (for confirmation) Maximum deflection method /Chapter 9.2.1/
Mechanistic method /Chapter 9.2.3/
Rehabilitation design method
Select appropriate rehabilitation option /Chapter 9.3/ and

consider options to prevent reflective cracking if applicable /Chapter 9.4/
Comments:
Figure 9.3 Interpretation of pavement data
9.2 Rehabilitation Design Methods

Various forms of distress may be
related, and its primary cause may be
9.2.0 General
obscured on roads where a stage has This chapter gives an overview of available pavement rehabilitation
been reached whereby numerous forms design methods and indicates their limitations and requirements for input
of distress are evident. The parts of a
road which has not yet reached a data. The designer has the following methods at hand for carrying out
completely failed stage are likely to give pavement rehabilitation design:
valuable information on the primary
cause of distress and thereby clues to n maximum deflection method empirically derived
determine the most appropriate
rehabilitation option. n structural number method empirically derived
n mechanistic method theoretically/empirically derived
The appropriate method shall be applied depending on pavement type,

condition and other parameters as described in Table 9.4.
Output from pavement rehabilitation design methods only forms part
of the final decision on appropriate rehabilitation remedies for a
section or an entire project. Other factors such as agency policy,
practical construction aspects, availability of skills, materials and

Chapter 9
other resources, environmental mitigation and maintenance aspects Comments:

shall be taken into consideration.
Table 9.4 Selection of appropriate design method
B ase course Main mode R ehabilitation design method

material ty pe of distress
Maxi mum Structural Mechani sti c
deflecti on number
(not
C racki ng
Granular or appli cable)
li ghtly cement a a
D eformati on a*)
C racki ng or
C emented or
bi tumi nous
deformati on,
(not
appli cable)
a a
or both
*) The maxi mum deflecti on method only appli es for traffi c load class TLC 10 or lower and
where deformati on ori gi nates from the subgrade.
9.2.1 Maximum deflection method

Description of the method
The maximum deflection method is based on empirically derived relation- Deflection measurements give useful
information to explain the mode of distress
ships between pavement performance and surface deflection under loading. in existing pavements and are often
The method requires different performance criteria for different pavement justified even though the rehabilitation
types and is inapplicable for certain pavements. Deflection measurements design is not based on the deflection
method.
will only give information about the pavements structural response at the
time the measurement were carried out. This means that moisture conditions,
and temperature in the case of thick bituminous layers, affect the results
significantly and can be misleading to the designer.
Applicability and limitations of the method

The deflection method shall not be used as the only rehabilitation design
method, but to supplement other methods in a multi-analysis approach
and shall not be used unless all the following conditions prevail: An extensively cracked cemented layer
may be classified as a granular layer.
n distress originates from the subgrade, and
n the base course in existing pavement is a granular or lightly
cemented type, i.e. not cement stabilised, and
n there is remaining structural life in the existing pavement, and
n future design traffic is less than 10 million. E80
Extensively cracked cemented layers may be classified as granular layers.
The relationship between maximum deflection and rut depth measurements
taken along the length of a road gives an indication of the cause and mech-
anism of the distress. A good correlation will usually indicate that distress
may be associated with an over-stressed subgrade. A poor correlation is
indicative of distress originating in one or more of the upper layers of the
pavement. In this case the maximum deflection method may not apply.
Similarly, a poor correlation between maximum deflection and road rough- Rut depth in relation to poor base or
ness measurements will usually indicate distress in the upper layers of the subbase.
pavement, while a good correlation is indicate of problems in the subgrade.

Chapter 9
Comments: Design procedure

Figure 9.4 (describes the procedure for pavement rehabilitation design
using the maximum deflection method.)
Determine traffic loading: Establish homogenous Measure and calculate design

- past E80 sections. (The CUSUM deflection for each
- future E80 (design traffic method in /Appendix A8.3/ homogenous section.
loading) may be used).
Determine expected pavement Past E80 larger YES Maximum deflection method
life (total E80) than expected does not apply.
/Fig. 9.5/ pavement life?
NO
Residual life No strengthening is required

Calculate residual capacity: YES based on the maximum
larger than
= expected capacity - past E80 deflection method.
design traffic
loading?
NO
Determine required Select overlay alternative as

Determine target deflection.
strengthening, SN diff appropriate.
/Fig. 9.5 or /Fig. 9.6/ /Fig. 9.7/ /Table 9.9/
Figure 9.4 Design procedure, maximum deflection method
Deflection input data

The deflection recovery (rebound) method Input data is maximum deflections measured with Benkelman beam (dual
offers an easier measuring procedure with
less risk of damage to equipment. How- wheels, 8175 kg axle load) or data collected with other types of
ever, on newly constructed pavements equipment, correlated back to equivalent Benkelman beam deflections.
(less than 3 years in service) this method
does not give results that correspond The transient method shall be used where the existing pavement or
sufficiently well with the design method. overlay was constructed less than 3 years before the measurements, the
Correction of deflection data for
temperature is not necessary for deflection recovery (rebound) method can otherwise be used.
investigation of pavements with granular
base course and such corrections do not The maximum deflection method requires that the measured deflection is
improve the accuracy of the maximum the maximum deflection over a year. The time of measurements in
deflection method /9-6/. Design methods
using radius of curvature are not provided, relation to rainy seasons shall therefore be carefully assessed and the need
however collection of curvature data can for repeated measurements at a different time shall be considered.
give useful information to explain the
cause of distress.
Design deflection
A statistical method, cumulative sums The design deflection is the 90%-ile deflection value for a homogenous
(CUSUM), can be used to establish
homogenous sections for deflection data. section with a minimum of 20 measurements.
/Appendix A8.3/.
Design deflection = (mean deflection) + 1.3 x (standard deviation)

Chapter 9
Traffic Comments:
Required traffic parameters for input in the design method are the
following:
n estimated past cumulative traffic loading carried by the pavement
since construction or its last structural rehabilitation (in millions E80)
n design traffic loading (future) determined according to /Chapter 4
Traffic/.
Expected pavement life

The pavements expected life is the cumulative number of E80s the pave-
ment is expected to be able to carry, i.e. past cumulative traffic loading plus
the estimated residual pavement life until critical condition is reached.
Residual life
The residual life of the pavement is the difference between expected pave- In specialised investigations of
ment life and past cumulative traffic loading. pavements without remaining structural
life it is possible to study the relationship
Residual life (E80) = expected life (E80) past cumulative traffic loading (E80). between rutting and deflection and
respectively roughness and deflection
in order to establish distress criteria for
If the past cumulative traffic loading is larger than the expected pavement that particular pavement structure. Such
life, i.e. negative residual life, then the maximum deflection method shall investigations and rehabilitation designs
are only supplementary to the design
not be applied. method using structural number.
If the residual life is larger than the future design traffic loading, then
strengthening of the pavement is not required.
Desired pavement life

The desired pavement life is the total traffic loading the pavement would
need to carry in order to endure the design period without overlay. I.e. the
cumulative past traffic loading plus the design traffic loading.
Target deflection
The target deflection is the maximum deflection value that would give a
pavement life sufficient to carry the cumulative past traffic loading plus
the design traffic loading (desired pavement life) without overlay.
Design charts
Design charts giving the relationship between deflection and pavement
life (traffic loading) are presented in Figure 9.5 and Figure 9.6 where the
design line for a 90% confidence in achieving life is marked. The two
figures are valid for pavements with a granular base course and lightly
cemented base course respectively.
In Figure 9.5 the use of the design chart is shown by aid of an example.
The key parameters are as given in Table 9.5 with letter symbols referring
to positions in the chart.

Chapter 9
Comments: Table 9.5 Design parameters used in the deflection design charts
R eference Parameters Value in N otes

to Fig. 9.5 example
A (i nput) D esi gn deflecti on, deri ved from fi eld
0.77 mm Input parameter for Figure 9.7
measurements
B (i nput) Past cumulati ve traffi c loadi ng 2 x 106
-
E 80
T (i nput) D esi gn traffi c loadi ng (future) 8 x 106
-
/Chapter 4 - Traffic/ E 80
C C urrent pavement state, the crossi ng If the poi nt C falls above the desi gn li ne, then
poi nt between the li nes drawn strai ght - there i s no resi dual li fe i n the pavement, and
from A and B, as shown i n the desi gn method i s i nappli cable.
D Expected pavement li fe, determi ned by
4 x 106
conti nui ng the trend-li ne from C , as -
E 80
shown i n Figure 9.5
(D - B) Resi dual li fe Resi dual li fe (D -B) larger than the desi gn traffi c
2 x 106
loadi ng (T), means that strengtheni ng of the
E 80
pavement i s not necessary.
E = (B+T) D esi red pavement li fe 10 x 106
-
E 80
F Target deflecti on, determi ned by follo-
wi ng the trend-li nes usi ng E as i nput 0.53 mm Input parameter for Figure 9.7
parameter, as shown i n Figure 9.5
Maximum deflection is determined under an axle load of 8175 kg using dual wheels.
Figure 9.5 Deflection design chart, granular base course
Maximum deflection is determined under an axle load of 8175 kg using dual wheels.

Chapter 9
TLC 05 TLC 1 TLC 3 TLC 10 TLC 20 Comments:
167 Critical condition. 90%

154 confidence in achieving life
142
129
Deflection [ mm x 102 ]
116
103
90
77
64
51
39
26
13
0.2 0.3 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 3.0 5.0 10 15 20 30
Equivalent standard axles, E80 [ x 106 ]
Figure 9.6 Deflection design chart, lightly cemented base course
Required strengthening
The required strengthening is determined by using Figure 9.7 with the An example of a target deflection of 0.53
target deflection and the measured design deflection as input data. SNdiff mm and a measured design deflection of
0.77 mm is shown in Figure 9.7. This gives
shall be determined by interpolation in the chart. a required strengthening of SNdiff = 1.00,
corresponding to a required asphalt
concrete overlay of 60 mm determined
from Table 9.9.
St
ru
0.8 ct
ur
al
Target deflection [ mm ]
50 nu
0. m
0.80 be
0 r,
0.6 1.2 S N
.60
di
ff
1
2.20
0.4
0.2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6

Design deflection, measured [ mm ]
Figure 9.7 Determination of required strengthening, SNdiff
9.2.2 Structural number method

General
The structural number method is based on empirical correlation between The structural number method is directly
linked to the design catalogue for
tested material properties and expected pavement performance. construction of new roads.
Laboratory tests and in-situ measurements are required to determine
material strength, expressed as the material coefficient. The following
methods are applicable for these measurements:

Chapter 9
Comments: n CBR and indicator testing of samples taken from the road
n in-situ strength measured with DCP
n measurement of layer thicknesses in the existing pavement with DCP
combined with excavation of test pits
Structural number of the existing pavement, SNexist

The materials in the existing pavement structure shall be given a material
Worked Example coefficient (a) after assessments in accordance with Table 9.4. The structural
/Appendix A8. 5/ number (SNexist) is defined as the product between the thickness (t) of
each pavement layer (n) and its corresponding material coefficient (a),
The structural number calculations
include a conversion between inches added for the entire pavement structure or part of the pavement structure.
and millimetres in dividing by 25.4 when
layer thicknesses are given in millimetres, SN = ( a1 x t1 + a2 x t2 + a3 x t3 +.+ an x tn ) / 25.4
because the material coefficients (a) are
universally expressed as inch-1. where layer thickness (t) is measured in mm
Table 9.6 Material coefficients (a) for existing pavement layers
Ty pe of material and condition of the lay er Material coefficient (a)

Surfacing:
Asphalt C oncrete (AC ), generally un-cracked and wi th li ttle deformati on i n the wheel
paths 0.40
Portland cement concrete layers, generally un-cracked
Asphalt C oncrete (AC ) that exhi bi t some cracki ng but wi th li ttle deformati on i n the
wheel paths
0.30
Portland cement concrete layers, generally stable but has some cracks, however
contai ni ng no pi eces smaller than 1 m2.
Asphalt C oncrete (AC ) that exhi bi t appreci able cracki ng, wi th some deformati on i n
the wheel paths, but i s essenti ally stable 0.18
Appreci ably cracked and faulted Portland cement concrete layer
Surface treatments wi th total thi ckness mi n 30 mm 0.20
Portland cement concrete layer, deli berately broken i nto pi eces less than 0.5 m
0.16
across
B ase course:
Bi tumi nous layers other than AC , generally un-cracked and wi th li ttle deformati on 0.30
Penetrati on macadam wi thout i nfi ltrati on of fi nes i nto the layer 0.20
C ement stabi li sed base course, generally wi thout reflected cracki ng to the surface 0.18
Cement stabilised base course, with extensive pattern cracking reflected to the surface 0.16
Bi tumi nous layers other than AC , appreci ably cracked and wi th some deformati on
0.14
Granular layer of crushed or natural materi al, PI max 8, C BR mi n 80
Low grade base course, subbase or earthworks lay ers:
Fully cracked cemented subbase or granular layers of natural gravel or wi th small
0.12
proporti ons of crushed parti cles, C BR mi n 60
Natural gravel of nomi nally subbase quali ty, C BR mi n 25 0.10
Natural gravel i n i mproved subgrade layers, C BR mi n 10 0.08

Chapter 9
Required strength and strength deficiency Comments:

The calculation of strength deficiency (SNdiff) shall minimum be carried
out for the top of subbase level and for the top of subgrade level in the Worked Example
existing pavement. Calculations are only required within the design depth, /Appendix A8. 5/
reference is made to /Chapter 5.1/ for determination of design depth. The
calculation giving the highest SNdiff becomes the value for which the
rehabilitation design is carried out.
The required structural number (SNrequired) shall be determined using Table
9.7 with input CBR expressing support conditions at the calculated level
in the existing pavement structure. The existing pavements strength
deficiency (SNdiff) at the calculated level in the structure is the difference
between the required structural number (SNrequired) and the structural
number of the existing pavement (SNexist) above the calculated level.
SNdiff = SNrequired - SNexist
Table 9.7 Determination of required structural number, SNrequired
R equired structural number, SN re q u ire d

S ub- Traffic load classes
grade
CBR TLC 02 TLC 05 TLC 1 TLC 3 TLC 10 TLC 20 TLC 50
> 30 1.10 1.25 1.60 1.90 2.35 3.00 3.50
15 - 29 1.35 1.50 1.80 2.20 2.75 3.80 4.20
10 - 14 1.60 1.80 2.10 2.50 3.00 4.10 4.50
7- 9 1.90 2.00 2.30 2.75 3.30 4.30 4.70
5-6 2.10 2.20 2.50 2.90 3.50 4.50 5.00
3-4 2.40 2.80 3.10 3.40 4.00 5.00 5.50
9.2.3 Mechanistic method

Mechanistic methods are theoretically derived through linear elastic The South African mechanistic method is
presently the nearest available to local
theory and are based on a set of built-in distress criteria. The South verification of criteria.
African mechanistic design shall be used where a mechanistic method is
applied /9-3/.
The South African mechanistic method requires that the following infor-
mation about the existing pavement is gathered:
n pavement type (test pit log and laboratory tests)
n pavement state (surface deflections: stiff/flexible)
n layer state (test pits: wet/dry/cracked)
n layer thickness (test pit log)
n layer moduli (laboratory tests: values are given in table)
Correlation is made to a catalogue of pavement behaviour states on the
basis of the above information about the existing pavement.

Chapter 9
Comments: 9.3 Rehabilitation Options

9.3.0 General
Resealing with a surface treatment or The following options are available for pavement rehabilitation:
slurry seal normally falls under periodic
maintenance and is not included in this n overlays with a new surfacing
chapter. Such treatments may however be
used on rehabilitation projects on road n overlays with a new surfacing and base course
sections that are found to be structurally
sound. Resealing does not add significant n partial reconstruction by reworking the existing pavement and adding
structural strength to the pavement. new pavement layers as required
However, resealing may arrest or slow
down deterioration by waterproofing and n full reconstruction by downgrading of the existing pavement to
prevention of surface disintegration. No
significant improvement of the riding subgrade for the new pavement
quality is directly achieved by resealing.
Which method is the appropriate for a road section depends on the following:
n condition of the existing pavement
n strength requirements for the new pavement
n types of material in the existing pavement
n available materials for construction of the new pavement
n required surface levels of the new road
n construction practicalities
9.3.1 Overlays
Applicability
Wherever possible the drainage of the Overlays are used for the following purposes:
existing pavement shall be improved a
year before overlay is scheduled to take n to add sufficient structural strength so the pavement can carry the
place. future traffic in the design period
n to restore the riding quality of the pavement
Overlays shall not be used under the following conditions:
n on severely cracked pavements where there is a risk of early crack
reflection through the new layers. Methods to minimise the risk of
crack reflection are given in Chapter 9.4
n on pavements with deformation (shoving) in bituminous layers unless
repair or removal of the deformed material is carried out Chapter 9.3.2
Pavements that exhibit shoving in n where there is uncertainty about the performance of the overlay due to
existing bituminous layers must be
repaired or replaced prior to placing an defects in the existing base course or in patches in the existing pavement
overlay.
Materials
Material types selected for overlays shall meet the requirements given in
the design catalogue Chapter 8 Pavement design - New Roads and in
Chapter 7 Pavement Materials. Material coefficients (a) for pavement
and subgrade materials are given in Table 9.6.
Overlay design
When an overlay is placed, restoring of the drainage system shall always
be included.
The general requirement for layer thicknesses is that dMAX shall not exceed
2
/3 of the compacted layer thickness. Table 9.9 gives alternative overlay
designs for varying degrees of required strengthening.

Chapter 9
Table 9.8 Material coefficients (a) for new pavement layers Comments:
Material
Ty pe of material
coefficient (a)
Surfacing:
Asphalt C oncrete surfaci ng (AC ) 0.40
B ase course:
Bituminous base course, BEMIX, FBMIX, DBM, LAMBS 0.30
Penetrati on macadam, PM 0.25
C ement or li me stabi li sed materi als, C 2 0.20
C ement or li me modi fi ed materi als, C M 0.11
Granular, crushed base course materi als, C RR 0.15
Granular, crushed base course materi als, C RS 0.14
Natural gravel base course, G80 0.13
Natural gravel base course, G60 0.12
S u b b ase:
C ement or li me modi fi ed materi als, C M 0.11
Granular, crushed materials used for subbase, CBR>45 0.11
Natural gravel subbase, G45 0.11
Natural gravel subbase, G25 0.10
Subgrade:
Natural gravel for i mproved subgrade, G15 0.09
All selection of surfacing type and base course material type shall meet
the requirements for the respective traffic load class given in /Tables 8.4/
to 8.8 in /Chapter 8 Pavement Design - New roads/.
Overlays with granular base course

Table 9.9 provides an option to use graded crushed rock as base course Use of granular base course in overlays
carries risk of failure unless the existing
(CRR) in overlays. This option shall be used with discretion and surface is reprocessed, i.e. by undertaking
particular attention to the following: partial reconstruction Chapter 9.3.2.
n the underlying surface must be freely drained, particularly where

depressions or ruts are present, in order to avoid water being trapped
in the new base course layer
n the layer thickness given in Table 9.9 shall not be compromised by
unevenness in the existing surface, consideration shall be given to
reprocessing of the existing pavement (partial reconstruction) if the
existing surface is deformed

Chapter 9
Comments: Table 9.9 Overlay design
Overlay alternatives
*) Select the nearest of the given values for SN diff
SN diff
*) Asphalt concrete Bituminous mix Penetration Granular base
overlay for base course 1) macadam 2) course 3)
< 0.50 Apply a surface treatment or do nothing depending on site conditions.
ST
0,50 AC 40 mm PM 30 50 mm
ST
0,75 AC 50 mm PM 30 50 mm
ST
ST
ST
CRR 150 mm
1,00 AC 60 mm Bit. 80 mm PM 60 100 mm
Only TLC 10 or lower
AC 50 mm
PM 30 50 mm
alternatively: ST
1,25 ST
ST
PM 80 125 mm CRR 150 mm

AC 80 mm Bit. 100 mm
AC 50 mm
AC 50 mm
PM 60 100 mm
Bit. 60 mm
ST
1,50 alternatively: alternatively:
ST ST
CRR 200 mm
AC 100 mm Bit. 120 mm PM 80 125 mm
AC 50 mm AC 50 mm
Bit. 80 mm PM 60 100 mm
alternatively: alternatively: AC 50 mm
1,75 ST ST
PM 30 50 mm
CRR 200 mm
AC 120 mm Bit. 140 mm PM 60 100 mm
AC 50 mm
PM 80 125 mm
alternatively:
ST
2,00 AC 50 mm
PM 60 100 mm
AC 50 mm
CRR 200 mm
Bit. 100 mm PM 60 100 mm
AC 50 mm
PM 80 125 mm
alternatively:
2,25 ST
AC 50 mm PM 60 100 mm
Bit. 130 mm PM 60 100 mm
1)
The appropriate type of bituminous base course shall be selected depending on
traffic load class according to /Table 8.7/ in /Chapter 8 Pavement Design - New
Roads/.
2)
Best suited for roads with low traffic speed such as urban roads. For roads with
high traffic speed a levelling course made of a bituminous mix may be necessary to
provide satisfactory riding quality.
3)
Limited to the conditions given in /Tables 8.4/ and /8.5/ in /Chapter 8 Pavement
Design - New Roads/ with regards to traffic loading and climate.
Consideration shall be given to reprocessing of the existing pavement.

Chapter 9
9.3.2 Partial reconstruction Comments:
General
Partial reconstruction is reprocessing or removal of material from the
existing pavement to let the existing pavement form either base course or
subbase in the new pavement. Whether the existing pavement forms a
new base course or a new subbase depends on:
n the material properties of the existing pavement layers
n the condition of the existing pavement
n the strength requirements for the new pavement
n any required adjustments of road levels
The pavement design catalogue, /Tables 8.4/ to /8.8/ in /Chapter 8 Pave-
ment design - New Roads/ shall be used for selection of pavement layers.
Reprocessing the old pavement to base course in the new pavement

The base course, consisting of the reprocessed old pavement, shall fulfil
the requirements for base course in accordance with the design catalogue.
Reprocessing the old pavement to subbase in the new pavement.
The subbase, consisting of the reprocessed old pavement, shall fulfil the
requirements for subbase in accordance with the design catalogue.
9.3.3 Full reconstruction

Full reconstruction is when the existing pavement is reprocessed to improved
subgrade in the new pavement, whether or not reworking is carried out.
The pavement design catalogue, /Tables 8.4/ to /8.8/. in /Chapter 8
Pavement design - New Roads/ shall be used for selection of surfacing,
base course and subbase. The subgrade, consisting of the old pavement,
shall meet the requirement for subgrade /Chapter 5 Subgrade/.
9.4 Methods to Prevent Reflective

Cracking
9.4.0 General
Special materials and methods may be used for the purpose of minimising Specialised methods are generally
reflection of cracks from the underlying surface below asphalt concrete expensive, often require specialised
materials, equipment and skills, and the
overlays. Special binders are also available for use in surface treatments success of the installation is not
for maintenance reseals. Special methods or materials shall only be guaranteed.
considered in the cases when alternative conventional rehabilitation
options incur considerable additional cost or are unlikely to be successful.
9.4.1 Conventional methods for overlays

Conventional options to minimise crack reflection through overlays shall
always be considered and include the following:
n partly or full removal (milling) of the cracked layer is often a preferred
option where the cracks do not extend deep into the pavement
n overlays using penetration macadam prevents crack reflection
n removal of the cracked layer in individual locations - and patching -
before overlay is cost effective where the total cracked area is small

Chapter 9
Comments: n increasing the thickness of the asphalt overlay will delay the crack
reflection through new layers, but carries risks of not being cost
effective if the time until crack reflection proves to be shorter than
expected
n individual sealing of cracks may be effective in cases where traffic is
low, cracks are few and considered not very active
n provision of a thick granular overlay (new base course) before placing
the asphalt surfacing
9.4.2 Special methods and materials for overlays

General
There is no standard measure to arrest crack reflection that is suited for
every situation and successful solutions require good knowledge of each
case in order to ensure that the most appropriate method is selected. The
cost effectiveness - and likelihood of success - when applying specialised
materials or methods shall be carefully assessed and documented before
application in the works. No added structural strength shall be attributed
to the presence of such layers in the pavement.
Interlayer systems
The success of grids for reinforcement There is a considerable number of specialised systems available for
in pavement rehabilitation depends on
whether the grid, and surrounding prevention of crack reflection in overlays. These include the use of:
materials, can mobilise sufficient stress
before strain at existing cracks causes n geo-textiles impregnated with binder
reflection through the overlay. The
possibility of crack reflection at the edge
n reinforcement by the use of grids
of the grid should also be considered, and
whether or not the grid will obstruct
n combinations of geo-textiles and grids
recycling of the pavement at a later time. n interlayer systems with thin sand asphalt
n surface treatment with modified or conventional binder before placing
the overlay
n a membrane made of polyester threads or glass fibre in combination
with a bituminous binder
n specialised binders or mix designs, or special materials such as fibres,
in the overlay mix
n reprocessing of the existing asphalt surface by the aid of heating
Any specialised method under consideration shall be assessed together
with conventional alternatives to select the most cost effective and
technically appropriate option. Any modification of the overlay mix itself
shall not compromise the ability of the layer to withstand plastic
deformation under traffic.
9.4.3 Surface treatments

Multi-layer reseals by the use of high Specialised surface treatments utilising special binders such as bitumen
bitumen spray rates can effectively seal
cracks provided the cracks are not active with rubber or polymer modified binders may be used for the purpose of
and their widths are not excessive. enhancing the ability of a maintenance reseal to arrest crack reflection.
However, some bleeding of the surface
may have to be tolerated in such cases.
The designer shall consider whether alternative multi-layer reseals by the
use of conventional binders, or increased resealing frequency, are likely to
give similar results as specialised binders, and make estimations of which
is the more cost effective solution.

Chapter 9
References Comments:

9-3 COMMITTEE OF STATE ROAD AUTHORITIES. Draft TRH
12 (1997): Bituminous pavement rehabilitation design. CSRA,
Pretoria, Republic of South Africa.
9-4 COMMITTEE OF STATE ROAD AUTHORITIES. TMH 5 (1981):
9-5 EMBY, J, C R JONES, and M S MUSTAFA (1992). The use of hot
surface treatment to rehabilitate cracked asphalt concrete surfacings in
Malaysia. Proc. the seventh REAAA Conference, Singapore, June 1992.
COMMISSION - SATCC (1998). Draft: Code of practice for
pavement rehabilitation. CSIR, Pretoria, South Africa, for SATCC.
9-8 HIZAM HARUN, M and C R JONES (1992). The performance of
polymer modified asphaltic concrete on climbing lanes in Malaysia.
Proc. the sixteenth ARRB Conference, November 1992, Melbourne,
Australia.
9-9 HIZAM HARUN, M and G MOROSIUK (1995). A study of the
performance of various bituminous surfacings for use on climbing
lanes. Proc. eighth REAAA conference, Taipei, April 1995.
9 - 10 QUEENSLAND TRANSPORT (June 1992). Pavement rehabilitation
manual. Pavements and Asset Strategy Branch, Queensland Transport,
Australia.
9 - 11 RILEM REPORT 18 (1997). Prevention of Reflective Cracking in
Pavements, Edited by A.Vanelstraete and L.Francken.
9 - 12 ROLT, J, H R SMITH and C R JONES, (1986). The design and per-
formance of bituminous overlays in tropical environments. Proc.
Second International Conference on Bearing Capacity of Roads and
Airfields, Plymouth, Bristol, UK.
9 - 13 ROLT, J, M S HASIM, M HAMEED and Z SUFFIAN (1996). The
prediction and treatment of reflection cracking in thin bituminous
overlays. Second Malaysian Road Conference96, Innovations in Road
Building, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
9 - 14 THE ASPHALT INSTITUTE (1969). Asphalt overlays and pavement
rehabilitation. Asphalt Institute manual (MS-17), USA.
9 - 15 KENNEDY CK, LISTER NW (1978). Prediction of pavement
performance and the design of overlays. TRRL Laboratory report 833.
Crowthorne, UK.
structural design of bitumen-surfaced roads in tropical and subtropical
countries. Overseas Road Note No. 31. TRL, Crowthorne, for ODA,
London, UK.
9 - 17 WESTON D J (1980). Expansive soil treatment for southern Africa.
Proc. 4th International Conference on Expansive Soils, Denver, USA.

Chapter 10
Bituminous
Surfacings
Project appraisal
Ch
Environment
DESIGN ELEMENTS
Cross Section,
Traffic
Subgrade
Ch
STRUCTURAL
New Roads

Rehabilitation
DESIGN
Bituminous
Surfacings
Gravel Roads

selection of design
Ministry of Works
Chapter 10
Bituminous Surfacings

This chapter establishes procedures for design and construction of
surfacing layers made of bituminous materials whether these are to be
used in the construction of new roads, or rehabilitation or maintenance of
existing roads. Figure 10.1 indicates the expected resurfacing frequency
when using various types of surfacing, i.e. the expected period from the
time a surfacing is applied until resurfacing is required.
Years
Type of surfacing 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
*) It is beneficial to apply an early reseal Asphalt Concrete *)

with surface treatment on asphalt concrete
in order to prevent cracks developing from Double Surface Dressing
the surface as a result of hardening of the Double Otta Seal
binder.
Single Otta Seal with a Sand Cover Seal
Single Surface Dressing with a Sand Cover Seal
Double Sand Seal
Figure 10.1 Expected resurfacing frequency

The indicated resurfacing frequencies in Figure 10.1 are shown as ranges
because the actual surfacing life will vary and depends on a number of
factors such as:
n workmanship
n aggregate size, i.e. thickness of the seal
n binder quality
n type of base course
n climate
n traffic
10.1 Priming
10.1.0 General
Priming must not be confused with The purpose of priming is to prepare a completed surface of unbound
applying a membrane of bitumen base course materials to receive a bituminous surfacing and to protect the
emulsion for curing of cemented base
courses, where the purpose is to seal off base course from any damage until the surfacing is in place. This is done
the layer, but with no penetration of the by spraying a light cutback bitumen to bind the surface of the base course
bituminous material into the surface.
/Chapter 7.3 Cemented Materials/. and to penetrate into the surface.
10.1.1 Materials and construction

Materials
Standard cutback bitumen for priming are MC30 and MC70, of which
MC30 penetrates more easily than the latter. MC30 shall be used unless
excessive absorption into the surface or base course particles is observed,
thus requiring the heavier MC70 prime. MC70 shall be used if a delay of
more than one month is expected before the bituminous surfacing is placed.
Construction
Required prime spray rates will normally Spray rates of prime shall be determined on site as required. The surface
be between 0.7 l/m2 and 1.0 l/m2, in special shall be cleaned of loose material by the use of sweeping or blowing with
cases of an absorbent base course, up to
1.2 l/m2. compressed air as required. Light dampening with water prior to priming
may be beneficial, but no excessive or repeated watering shall be allowed.

Chapter 10
Crusher dust or a suitable sand shall be spread at a rate of 0.005 m3/m2 Comments:
where temporary passage of traffic is necessary or if there is a risk of the
prime being picked up on tyres when applying subsequent layers.
10.2 Surface Dressing

10.2.0 General
Surface dressing is a sprayed bituminous seal characterised by the use of
single sized aggregate (chipping) of a relatively refined quality. Double Worked Example
surface dressings are used in construction of new roads and for reseals of /Appendix A8. 6/
roads where deterioration of the existing surface has made use of a single
seal insufficient. The design procedure for surface dressing is based on Special designs such as application of
Hanson´s principles, i.e required bitumen spray rate is a function of the three layers may be used under special
circumstances, i.e. when resealing
Average Least Dimension (ALD) of the aggregate. Corrections for prevailing surfaces that are cracked or extremely
site conditions are subsequently carried out as described in this chapter. hungry. This method can salvage a
pavement having a surface in poor
condition, thus give considerable benefits
10.2.1 Application rates for planning purposes provided the pavement is otherwise
Application rates of chipping and binder for surface dressing shall be structurally sound. However, some
bleeding of the surface may have to be
determined as described in this chapter based on information about site tolerated in such cases.
conditions and aggregate properties. The material consumption given in
Table 10.1 can be assumed for planning purposes until such project
details are available.
Table 10.1 Surface dressing - application rates for planning purposes
D ouble seals Single seals - reseals

2 nd :
10 mm 2 nd
: 7 mm
14mm 10 mm
1st :
20 mm 1st
: 14 mm
Aggregate spread rates [m3 /m
/m2 ]:
]:
2nd layer 0.009 0.007

1s t layer 0.015 0.011 0.012 0.010
H ot spray rates of 80/100 penetration grade bitumen [l/m2 ]:

]:
Li ght traffi c
3.0 (total) 2.3 (total) 1.6 1.3
A A D T < 200
Medi um traffi c
2.5 (total) 1.9 (total) 1.3 1.0
AAD T 200-1000
Heavy traffi c
2.1 (total) 1.7 (total) 1.1 0.8
A A D T > 1000
Conversions from hot spray rate in volume (litres) to tonnes for payment
purposes shall be made for the bitumen density at a spraying temperature
of 180oC. For planning purposes a hot density of 0.90 kg/l shall be
assumed until reliable data for the particular bitumen are available.
10.2.2 Aggregate requirements

The aggregate for surface dressing shall be durable and free from organic
matter or any other contamination. Table 10.2 gives the material

Chapter 10
Comments: requirements for the aggregate. The Average Least Dimension (ALD) of
The following ranges of ALD can be the aggregate shall be determine as described in /Appendix A8.6/ and
expected for aggregates meeting the
requirements for grading and Flakiness expressed in mm.
Index:
- Nominal size 20 mm:
ALD range 10.5 mm to 14 mm Table 10.2 Aggregate requirements for surface dressing
- Nominal size 14 mm:
ALD range 7.5 mm to 10 mm Material N ominal aggregate siz e
- Nominal size 10 mm: property
ALD range 5.5 mm to 7 mm Sieve siz e 20 mm 14 mm 10 mm 7 mm
- Nominal size 7 mm: [ mm ]
Grading, [ % passing ]
ALD of 7 mm chipping, and smaller, need
not to be determined for surfacing design
purposes.
25 100
20 85 - 100 100
14 0 - 30 85 - 100
10 0-5 0 - 30 85 - 100 100
6.3 - 0-5 0 - 30 80 - 100
5 - - 0-5 0 - 40
2.36 - - - 0-5
0.425 < 0.5 < 1.0 < 1.0 < 1.5
0.075 < 0.3 < 0.5 < 0.5 < 1.0
Flaki ness Index max 20 max 25 max 30
TFV d ry AAD T > 1000: mi n 160 kN
AAD T < 1000: mi n 120 kN
TFV s o a k e d 2 4 hr s
mi n 75% of the correspondi ng TFVd ry
C ML tests 2.4 and 2.7 are referred to.
10.2.3 Binder
Type of binder
Successful use of cutback bitumen Penetration grade bitumen of types 80/100 or 150/200 shall be used for
requires special measures during
construction, such as introducing
surface dressing unless specific site conditions require use of other grades
considerable delays between application of bitumen. Bitumen types that contain solvents, such as MC3000 cut-
of successive layers in order to prevent back bitumen, are only required for surface dressing laid under cold
prolonged bleeding of the surfacing.
Closure to traffic to prevent early loss of conditions at temperatures below 15 0C. Such conditions are only
chipping may be necessary if the softer expected to occur in regions at high altitude.
cutback bitumen is unable to hold the
chipping in place initially.
Correction of spray rates for the type of binder
The design procedure in this manual Bitumen spray rates shall be increased by 10% in the applications where
does not allow for the use of bitumen
emulsion as binder. This type of binder MC3000 cutback bitumen is used in surface dressing. The 10% increase
requires special design procedures /10 of spray rates when using MC3000 is made to compensate for loss of
-3/ due to the very low viscosity of the
binder at the time of spraying.
solvents in cutback bitumen. Such correction of the bitumen spray rates
shall not be carried out for penetration grade bitumen such as 80/100 or
150/200.
Construction and spray rate measurements

Bitumen from different sources will have The spraying temperature of 80/100 penetration grade bitumen shall be
different density and this information is
available from delivery certificates.
170oC to 185oC. All storage and handling of bitumen shall be in
accordance with /Appendix A5/.

Chapter 10
Bitumen has a considerably different density when cold compared to Comments:

spraying temperature and it is important to use the hot density in all
conversions between tonnage and hot spray rate. Conversions from hot
spray rate in litres - to tonnes - shall be made at the bitumens density at a
spraying temperature of 180oC for the purpose payment and for control of
spray rates where control is carried out by weighing of sample trays. If
control of spray rates are carried out by the use of a calibrated dipstick in
the distributor tank then the hot spray rate shall be applied directly in the
control. If the temperature/density relationship for the bitumen is un-
available then a reduction in density by of 0.0006 kg/l shall be applied for
each oC increase in temperature from that of the known density.
10.2.4 Traffic
The base bitumen spray rates are given as a function of the AADT, which
shall be the traffic volume immediately after the surface dressing is
opened to traffic. The following is assumed in the surfacing design:
n surfaced width is minimum 6 m
n the road has one lane in each direction
n AADT is made up of traffic figures approximately equal in each
direction, i.e. not a larger difference than a 60/40% distribution
n there is minimum15% heavy vehicles in the traffic flow
For roads with a surfaced width of less than 6 m, the traffic figure AADT
+ 50% shall be used as input in the surfacing design. For roads with more
than one lane in each direction (dual carriageway) and for roads where
traffic volumes in each direction are more unequal than a 60/40%
distribution, the traffic data shall be assessed separately and consideration
given to the use of different spray rates for the respective lanes.
Correction of the bitumen spray rates shall be carried out as prescribed in
Chapter 10.2.5 and Chapter 10.2.6 for roads with less heavy traffic than
15% and for special load conditions such as climbing lanes.
Areas that will receive excessive construction traffic shall be assessed Heavy vehicles are defined as having
specially and may require reduced bitumen spray rates. Special an un-laden weight of more than 3
tonnes, or buses with a seating capacity
conditions, such as sections of new road which will remain un-trafficked of 40 or more /Chapter 4 Traffic/.
for a long time after the seal is placed constructed, shall be assessed
separately and may require increased bitumen spray rates or preferably
application of an emulsion fogspray Chapter 10.2.9.
10.2.5 Single surface dressing - reseals

General
Single surface dressing is suitable for maintenance resealing and shall not Use of single surface dressings on
be used in construction of new roads with unbound base course materials unbound base course materials carry a
considerable risk of early maintenance,
unless on specific agreement with the Ministry of Works at project level. and places excessive demands for
workmanship in order to give satisfactory
performance. The designer should rather
Bitumen spray rates single surface dressing and reseals consider combination seals that utilise
sand seal in the final layer. Alternatively
The hot bitumen spray rates for single surface dressings are given in Table Otta seals can be used where budget
10.3 with corresponding corrections for site conditions. The corrections of constraints do not allow for double surface
spray rates in Table 10.3 are cumulative and shall be arithmetically added dressing.
where more than one correction apply.

Chapter 10
Comments: Table 10.3 Bitumen spray rates, single surface dressing and reseals
AAD T 1)
1)
B asic hot bitumen spray rate [l/m2 ]
Worked Example
/Appendix A8. 6/ < 50 0.19 x ALD 2)
50 - 100 0.17 x ALD 2)
100 - 250 0.16 x ALD 2)
250 - 500 0.14 x ALD 2)
500 - 1500 0.13 x ALD 2)
> 1500 0.12 x ALD 2)
1) Assumed a two lane road, mi n 6 metres wi de. Chapter 10.2.4 refers for correcti on of
traffi c fi gures for di fferent cross secti ons.
2) ALD is measured in mm. Assume ALD=5 mm if chipping with nominal size of 7 mm is used.
C orrection of bitumen
spray rates [l/m2]
Site conditions
14 mm 10 mm
aggregate aggregate
Underlyi ng surface:
- Soft or fatty bi tumi nous surface - 0.3 - 0.2
- lean, bi tumi nous surface 0 0
- C oarse, absorbent (hungry) surface + 0.3 + 0.2
Less than 15% heavy vehi cles + 0.2 + 0.1
Climbing lanes with a gradient steeper than 5% - 0.2 - 0.1
D usty aggregate ( > 0.5% pass. 0.425 mm ) + 0.2 + 0.1
Absorbent aggregate ( > 2% water absorption ) + 0.2 + 0.2
Pre-coated aggregate *) - 0.1 - 0.1

*) In cases where the aggregate i s pre-coated, no correcti on shall be made for dusty or
absorbent aggregate. C orrecti ons when usi ng emulsi on fogspray are descri bed i n
Chapter 10.2.9.
10.2.6 Double surface dressing

General
Design of double surface dressing is carried out by determining the
Worked Example bitumen spray rates separately for the two layers.
/Appendix A8. 6/
Aggregate sizes in double surface dressing
The aggregate sizes may not mesh in Appropriate combinations of aggregate sizes are given in Table 10.4 and
and provide interlocking of the seal if
unsuitable combinations of nominal shall be used in double surface dressing. Bitumen spray rates 1st layer in
aggregate sizes are used. This can in turn double surface dressings.
cause construction problems and need for
excessive bitumen spray rates if loss of The hot bitumen spray rate for the 1st layer in a double surface dressing is
chipping is to be avoided.
given in Table 10.5. with corresponding corrections for site conditions.

Chapter 10
Table 10.4 Aggregate sizes for double surface dressing Comments:
N ominal aggregate siz es [mm]

L ay er
Coarse surfacing type1) Fi ne surfaci ng type 2)
2nd layer 10 7
1s t layer 20 14
1) The coarse surfaci ng type i s preferred on roads wi th hi gh traffi c, or i f the base course
materi al has a soft surface causi ng consi derable embedment of the aggregate i nto the
base course. The use of the coarse type wi ll i n such cases carry less ri sk of achi evi ng
i ncorrect bi tumen spray rates causi ng ei ther heavy bleedi ng or loss of stones.
2) The fi ne surfaci ng type forms a thi nner seal, best sui ted where traffi c volumes are low. It
i s cheaper to construct than the coarse type due to lower consumpti on of materi als. On
roads wi th very low traffi c the coarse type wi ll requi re consi derable quanti ti es of
bi tumen to perform sati sfactori ly, renderi ng the fi ne type more economi cal.
The corrections in Table 10.5 are cumulative and shall be arithmetically

added where more than one correction apply.
Table 10.5 Bitumen spray rates 1st layer
AAD T 1)
1)
B asic hot bitumen spray rate [l/m2 ]
< 50 0.17 x ALD 2)
50 - 100 0.15 x ALD 2)
100 - 250 0.13 x ALD 2)
250 - 500 0.12 x ALD 2)
500 - 1500 0.11 x ALD 2)
> 1500 0.10 x ALD 2)
1) Assumed a two lane road, min 6 metres wide. Chapter 10.2.4 Refer to correction of
2) ALD is measured in mm.
spray rates [l/m2 ]
Site conditions
20 mm 14 mm
aggregate aggregate
Underlyi ng surface:
- Soft or fatty bi tumi nous surface, wet pri me - 0.4 - 0.3
- Lean, bi tumi nous surface, dry pri me 0 0
- C oarse, absorbent (hungry) surface + 0.3 + 0.2
Less than 15% heavy vehi cles + 0.3 + 0.2
Climbing lanes with a gradient steeper than 5% - 0.3 - 0.2
D usty aggregate ( > 0.2% pass. 0.075 mm ) + 0.2 + 0.2
Absorbent aggregate ( > 2% water absorption ) + 0.2 + 0.2

Chapter 10
Comments: Bitumen spray rates 2nd layer in double surface dressings

The hot bitumen spray rate for the 2nd layer in a double surface dressing is
given in Table 10.6. The corrections in Table 10.6 are cumulative and
shall be arithmetically added where more than one correction apply.
Table 10.6 Bitumen spray rates 2nd layer
B asic hot bitumen spray rate [l/m2]

AAD T 1)
1)
10 mm aggregate 7 mm aggregate
< 50 0.16 x ALD (i n mm) 1.0
50 - 100 0.15 x ALD (i n mm) 0.9
100 - 500 1.0 0.8
500 1500 0.9 0.7
> 1500 0.8 0.6

1) Assumed a two lane road, mi n 6 metres wi de. Chapter 10.2.4 refers for correcti on of
spray rates [l/m2]
Site conditions
10 mm 7 mm
aggregate aggregate
C arri ageway wi th less than 15% heavy
+ 0.2 + 0.1
vehi cles
D usty aggregate ( > 0.2% pass. 0.075 mm ) + 0.1 0
Absorbent aggregate ( > 2% water

+ 0.1 + 0.1
absorpti on )
Pre-coated aggregate *)
- 0.1 - 0.1
*) In cases where the aggregate i s pre-coated, no correcti on shall be made for dusty or
absorbent aggregate. C orrecti ons when usi ng emulsi on fogspray are descri bed i n
Chapter 10.2.9.
10.2.7 Aggregate spread rates

It is easier to correct under-application The required aggregate spread rate shall be visually determined on site.
of chipping by hand during and after the
operation than to correct over-application. Table 10.1 gives a guidance to the spread rates for planning purposes. It is
Site staff has generally a tendency to over- important not to over-apply aggregate, particularly in the first layer of a
apply chipping rather than the reverse. double surface dressing where a correct spread rate gives an aggregate
Where dusty or soft qualities of aggregate
are used it is particularly important not to cover of about 90% of the surface.
over-apply chipping as this will cause
increased accumulation of dust in the fresh
seal thus increasing the risk of aggregate 10.2.8 Pre-coating of aggregate
loss.
General
Bitumen emulsion diluted with water to A considerable assurance of a good result is attained by pre-coating the
give a bitumen content of 20% is a suitable aggregate in single reseals, or the final layer of double seals. Pre-coating
pre-coating agent, however alternative
agents may be used provided their eliminates problems with stone retention due to dusty aggregates and
effectiveness is proven. usually makes control of the aggregate spread rate easier, thereby econo-
mising on the materials. The agent used for pre-coating shall have a hard
binder base, i.e. diesel or paraffin alone shall not be used. Pre-coating
agents shall have no adverse effect on environment or personnel.

Chapter 10
Design and construction Comments:

The pre-coating rate shall be 10 to 15 litres per m3 of aggregate and the
aggregate shall be slightly wet before mixing in the cases where emulsion The pre-coating agent can be admixed
by use of a mixing plant or by simple
is used. The aggregate shall be left in stockpile until the pre-coating agent mixing at the stockpiling site using
has set sufficiently for the aggregate to be spread without difficulties and ordinary loading equipment.
provide initial bond to the bitumen film.
10.2.9 Emulsion fogspray

In construction of new surface dressings application of emulsion fogspray Emulsion fogspray in new construction
is not used where the aggregate is pre-
as a final coat gives enhanced stone retention and an opportunity to coated.
correct the bitumen content in the seal. The procedures described in
Chapter 10.6 Surface Enrichment shall apply. 50% of the bitumen
applied in the fogspray shall be considered effective in the design of the
surface dressing and the bitumen spray rates of the final layer of chipping
shall be reduced accordingly.
10.2.10 Adhesion agents

An active adhesion agent of a renowned manufacture shall be admixed to Some adhesion agents start to lose their
effect when coming into contact with hot
the bitumen or aggregate according to the manufacturers specifications if bitumen. For further details on handling
the chipping is wet. In such cases the road shall be closed to traffic until of adhesion agents: /Appendix A5/.
the fresh seal has dried completely and the bond between aggregate and The use of an adhesion agent in
bitumen is established. Adhesion agents shall not be used if the chipping combination with deliberate wetting of the
chipping can be an effective method to
is pre-coated. The manufacturers specifications for use of each particular reduce any problems with dusty chipping.
product shall be adhered to.
10.3 Otta Seals

10.3.0 General
Description
The Otta Seal is a sprayed bituminous surfacing using graded aggregates The Otta Seal method has no different
limitation with regards to traffic volume
ranging from natural gravel to graded crushed rock instead of the single than the conventional surface dressing
sized crushed chipping used in conventional surface dressings. The with single sized chipping.
acceptance of a broad variety of aggregate qualities, but still giving good
results in a bituminous seal, is the typical feature of Otta Seals. This is
achieved by using soft binders and high application rates of both binder
and aggregate. Priming of the base course is unnecessary when using Otta
Seals, but may be desired for operational reasons.
New construction
The Otta Seal can be constructed in a single or double layer and may be The combination of a single Otta Seal
with a sand cover seal is particularly
followed by a sand cover seal. Single Otta Seals without a sand cover seal economical for roads with low and medium
shall not be used as permanent seals in new construction unless limited traffic volumes. Double Otta Seals are
warranted for roads with higher traffic.
service life is desired such as for temporary seals e.g. on diversions.
Maintenance
Otta Seals of any type, including single Otta Seals, can be used for Single Otta Seals are normally used for
maintenance resealing or as temporary
maintenance resealing. seals.

Chapter 10
Comments: 10.3.1 Aggregate and binder

Aggregates for Otta Seals can be natural gravel, crushed gravel or crushed
The Otta seal is particularly flexible in rock or stones. The material shall be free from lumps of clay or other del-
accepting aggregates of a large variety of
material types and gradings. Natural
eterious matter. The required aggregate properties are included in Table 10.8.
gravel however often requires
screening to remove oversize particles Binder for Otta Seals shall be in the viscosity range from MC800 cutback
and sometimes to reduce the fines
content in the material. bitumen to 150/200 penetration grade bitumen, i.e. 80/100 shall never be
used. Selection of correct binder type for the prevailing conditions shall
be made in accordance with Table 10.8. Adhesion agents shall be
admixed to the binder at minimum 0.5% when the aggregate is natural
gravel, or as required depending on adhesion properties when crushed
aggregate is used.
10.3.2 Types of Otta Seals

The recommended types of Otta Seals for various types of work and
Overview of a Double Otta Seal using
traffic volumes are given in Table 10.7.
natural graded gravel as aggregate
(material > 19 mm was screened by hand). Table 10.7 Recommended Otta Seal concept
Traffic v olume and ty pe of work Otta Seal ty pes
Temporary seal (di versi ons, haul roads, etc.)
Mai ntenance reseali ng (all traffi c classes to Si ngle Otta Seal

whi ch sprayed surfaci ngs are appli cable)
Si ngle Otta Seal + sand
Shoulders, all types of roads
cover seal
C arri ageway, AAD T max 500 at the ti me of Si ngle Otta Seal + sand
Close-up the graded aggregate used in constructi on cover seal
Otta Seal. Note the dense surface matrix.
C arri ageway, AAD T more than 500 at the
D ouble Otta Seal
ti me of constructi on *)
*) The li mi tati ons i n traffi c volume are si mi lar to that appli ed to any alternati ve sprayed
type of surfaci ng.
10.3.3 Material requirements and design of Otta Seals

Aggregate for Otta Seals shall meet the requirements in Table 10.8
Table 10.8 Material requirements for Otta Seals
Material Requirements CML test

properties method
AADT>100: TFVsoaked : min. 75% of TFV dry For AADT<100: 60%
Aggregate strength 2.7
AADT>100: TFVdry: min. 110 kN For AADT<100: 90kN
Plasticity Index max 12 1.2 and 1.3
Flakiness Index max 30 (Only valid for crushed material) 2.4
Sieve sizes [mm] Grading requirements [% passing]
20 100
14 60 - 100
10 36 - 98
5 10 - 70 1.7
2 0 - 44
1,18 0 - 38
0,425 0 - 25
0,075 0 - 10
The grading shall be continuous and have a smooth curve following the shape of the grading envelope.

Chapter 10
Table 10.9 gives the criteria for selection of bitumen type and spray rates Comments:
for Otta Seals. No special design procedure is required for Otta Seals used
on shoulders. No correction of bitumen spray rate shall be made to
compensate for solvents in cutback bitumen in the design of Otta Seals.
Table 10.9 Design of Otta Seals

Procedure for design and after-treatment
1) 1) 1)
Sieve sizes Coarse grading Medium grading Fine grading CML test
[mm] [% passing] [% passing] [% passing] method
20 100 100 100
14 60 - 82 68 - 94 84 - 100
10 36 - 58 44 - 73 70 - 98
5 10 - 30 19 - 42 44 - 70 1.7
2 0-8 3 - 18 20 - 44
1,18 0-5 1 - 14 15 - 38
0,425 0-2 0-6 7 - 25
0,075 0-1 0-2 3 - 10
1) These grading envelopes are given for the the purpose of proper design of the seal and are not material requirements for aggregate.
AADT at the time Type of bitumen

of construction
The grading should be MC3000 normally
More than 1000 150/200 penetration grade
altered for this application MC800 in cold weather
150/200 normally MC3000 normally
100 - 1000 150/200 penetration grade
MC3000 in cold weather MC800 in cold weather
Less than 100 150/200 penetration grade MC3000 MC800
80/100 penetration grade bitumen shall not be used in Otta Seal unless softened or cut back to meet the above requirements.
Softening to make 150/200: 3% - 5% softener is mixed with 95% - 97% 80/100 pen. grade bitumen. Softener can be a
purpose-made petroleum destillate, alternatively engine oil, old or new.
The cutback bitumen grades can be made by blending 150/200 pen. grade bitumen on site using the following proportions:
MC3000: 5% - 8% kerosine mixed with 92% - 95% 150/200 pen. grade bitumen
MC800: 15% - 18% kerosine mixed with 82% - 85% 150/200 pen. grade bitumen
If the cutback grades are made directly from 80/100 pen. grade bitumen, then an additional 3% - points kerosine shall be used.
Diesel shall not be used for cutting back to MC grades. Circulation in the tank shall be carried out at least 1 hour after mixing.
Proper safety procedures shall be adhered to in the case cutting back on site is being done.
2
Type of Otta Seal Hot bitumen spray rates for un-primed base course [l/m ]
2nd layer 1,5 1,6 1,7 AADT<100: 1.8
Double
1st layer 2) 1,6 1,7 1,9 AADT<100: 2.0
Alt. fine sand 0,7 0,7 0,6
Single, with a Alt. Crusher
sand cover seal dust or coarse 0,9 0,8 0,7
river sand
1st layer 2) 1,6 1,7 1,9 AADT<100: 2.0
Single 2) 1,7 1,8 1,9 AADT<100: 2.0
Maintenance reseal (single) 1,5 1,6 1,7 AADT<100: 1.8
2
2) On a primed base course the spray rate shall be reduced by 0.2 l/m in the first layer.
2
Notes: - Where the aggregate has a water absorbency more than 2%, the spray rates shall be increased by 0.3 l/m .
- Binder for the sand cover seal shall be: MC3000 for crusher dust or coarse river sand, MC800 for fine sand.
3 2
Type of seal Aggregate spread rates [m /m ]
Otta Seals 0.013 - 0.016 0.013 - 0.016 0.016 - 0.020
Sand cover seals 0.010 - 0.012
Rolling and after-treatment:
- On the day of construction: 1 pass with static steel roller + 15 passes with pneumatic roller.
- For the next two days after construction: 1 pass with static steel roller + 15 passes with pneumatic roller.
- Two weeks after contruction: Sweep off any excess stones.
10.3.4 Construction Comments:

The construction procedure for Otta Seals is similar to conventional surface Some fatting up of Otta Seals is normal
dressings. If prime is omitted then the preparation of the base course shall be and should cause no alarm; more
aggregate is applied, and preferably rolled,
done in accordance with Chapter 10.1 Priming prior to construction of if bleeding becomes heavy. Aggregate
the Otta Seal. Rolling of the seal shall be extensive in accordance with may be applied by hand or by the use of
mechanical chip-spreaders. When
Table 10.9 and the seal shall be opened to traffic immediately after spreading by hand the aggregate layer
construction. Construction of following layers shall be delayed as follows should prefeferably be levelled by
brooming prior to rolling.
depending on the type of bitumen used in the previous layer:
n 150/200 pen. grade bitumen: min 3 to 6 weeks
n MC800 or MC3000 cutback bitumen: min 2 to 3 months

Chapter 10
Comments: 10.4 Other Surface Treatments

10.4.1 Sand seals
General
Sand seals are sprayed bituminous surfacings made with natural river
sand or crusher dust as aggregate. Constructed in two layers a sand seal is
used as a permanent bituminous surfacing on low traffic roads while a
single layer is not sufficiently durable unless combined with an
underlying Otta seal or surface dressing. Sand seals are also used as a
maintenance remedy on existing surface treated roads.
Aggregate requirements
The aggregate for sand seals shall be clean, non-plastic river sand or crusher
dust made from fresh crushed rock or boulders, free from organic matter
or lumps of clay. The grading requirements are given in Table 10.10.
Table 10.10 Aggregate requirements for sand seals
Siev e siz e Grading, [% passing]

[mm]
Natural ri ver sand C rusher dust
10 100 100
5 85 - 100 85 - 100
1.18 20 - 60 20 - 80
0.425 0 - 30 -
0.300 0 - 15 -
0.150 0-5 0 - 30
Binder and aggregate application rates

The binder for sand seals shall be cutback bitumen of type MC3000. The
bitumen spray rates for sand seals are given in Table 10.11.
Table 10.11 Bitumen and aggregate application rates for sand seals
Hot spray rates of Aggregate

Application MC3000 cutback application rate,
bitumen [l/m2 ] 1 ) [m3 /m
/m2 ]
D ouble sand seal used as a 0.010 0.012

1.2 per layer
permanent seal per layer
Si ngle sand seal used as a
cover seal i n combi nati on wi th 0.8 1.0 2)
Otta seal or surface dressi ng

0.010 0.012
Si ngle sand seal used as a
mai ntenance remedy on 0.6 1.0 2)
exi sti ng surface treated roads

1) No correcti on of bi tumen spray rate shall be made to compensate for loss of solvents
i n cutback bi tumen i n the desi gn of sand seals.
2) Bi nder spray rates depend on the texture of the underlyi ng seal.

Chapter 10
Construction Comments:
Priming is not essential when using sand seals in new construction. If
prime is omitted then the preparation of the base course shall be done in
accordance with Chapter 10.1 Priming prior to construction of the sand
seal.
The sand seal shall receive the maximum possible rolling with pneumatic Sand may be applied by hand or by the
use of mechanical chip spreaders. When
tyred rollers within the first 2 days after spraying. A minimum period of 2 spreading by hand the sand layer should
months shall elapse between application of successive layers, during be levelled by brooming prior to rolling.
Sand seals should be opened to traffic
which time the road shall be open to traffic. immediately after construction.
10.4.2 Combined seals using a sand cover-seal

General
Use of single surface dressing followed by a sand seal, or a single Otta
seal followed by a sand seal, are economical methods to provide a durable
seal with good stone retention.
Materials, design and construction

The 1st seal shall be designed as a single surface dressing according to
Chapter 10.2.5 or a single Otta seal according to Chapter 10.3 respectively. Worked Example
Pre-coating of the aggregate, or emulsion fogspray, shall not be used when /Appendix A8. 6/
a sand seal will follow a single surface dressing.
The 2nd seal shall be designed according to Chapter 10.4.1 Sand seals.
10.5 Slurry Seals

10.5.0 General
Slurry is a cold premixed material made of crusher-dust, a stable grade of
bitumen emulsion, cement or lime filler and water for adjustment of
consistency. The consistency is creamy and the mix is poured onto the
road surface. The economy of the slurry seal depends entirely on the
availability of crusher dust. Long transport of bitumen emulsion may
further increase cost and render the method uneconomical. Slurry seals
however, provide an economical utilisation of resources where crusher
dust is in abundant supplies from quarries.
The slurry seal is primarily a maintenance remedy used for resealing to The use of slurry seals in new
construction as a grout seal following a
arrest loss of chipping in existing surface dressings and to restore texture. single surface dressing is a concept
Slurry seals however, may be used in new construction as a grout seal called Cape seal /10-3/.
following a single surface dressing or in multiple layers directly on the Surface cracks reflect relatively quickly
base course on low traffic roads. through slurry seals and they generally
give a shorter service life than surface
dressings and Otta seals. The slurry seal
does however make good aesthetics and
a uniform texture across the width of the
10.5.1 Materials, design and construction road that makes resealing with a surface
dressing easy to construct at a later time.
Aggregate
Aggregate for slurry seals shall be crusher dust free of organic matter or
other contamination, meeting the requirements given in Table 10.12.

Chapter 10
Comments: Table 10.12 Aggregate requirements for slurry seals
Siev e siz e Grading [% passing]

[mm]
Fi ne type C oarse type
10 100
5 100 85 - 100
2 85 - 100 50 - 90
1.18 60 - 90 32 - 70
0.425 32 - 60 20 - 44
0.150 10 - 27 7 - 20
0.075 4 - 12 2-8
Laboratory test C ML 1.7 i s referred to.
Binder
The binder for slurry shall be a bitumen emulsion suitable for the purpose
in accordance with manufacturers specifications and the relevant
AASHTO Specifications.
Construction
Slurry seals can be mixed and placed Slurry sealing work shall not be carried out if rain is threatening. The
using labour based methods, but self-
propelled combined mixing and laying
treated areas shall be closed to traffic until the emulsion has broken and
machines are preferred for large scale traffic does not pick up the seal or form tracks in the layer.
operations. The layer can be trafficked
soon after the emulsion has broken and On roads with of less than 100 vehicles per day per lane the slurry seal
the seal has dried.
shall be rolled with pneumatic tyre rollers as soon as the equipment can
enter the sealed area without picking up the slurry on the tyres.
10.6 Surface Enrichment

10.6.0 General
Surface enrichment (fogspray) is a light application of a bitumen
emulsion, normally without covering aggregate, sprayed on an existing
surface dressing. The following are the purposes of surface enrichment:
n correction of insufficient amounts of binder in the existing surfacing
n arresting aggregate loss caused by a hardened (aged) binder
n sealing of minor cracks - waterproofing
n a holding measure awaiting full resealing
The treatment is normally employed as a Surface enrichment shall not be used on surfaces with a smooth texture
maintenance remedy for surface
dressings between scheduled reseals,
where the flow of binder into the surfacing is prevented, thus causing
in intervals of 2 to 4 years. The basic slippery driving conditions.
procedure is also used as a final coat in
construction of surface dressings,
Chapter 10.2.
10.6.1 Materials and construction
Materials
Bitumen emulsion meeting the relevant AASHTO Specifications shall be
used for surface enrichment. The emulsion shall be sufficiently stable to

Chapter 10
allow dilution down to a bitumen content of 30% and have properties Comments:
suitable for the purpose of surface enrichment in respect of stability and
rate of break.
Construction
The emulsion shall be diluted to a bitumen content of max. 40% before Spray rates for surface enrichment will
normally fall between 0.7 l/m2 and 1.3 l/m2
spraying. If site conditions require a heavier rate of bitumen, then this per application. Use of high spray rates
shall be achieved by repeated spraying and not the use of a higher bitu- carries risk of run-off to the shoulders.
men content in the emulsion. If break of the emulsion takes place on the
top of the aggregates without flowing down to the bottom of the
surfacing, then watering shall be done prior to spraying, alternatively
further dilution of the emulsion as required. The spray rate shall be
determined on site depending on weather conditions, rate of dilution,
surface texture, crossfall, gradient and traffic conditions. A hot, dry
surface and a high bitumen content in the emulsion can cause break of the
emulsion on top of the aggregate without flowing into the surfacing as
necessary to perform its function causing picking up of aggregate and a
slippery surface.
Surface enrichment work shall not be carried out if rain is threatening. The
treated areas shall be closed to traffic until the emulsion has fully broken.
Any collection of emulsion in depressions shall be sanded off as required.
10.7 Surfacing for Shoulders

10.7.0 General
Bituminous surfacing for shoulders shall be designed and constructed to
meet the following requirements:
n provide water proofing of the shoulder
n be strong enough to withstand occasional traffic expected to use the
shoulder
n be durable enough to give a service life at least as long as the adjacent
carriageway
n preferably provide a contrast in colour or texture to the adjacent carri-
ageway wherever this is practically and economically possible
The selection of surfacing for shoulders depends on a number of factors
such as type of pavement, likelihood of traffic using the shoulder and
construction economy. This chapter gives the preferred alternatives to suit
the various conditions and discusses alternatives that may have to be used
due to project economy.
10.7.1 Selection and design of shoulder seals

General
Shoulder seals dry out more quickly than seals in the carriageway and
therefore generally require higher bitumen spray rates. Types of seals with
a closed surface texture shall be the preferred type on shoulders due to
less likelihood of losing stones when the binder starts to harden.

Chapter 10
Comments: Asphalt concrete

Asphalt concrete (AC) may be justified on shoulders where the adjacent
pavement utilises AC and a considerable amount of traffic is expected to
use the shoulders, e.g. in towns and built up areas.
Double surface dressing

Double surface dressing shall be used where the adjacent carriageway
utilises the same type of seal and a considerable traffic is expected to use
the shoulders, e.g. in towns and built up areas and adjacent to climbing
lanes. The bitumen spray rate shall not be lower than in the adjacent
carriageway.
Single surface dressing covered with a sand seal or slurry seal

Single surface dressing is not a
preferred option on shoulders with little Single surface dressing covered with a sand seal or slurry seal shall be the
traffic as it dries out quickly. Covered by preferred shoulder seal suitable for most pavements on roads outside
a sand seal or slurry seal the service
life is however greatly improved. If a
built-up areas.
single surface dressing is used for any
reason, the small sizes of chipping (7 or The hot bitumen spray rate shall be as follows in areas where minimal
10 mm) are preferred as they do not
require excessive bitumen spray rates amounts of traffic is expected to use the shoulders:
that would be needed for larger chipping. n 14 mm chipping: 1.1 l/m2 + 0.7 l/m2 for the sand seal
Single surface dressing covered with a
sand seal is in most instances expected
n 10 mm chipping: 0.9 l/m2 + 0.6 l/m2 for the sand seal
to be the best compromise between n 7 mm chipping: 0.7 l/m2 + 0.5 l/m2 for the sand seal
economy and performance for shoulders
in areas where little traffic is expected to Where a slurry seal is used instead of sand seals the following application
use the shoulder. In areas where large rates shall be used:
amounts of traffic uses the shoulder, such
as adjacent to climbing lanes, this type of n on 14 mm chipping: 0.006 m3/m2 of slurry
seal may exhibit some initial bleeding, but
with little inconvenience to traffic by loss n on 10 mm chipping: 0.005 m3/m2 of slurry
of skid resistance due to the position
outside the carriageway.
n on 7 mm chipping: 0.004 m3/m2 of slurry
Double sand seal

Where double sand seal is used on shoulders, the seal shall be designed
according to Chapter 10.4.1.
Single sand seal

Use of a sand seal is in most cases less
expensive than a slurry seal.
Single sand seals will have limited service due to their small layer thick-
ness and low resistance against e.g. damage from punctured vehicles.
Where construction economy necessitates use of a single sand seal on
shoulders, the seal shall be designed according to Chapter 10.4.1.
Otta seals
Where an Otta seals is used on shoulders, the seal shall be designed
according to Chapter 10.3.
10.8 Asphalt Concrete

10.8.0 General
This chapter sets out requirements for continuously graded hot premixed
asphalt concrete (AC) surfacing. Mix types other than those described in
this chapter can however be used provided their performance meets the
requirements set out and their merits are proven under similar conditions.

Chapter 10
The ability of the AC mix to withstand plastic deformation is emphasised Comments:

due to the severe consequences with costly repair of such type of distress. Plastic deformation, particularly in
climbing areas, is a common defect in AC
layers, that requires particular attention to
the provision of a mix with sufficient
10.8.1 Required properties stability for these load conditions.
The asphalt concrete shall provide a water proof surface with good
Good resistance is ensured by applying a
resistance against deformation and ageing, and have acceptable fatigue surface dressing on the newly laid AC
properties and skid resistance. The following properties are required for layer.
AC mixes in surfacings:
n provide sufficient resistance to plastic deformation and cracking to
withstand the expected traffic loading
n have sufficient workability to enable efficient laying and compaction
of the mix without segregation
n have sufficient air voids of the mix to avoid bleeding or loss of
resistance to deformation in cases of post-compaction under traffic
n have sufficient binder of the correct type and a suitable aggregate
grading to ensure a durable and near impermeable layer
Some of the above requirements are conflicting and may require compromises
in the design of the mix. If there is doubt whether a mix has sufficient
durability e.g. due to high air voids, then a surface dressing shall be conside-
red in order to protect the layer against premature ageing. Sufficient stability
of the mix for the load conditions shall never be compromised in the mix
design.
10.8.2 Severely loaded areas

General
Severely loaded areas include:
n all climbing lanes with gradient 6% or steeper
n climbing lanes with gradient 4% or steeper, sustained for 1 km or longer
n approaches to major junctions
n all major town roads
n areas where traffic is channelled or slow moving for other reasons
Mix requirements in severely loaded areas Testing of dynamic creep is expected to

An AC mix of high stability shall be used in areas that are severely loaded. become a more common procedure for
control of deformation in AC mixes in the
The air voids of the mix shall be minimum 3% and remain minimum 3% future. Until standard test procedures and
after traffic loading throughout the design period. Mixes for severely performance criteria for dynamic creep are
loaded areas shall receive laboratory compaction to refusal density to established, compaction to refusal density
for control of potential loss of air voids shall
control that the mix will not post-compact to the critical air voids of 3%. be used. Compaction to refusal density
involves continued Marshall compaction,
The largest aggregate size corresponding to compacted layer thickness up to 2x500 blows, alternatively vibrating
and other mix criteria - including required workability, shall be used in the hammer. Test procedures are given in the
design of high stability mixes. The mix type AC 20 shall be considered for laboratory test manuals issued by the
Central Materials Laboratory, Ministry of
wearing course under these conditions. Works.
40/50 penetration grade bitumen shall be used in severely loaded areas,
alternatively modified binders which have documented good performance There is evidence that good results can
be obtained using conventional binders
under similar conditions. are being marketed under a large variety brands. with carefully controlled aggregate grading
The effect of using a particular type of modified binder shall be properly and mix proportions.
documented to ensure confidence in a satisfactory result.

Chapter 10
Comments: Use of surface dressing on AC

High stability AC mixes are often high in air voids, and in order to improve
A surface dressing on top of an A/C
reduces the rate of binder ageing taking the durability of the layer the designer shall consider construction of a
place at the surface, causing surface surface dressing on the AC, in particular where the mix type AC 20 is used
cracks that progress into the AC layer over
time. as wearing course.
Severely loaded areas are prone to spillage of fuel and lubricants due to
low traffic speeds - with associated softening of the AC layer. The designer
shall consider construction of a surface dressing on the AC for the purpose
of minimising seepage of harmful fluids into the layer.
The skid resistance in wet weather is improved by applying surface
dressing on the AC.
10.8.3 Mix requirements

The required properties for AC are given in Table 10.13.
Table 10.13 Mix requirements for asphalt concrete
Material Mix type

CML test
properties AC 20 AC 14 AC 10 method
Primarily binder course. Wearing course in areas with Wearing course, but only under
Notes - use of the different Wearing course in severely normal traffic loading. conditions with moderate
mix types loaded areas Chapter 10.8.2. traffic loading.
Preferably to be surface dressed
when used as wearing course.
Layer thickness [mm] Compacted 50 - 80 Compacted 40 - 60 Compacted 30 - 40
Aggregate properties
Coarse aggregates shall be made of crushed fresh rock or stones. Fine aggregate, passing the
5 mm sieve, can be a material such as sand, gravel or crushed stone. All aggregate shall be durable
Types of aggregate
and free from soft or unsound particles, clay or other deleterious matter. Coral rock can be used
provided materials are carefully selected. Addition of a separate type of fines is normally needed.
Water absorption [%] max 2 3.13
Aggregate strength TFVsoaked : min 75% of TFV dry

TFVdry : min 110 kN 2.7
The filler shall be hydrated lime, Portland cement, limestone dust or other suitable types proven to
Requirements for the filler give acceptable results in AC mixes under the prevailing conditions. 1.7
% passing 0.075 mm: 70 - 100 %, all material shall pass the 0.600 mm sieve size
Grading, sieve sizes
[ % passing ]
[mm]
28 100
20 80 - 100 100
14 60 - 80 85 - 100 100
10 50 - 70 72 - 94 85 - 100
5 36 - 56 52 - 72 55 - 72
2,36 28 - 44 37 - 55 38 - 57 1.7
1,18 20 - 34 26 - 41 27 - 42
0,600 15 - 27 16 - 28 18 - 32
0,300 10 - 20 12 - 20 13 - 23
0,150 5 - 13 8 - 15 9 - 16
0,075 2-6 4 - 10 4 - 10
Bitumen type
Normal loading conditions: 60/70 or 40/50 penetration grade
3.5
Severely loaded areas: Chapter 10.8.2 40/50 penetration grade, or modified binders
Marshall (2x75 blow)
mix requirements
Severely loaded areas: min 9000 Chapter 10.8.2
Traffic TLC 20 and TLC 50: min 8000 max 18000
Stability [N]
Traffic TLC 10 and TLC 3: min 7000 max 15000
Traffic TLC 1 and lower: min 4000 max 10000
Flow [mm] min 2 max 4 3.18
Air voids [%] min 3 max 6
Voids in Mineral Aggregate [%] min 14 for AC 20 min 15 for AC 14 min 16 for AC 10
Refusal lab. compaction Air voids shall be min. 3% after refusal lab. compaction for severely loaded areas Chapter 10.8.2 . 3.20
o
Indirect tensile strength [kPa] min 800 tested at 25 C 3.21
Imersion index [%] min 75
Typical mix proportions for asphalt concrete are presented in Table 10.14.
The given nominal mix proportions are for tendering purposes, exact
proportions shall be determined after Marshall design procedures.

Chapter 10
Table 10.14 Mix proportions for asphalt concrete Comments:
Nominal mix Asphalt Concrete CML test

proportions AC 20 AC 14 AC 10 method
Aggregate [%] 95 94,5 94
3.18
Bitumen [%] 5 5,5 6
Normal loading conditions: 60/70 or 40/50 penetration grade
Type of bitumen 3.5
Severely loaded areas: 40/50 penetration grade or modified binders
Admixture of separate filler made of hydrated lime can improve antistrip- Comments:
ping properties, and is desirable especially when granitic aggregates are Excessive amounts of hydrated lime in
the filler is undesirable as it gives a brittle
used. The amount of hydrated lime in the filler shall not exceed 1.5 % - mix with poor durability.
points. The total percentage of filler shall fall within the grading envelopes
Coral rock can be used as aggregate for
given in Table 10.13. AC. However, careful selection of
materials and normally addition of fines
from a separate source, is required for
utilisation of this aggregate type.
10.8.4 Construction
General
Asphalt concrete shall be laid by the use of pavers and accepted good
procedures for this type of work.
Tack coat
Tack coat of bitumen emulsion shall be applied at a rate of min. 0.3 l/m2
residual binder on all joints and surfaces where AC is laid.
Compaction trials
Detailed compaction trials shall be carried out at the beginning of paving
operations and when a new mix formula or production procedure is
introduced. The compaction trial shall show compliance with mix
formulas and demonstrate the adequacy of the proposed compaction
procedures.
Temperature for compaction

Table 10.15 gives the minimum temperature for compaction of asphalt
concrete layers depending on the grade of bitumen used in the mix.
Grade of bitumen Minimum temperature for

[penetration 1/10 mm] compaction [o C]
C]
60 - 70 90
40 - 50 100
Table 10.15 Temperature for field compaction of AC layers

Chapter 10
10 - 1 AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR TESTING AND MATERIALS (1987).
10 - 2 AUSTRALIAN ASPHALT PAVEMENT ASSOCIATION (1997).
Asphalt Recycling Guide.
10 - 3 BOTSWANA ROAD DESIGN MANUAL (1994). Draft Volume 3,
10 - 4 AUSTRALIAN ASPHALT PAVEMENT ASSOCIATION (1997). Cold
Mix Granular Materials Guide.
10 - 5 AUSTRALIAN ASPHALT PAVEMENT ASSOCIATION (1997). Open
Graded Asphalt Design Guide.
10 - 6 COMMITTEE OF STATE ROAD AUTHORITIES. Draft TRH 3
(1998): Surfacing seals for rural roads and urban roads. CSRA,
Pretoria, Republic of South Africa.
10 - 8 COMMITTEE OF STATE ROAD AUTHOR ITIES. TRH 14 (1985):
Guidelines for road construction materials. CSRA, Pretoria, Republic
of South Africa.
10 - 9 COMMITTEE OF STATE ROAD AUTHORITIES. TMH 2 (1979):
National standard for the spraying performance of binder distributors.
10 - 10 EMBY, J, C R JONES, and M S MUSTAFA (1992). The use of hot
surface treatment to rehabilitate cracked asphalt concrete surfacings
in Malaysia. Proc. the seventh REAAA Conference, Singapore, June
1992.
10 - 11 HIZAM HARUN, M and C R JONES (1992). The performance of
polymer modified asphaltic concrete on climbing lanes in Malaysia.
Proc. the sixteenth ARRB Conference, November 1992, Melbourne,
Australia.
10 - 12 OVERBY, C, et al (1999). A Guide to the Design, Construction and
Maintenance of the Otta Seal. Technical Guideline No. 1, Roads
Department, Botswana (in print).
10 - 13 MAIN ROADS DEPARTMENT WESTERN AUSTRALIA.
The safe way to handle bitumen.
10 - 14 NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF AUSTRALIAN STATE ROAD
AUTHORITIES (1989). Bituminous Surfacing Sprayed Work,
NAASRA Technical Report.
10 - 16 OVERBY, C, (1998). Otta Seal - a durable and cost effective global
solution for low volume sealed roads. Proc. Ninth REAAA Conference,
´´ An International Focus on Roads: Strategie for the Future´´.
Wellington, New Zealand.
10 - 17 SMITH, H R, J ROLT and J WAMBURA, (1990). The durability of
bituminous overlays and wearing courses in tropical environments.
Proc. Third International Conference on Bearing Capacity of Roads
and Airfields, Trondheim, Norway.
10 - 18 SMITH, H R, A C EDWARDS and J MREEMA, (1996). Condition of
the TanZam Highway at Kitonga gorge. Central Materials Laboratory,
Dar es Salaam.
ODA, London, UK.

Chapter 11
Gravel
Roads
Project appraisal
Ch
Environment
DESIGN ELEMENTS
Cross Section,
Traffic
Subgrade
Ch
STRUCTURAL
New Roads

Rehabilitation
DESIGN
Bituminous
Surfacings
Gravel Roads

selection of design
Ministry of Works
Chapter 11
Gravel Roads

A flexible approach is required in the Gravel road pavements are designed for roads where AADT is less than
design of gravel roads as construction
economy is usually of vital importance for 300 at the time of construction, unless otherwise directed by the Ministry
these projects. of Works.
This chapter sets out standards for pavement design and selection of
materials for fully engineered gravel roads. In addition, guidelines are
given for design of gravel roads where budgetary or other constraints do
not allow construction of a fully engineered gravel road.
.
11.1 Design Principles

11.1.0 General
All-weather access
The most essential consideration in the design of gravel roads is to ensure
all-weather access. This requirement places particular emphasis on the
need for sufficient bearing capacity of the pavement structure and provis-
ion of drainage and sufficient earthworks in flood areas.
Surface performance
The performance of the gravel surface depends on material quality, the
location of the road and the traffic volume using the road. Gravel roads
passing through populated areas in particular require materials that do not
generate excessive dust in dry weather. Steep gradients places particular
demands for gravel wearing course materials that do not become slippery
in wet weather, or erode easily.
Maintenance
The gravel wearing course needs to be The material requirements for the gravel wearing course include provision
regularly shaped and also replaced
periodically throughout the service life of of a gravel surface that is effectively maintainable. Adherence to the limits
the road at a rate depending on the on oversize particles in the material is of particular importance in this regard.
gravel loss. An annual loss of 10 to 30
mm of gravel wearing course material at
an AADT of 100 is common.
11.1.1 Pavement and materials
Depending on the CBRdesign of the subgrade, improved subgrade layers shall
be constructed as required, on which the gravel wearing course is placed.
11.1.2 Crossfall and drainage

The crossfall of carriageway and shoulders for gravel roads shall be 4-
6%, depending on local conditions, to prevent potholes developing by
ensuring rapid removal of water from the surface and to ensure that
excessive crossfall does not cause erosion of the surface. Provision of
drainage is equally important for the performance of gravel roads as for
bitumen surfaced roads.

Chapter11
Gravel Roads
11.2 Material Requirements Comments:
11.2.0 General
Experience with local materials
Knowledge about past performance of locally occurring materials for
gravel roads is essential. One may divert from the material standards to
take advantage of available gravel sources provided they have proved to
give satisfactory performance under similar conditions.
Marginal materials
Figure 11.1 illustrates the performance characteristics to be expected of
materials that do not meet the requirements for gravel wearing course.
11.2.1 Earthworks
Materials for improved subgrade layers and fill shall meet the
requirements in /Chapter 5.5/ for class G15 and G7 and /Chapter 5.6/
for class G3 and dump rock (DR).
11.2.2 Gravel wearing course (GW)

Major gravel roads
Materials for gravel wearing course shall comply with the requirements
given in Table 11.1. The given material requirements are valid for fully
engineered gravel roads.
Table 11.1 Material requirements gravel wearing course (GW)

Climatic zones: /Figure 2.1/
Material properties R equirements C ML
test
C limatic z ones method
We t Moderate or dry
mi n 25 after
C B R [%] at 95% of MD D (B S -
4 days mi n 25 at OMC 1.11
Heavy compacti on)
soaked
% passi ng 37.5 mm mi n 95 1.2
S hri nkage product, S P 1.4 and
120 - 400 1)
S P = LS x (%pass. 0.425mm) 1.7
Gradi ng C oeffi ci ent GC 2)
16 - 34
Fi eld dry densi ty, [% of MD D ]
mi n 95 1.9
(B S -Heavy compacti on)
1)
In bui lt up areas a maxi mum S hri nkage P roduct of 270 i s desi rable to
reduce dust problems.
2)
GC = [ (% passing 28mm) - (% passing 0.425mm) ] x (% passing 5mm) / 100
Minor gravel roads

The CBR requirements in Table 11.1 can be reduced to 15% for minor
gravel roads, however the given material standards shall be aimed for
wherever it is economically possible.

Chapter 11
Gravel Roads
Comments: Performance characteristics of gravel wearing courses

Methods to prevent excessive oversize Figure 11.1 shows the effect of the Shrinkage Product and Grading
particles in the gravel wearing course may Coefficient on the expected performance of gravel wearing course materi-
include removal at source by screening.
Use of special compaction equipment, als. Excessive oversize material in the gravel wearing course affects the
such as grid rollers, is often cost effective riding quality in service and makes effective shaping of the surface
in combination with conventional removal
of large stones during processing on the
difficult at the time of maintenance.
road.
500
Slippery
400
Shrinkage Product, SP 400
Good, but may be dusty

300
270 Ravels
Erodible materials
200
Good
120
100 16 34
Ravels and corrugates
0
0 10 20 30 40
Grading Coefficient, GC
SP = (Linear Shrinkage) x (% passing 0.425 mm)
GC = [(% passing 28 mm) - (% passing 0.425 mm)] x (% passing 5 mm) / 100
Figure 11.1 Expected performance of gravel wearing course materials
11.3 Improved Subgrade and

Pavement Design
11.3.1 Subgrade CBR
Treatment of unfavourable subgrade The CBRdesign for the subgrade shall be determined according to /Chapter 5
conditions such as expansive soils, saline Subgrade/ and classified into subgrade classes S15, S7 and S3.
soils or dispersive soils are normally
outside scope in the construction of gravel Treatment of unfavourable subgrade conditions shall be carried out
roads. However, is it considered to up- according to /Chapter 6 Problem Soils/ in respect of issues directly
grade the road within a reasonable time
to a bituminous standard, measures related to bearing capacity of the subgrade.
should be taken as discussed in /Chapter
6 -Problem Soils/.
11.3.2 Major gravel roads
Pavement and improved subgrade for major gravel roads shall be
constructed in accordance with Figure 11.2.

Chapter11
Gravel Roads
AADT 2) Comments:
< 20 20 - 100 100 - 300
S15 1) 150 mm GW 150 mm GW 150 mm GW
150 mm GW
S7 1) 150 mm GW
150 mm GW 150 mm G15 1)
100 mm G15 1)
Dry / Moderate Wet Dry / Moderate Wet Dry / Moderate Wet

climatic zones climatic zones climatic zones climatic zones climatic zones climatic zones
mm
mm GW 150
mm GW 150 mm
mm G151) 200
S3 1)
GW 150 150 GW
mm 150 GW G15 1) 200
1)
150 GW 1)
100 G15 1) 150 G15
G7 300 G7 1) 300
150 G7 1)
150 G7 1) G7 1) 200 150 G7 1)
1) Classificationsubgrade classes S3, S7 and G15 and requirements for G7 and G15 materials are given: /Chapter 5 – Subgrade/.
2) Maximum 50% heavy vehicles is assumed. Heavy vehicles are those having an un-laden weight of more than
3 tonnes, or buses with a seating capacity of 40 or more: /Chapter 4 – Traffic/.
Figure 11.2 Pavement and improved subgrade major gravel roads Climatic zones: /Figure 2.1/
11.3.3 Minor gravel roads

General
This chapter provides guidelines for design of pavement and improved
subgrade for minor gravel roads where budgetary constraints or other
reasons do not allow construction of a fully engineered gravel road. This
design shall be limited to roads with AADT maximum 50.
Improved subgrade and pavement design minor gravel roads

Pavement and improved subgrade for minor gravel roads shall be
constructed in accordance with Figure 11.3.
1)
Subgrade classes
S3
S15 or S7 Moderate or dry Wet
climatic zones climatic zones
Climatic zones: /Figure 2.1/
Gravel
wearing 100mm 100mm 100mm
course
GW GW GW
Improved 200mm
150mm
subgrade
layer G7 G7
( none )
1)
Classification S15, S7 and S3 and requirements for G7 materials are given: /Chapter 5 – Subgrade/.
Figure 11.3 Pavement and improved subgrade minor gravel roads

The desired properties of the gravel wearing course, GW, are given in
Table 11.1, however the CBR can be reduced to 15% for minor roads.

Chapter 11
Gravel Roads
11 - 1 AUSTRALIAN ROAD RESEARCH BOARD LIMITED (May 1993).
Unsealed roads manual.
(1986): Cementitious stabilisers in road construction.CSRA, Pretoria,
(1990): Structural design, construction and maintenance of gravel
roads. CSRA, Pretoria, Republic of South Africa.
11 - 5 CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY RESEARCH AND INFORMATION
11 - 6 JONES T E, R ROBINSON and M S SNAITH (1984). A field study
on the deterioration of unpaved roads and the effect of different maint-
enance strategies. Proc. 8th Regional Conference for Africa on Soil
Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Harare, Zimbabwe.

Appendices
A1 - Definitions of Terms
A2 - Units of Measurements
A3 - Abbreviations
A4 - Cross Section and Pavement Performance
A5 - Handling of Bitumen Products
A6 - Problem Soils-Investigation Procedures
A7 - Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
A8 - Worked Examples
A9 - Maps
Ministry of Works
Appendix 1
Definitions of Terms
Asphalt Concrete (AC) A group of hot bituminous mixtures used for surfacing. They normally
consist of a well graded mixture of coarse aggregate, fine aggregate and
filler, bound together with penetration grade bitumen.
Base course The layer(s) occurring immediately below the surfacing and above the
subbase or, if there is no subbase, above the improved subgrade layers.
Behaviour The function of the condition of the pavement with time (see also
performance).
Binder course, bituminous The surfacing layer immediately below the bituminous wearing course
above the base course.
Bitumen emulsion A binder in which bitumen has been dispersed in finely divided droplets in
water by the aid of mechanical means and an emulsifying agent. Bitumen
emulsion is made in an anionic and a cationic type depending on the particle
charge of the bitumen droplets in solution. Bitumen emulsions are classified
according to percentage of bitumen in the material and the physical
properties related to their behaviour during construction, (See also break).
Bitumen stabilised material A material made of natural- or crushed aggregate with a bituminous binder
admixed. Used in pavement layers - primarily for base course.
Bitumen-rubber A binder in which bitumen is modified with more than 15% ground rubber.
(See also modified binder).
Bituminous binders Petroleum derived adhesives used for sealing of surfaces and binding of
aggregates in pavement layers. Classified according to their composition
and physical properties. (See also penetration grade bitumen, cutback
bitumen, bitumen emulsion, bitumen rubber, and modified binders).
Bituminous seals A general term for thin bituminous wearing courses made of surface
treatments or slurry seals, or a combination of these.
Borrow pit A borrow pit is a site from which natural material, other than solid stone, is
removed for use in construction of the works. The term borrow area is also used.
Break of emulsions Break of a bitumen emulsion is when the water and bitumen separates so that
the water will evaporate, leaving behind the bitumen to perform its function.
Buses All buses with a seating capacity of 40 or more.
Cement- or lime modified Naturally occurring gravel and soils which are modified by the addition of
material (CM) either lime or Portland cement so that their engineering properties such as
strength and plasticity are improved, but the materials still remain flexible.
Used in pavement- and improved subgrade layers. (See also Cement- or lime
stabilised material).
Cement- or lime stabilised A material that consists of snatural- or crushed gravel stabilised with ordinary
material (C4, C2, C1) Portland cement or lime such that a semi-rigid material is produced. Classified
A.2 Ministry of Works

Appendix 1
according to their minimum unconfined compressive strength. Used in

pavement layers. (See also Cement- or lime modified material).
Crushed rock (CRR) Crushed material made from fresh quarried rock or clean, un-weathered
boulders of min 0.3 m diameter. All particles shall be crushed. The material
is compacted to a specified percentage of the aggregates apparent density.
Crushed stone (CRS) Crushed stones. Min 50% by mass of particles larger than 5 mm shall have at
least one crushed face. Made from crushing of stones, boulders or oversize
from natural gravel. Max 30% of the fraction passing the 4.75 mm sieve can
be soil fines. The material is compacted to a specified relative density of BS-
Heavy.
Curing membrane A bituminous binder, usually made of bitumen emulsion, applied imme-
diately after construction of a completed surface of modified or stabilised
materials with lime or cement. Its purpose is to prevent early drying out of
the cemented layer and to minimise adverse effects of the stabilisers contact
with CO2 in the air.
Cutback bitumen A penetration bitumen which viscosity has been temporarily reduced by
blending with solvents. The solvents are expected to evaporate during the e
arly part of the pavements service life. Classified according to their
viscosity.
Cutting A cutting is a section of the road where the formation level is below the
original ground level.
Deflection (surface) The recoverable vertical movements of the pavement surface caused by the
application of a wheel load.
Deformation A mode of distress, unevenness of the surface profiles.
Degree of distress A measure of severity of the distress.
Distress The visible manifestation of deterioration of the pavement with respect to

either the serviceability of the structural capacity.
Dry Density and Moisture Con- The moisture content, in %, to use for calculation of dry density of materials
tent of bituminous materials that contain both bitumen and water, e.g. FBMIX and BEMIX, is defined as
follows:
(weight of water)
MC = x 100
(weight of aggregate + weight of bitumen)
Dump rock (DR) Un-graded rock or boulder material with a sufficiently low fines content so
that the large particles are in contact with each other when placed in
earthworks layers. Used in fill and improved subgrade layers.
Dynamic Cone Penetrometer An instrument for assessing the in-situ CBR strength of granular materials/
(DCP) soils.
Ministry of Works A.3

Appendix 1
Earthworks A general term describing all processed materials below formation level
including improved subgrade layers, fill and prepared roadbed.
Embankment An embankment is a section of the road where the formation level is above
the original ground level.
Embankment, shallow A shallow embankment is defined as a section of the road where the for-
mation level is between 0 and 0.3 m above the original ground level.
Equivalent standard axle (E80) Defined as an axle loaded to a weight of 8160 kg, in the design concept
meaning a unit of measuring the damaging effect to road pavements caused
by axles of any load.
Fill Material placed below the improved subgrade, but above the roadbed.
Fogspray A light application of bitumen emulsion, sprayed on top of surface dressings.

Its purpose is to improve retention of the aggregate in new seals. On old
roads its purpose is to arrest any loss of chipping and to water-proof and
rejuvenate the bituminous surfacing.
Formation level The final level upon which the pavement layers are placed.
Granular materials Pavement materials made from crushed or natural sources, where no addition
of any stabiliser has been made. (Term NOT to be used: Unbound materials).
Gravel wearing course The uppermost layer of a gravel road, which provides the riding surface for
vehicles.
Heavy Goods Vehicles (HGV) All goods vehicles having 3 axles.
Heavy vehicles A general term describing vehicles with un-laden weight of 3 tonnes or more.
Heavy vehicles are further sub-grouped into Medium Goods-, Heavy Goods-
Very Heavy Goods Vehicles and Buses for the purpose of determining design
load in pavement design.
Improved subgrade The uppermost layer(s) of the subgrade, consisting of material of controlled
quality. (e.g. terms not to be used: selected borrow - selected subgrade -
capping layer - topping).
Light vehicles A general term describing vehicles with un-laden weight of less than 3
tonnes and includes buses with a seating capacity of less than 40.
Medium Goods Vehicles (MGV) All goods vehicles having 2 axles and an un-laden weight of 3 tonnes or more.
MERLIN Simple apparatus to measure road roughness.
Modified binder A binder in which bitumen is modified with a prescribed percentage of

polymers or other approved chemical constituents, alternatively with less
than 15% ground rubber. (See also bitumen-rubber).

Appendix 1
Modified material A material where the physical properties have been improved by the
addition of a stabilising agent but in which strong cementation has not
occurred.
Natural gravel Material from natural gravel sources. The term also includes crushed mate-
(G80, G60, G45, G25) rial where less than 40% of the mass of particles larger than 5 mm have a
crushed face. Classified according to their minimum CBR strength. Used in
pavement layers.
Natural gravel/soil Material from natural sources. Classified according to their minimum CBR
(G15, G7, G3) strength. Used in improved subgrade layers and fill.
Pavement behaviour The function of pavement condition with time.
Pavement evaluation The assessment of the degree to which the pavement fulfils its functional
requirements.
Pavement layers The combination of material layers constructed above the formation level in
order to provide an acceptable facility on which to operate vehicles.
Penetration grade bitumen A bitumen which viscosity or composition has not been adjusted by blending
with solvents or any other substance. Classified according to penetration
value obtained in laboratory tests.
Performance The measure of satisfaction given by the pavement to the road user over a
period of time, quantified by a serviceability/age function (see also behaviour).
Prime An application of low viscosity bituminous binder to an absorbent surface,

usually the top of the base course. Its main purpose is to protect the surface
of a granular material during construction and to improve the bond between
granular materials and bituminous mixes or seals.
Quarry A quarry is an open surface working from which stone is removed for use in
construction of the works.
Reflection cracks Cracks in asphalt overlays or surface treatments that reflect the crack pattern
of the pavement structure underneath.
Rehabilitation design period The chosen minimum period for which a pavement rehabilitation is designed
to carry the traffic in the prevailing environment, with a reasonable degree of
confidence, without necessitating further pavement rehabilitation.
Roadbed All in-situ ground after bush clearing, removal of topsoil and excavation of
any cuttings, and before placing any layers, whether these layers are fill,
improved subgrade or pavement layers.
Sand seal A surface treatment made of sand aggregates of crushed or natural material.
Can be constructed in single- or multiple layers.
Serviceability The measure of satisfaction given by the pavement to the road user at a
certain time, quantified by factors such as riding quality and rut depth.

Appendix 1
Shrinkage Limit The saturated moisture content corresponding to the void ratio of a dried
sample. In practise this is the moisture content below which little or no
further volume change occurs in a soil being dried.
Skid resistance The general ability of a particular road surface to prevent skidding of vehicles.
Slurry seal A cold premixed material of creamy consistency in a fresh state, made of
crusher-dust, bitumen emulsion and cement filler. Water is added for
adjustments of the consistency. If constructed in combination with a new
surface dressing, it is named a Cape seal.
Structural capacity The ability of the pavement to withstand the effects of climate and traffic
loading.
Structural design The design of the pavement layers for adequate structural strength under the
design conditions of traffic loading, environment and subgrade support.
Structural distress Distress pertaining to the load bearing capacity of the pavement.
Structural evaluation The assessment of the structural capacity of a pavement.
Subbase The layer(s) occurring below the base course and above the improved
subgrade layer.
Subgrade The completed earthworks within the road prism before the construction of
the pavement layers.
Surface dressing A surface treatment made of single sized aggregates of crushed material. Can
be constructed in single- or multiple layers.
Surface treatment A general term for thin bituminous wearing courses made by lightly rolling
aggregate into a sprayed thin film of bitumen. Aggregates can alternatively be
made of crushed or natural material with a grading depending on the desired
type of surface treatment to be produced. Can be constructed in single- or
multiple layers.
Surfacing integrity A measure of the condition of the surfacing as an intact and durable matrix
(it includes values of porosity and texture).
Surfacing, bituminous The uppermost pavement layer(s), which provides the riding surface for
vehicles. Includes bituminous wearing course and bituminous binder course
where used.
Tack coat An application of bituminous binder to a bituminous surface subsequent to
placing a bituminous layer. Usually made of bitumen emulsion with the
purpose to improve the bond between bituminous layers.
Terminal level A minimum acceptable level of some feature of the road in terms of its
serviceability.
Types of distress The sub-classification of the various manifestations of a particular mode of
distress.
Vehicle Equivalency Factor (VEF) The total number of equivalent standard axles calculated for one vehicle.
The average of all these values within one vehicle category is subsequently
calculated for ease of reference to traffic count data.
Very Heavy Goods Vehicles All goods vehicles having 4 axles or more.
(VHGV)

Appendix 1
Wearing course, bituminous The uppermost surfacing layer. Can consist of a bituminous mix or a
bituminous seal, or both in combination.
Table A1.1 CML Test Methods - with References
CML test method, Name of test Reference to test methods

reference number
Tests on Soils and Gravels
1.1 Moisture Content BS1377:Part 2:1990
1.2 Liquid Limit (Cone Penetrometer) BS1377:Part 2:1990
1.3 Plastic Limit & Plasticity Index BS1377:Part 2:1990
1.4 Linear Shrinkage BS1377:Part 2:1990
1.5 Particle Density Determination - Pyknometer BS1377:Part 2:1990
1.6 Bulk Density for undisturbed samples BS1377:Part 2:1990
1.7 Particle Size Distribution - Wet sieving BS1377:Part 2:1990
1.8 Particle Size Distribution - Hydrometer Method BS1377:Part 2:1990
1.9 Compaction Test - BS Light and BS Heavy BS1377:Part 4:1990
1.10 CBR Test - One point method BS1377:Part 4:1990
BS1377:Part 4:1990 and
1.11 CBR Test - Three point method
TMH1:method A8:1986
1.12 Consolidation Test - Oedometer BS1377:Part 5:1990
1.13 Triaxial Test BS1377:Part 7:1990
1.14 Shear Box Test BS1377:Part 7:1990
1.15 Permeability Test - Constant Head BS1377:Part 5:1990
BS1377:Part 3:1990 and
1.16 Organic Content - Ignition Loss Method
NPRA 014 test 14.445
1.17 Crumb Test BS1377:Part 5:1990
1.18 pH Value (pH meter) BS1377:Part 3:1990
TMH1:method A14:1986 and
1.19 Preparation of Stabilised Samples for UCS
BS1924:Part 2:1990
TMH1:method A14:1986 and
1.20 Compaction Test - Stabilised Materials
BS1924:Part 2:1990
1.21 UCS of Stabilised Materials TMH1:method A14:1986
1.22 Initial Consumption of Lime - ICL BS1924:Part 2:1990
Tests on Aggregates and Concrete
2.1 Moisture Content of Aggregates BS812:Part 109:1990
2.2 Relative Density and Water Absorption BS812:Part 2:1975
2.3 Sieve Tests on Aggregates BS812:Part 103.1:1985
2.4 Flakiness Index (FI) and Average Least Dimension (ALD) BS812:Section 105.1:1989
2.5 Elongation Index BS812:Section 105.2:1990
2.6 Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV) BS812:Part 110:1990
2.7 Ten Percent Fines Value (TFV) BS812:Part 111:1990
2.8 Aggregate Impact Value (AIV) BS812:Part 112:1990
2.9 Los Angeles Abrasion Test (LAA) ASTM C535-89
2.10 Sodium Soundness Test (SSS) ASTM C88-90
2.11 Slump Test BS1881:Part 102:1983
2.12 Making of Concrete Test Cubes BS1881:Part 108:1983
2.13 Concrete Cube Strength BS1881:Part 116:1983
Tests on Asphalt and Bituminous Materials
3.1 Pre-conditioning of Bitumen Samples Prior to Mixing or Testing NPRA 014 test 14.511
3.2 Density of Bituminous Binders ASTM D70-97
3.3 Flash and Fire Point by Cleveland Open Cup ASTM D92-90
3.4 Thin-Film Oven Test (TFOT) ASTM D1754-87
3.5 Penetration of Bituminous Materials ASTM D5-86
3.6 Softening Point Test ASTM D36-70
3.7 Ductility ASTM D113-86
3.8 Viscosity Determination using the Brookfield Thermosel Apparatus ASTM D4402-91
3.9 Density and Water Absorption of Aggregates Retrieved on a 4.75 mm Sieve ASTM C127-88
3.10 Density and Water Absorption of Aggregates Passing the 4.75 mm Sieve ASTM C128-88
3.11 Calibration of Glass Pycnometers (0.5-1 litre) NPRA 014 test 14.5922
3.12 Mixing of Test Specimens; Hot Bituminous Mixes NPRA 014 test 14.5532
Determination of Maximum Theoretical Density of Asphalt Mixes
3.13 ASTM D2041-95 and D4469-85
and Absorption of Binder into Aggregates
3.14 Bulk Density of Saturated Surface Dry Asphalt Mix Samples ASTM D2726-96
3.15 Bulk Density of Paraffin-Coated Asphalt Mix Samples ASTM D1188-89
3.16 Bulk Density of Asphalt Mix Samples, Calliper Measurements NPRA 014 test 14.5622
3.17 Calculation of Void Content in Bituminous Mixes ASTM D3203 and AASHTO pp19-93
3.18 Marshall Test ASTM D1559-89
3.19 Marshall Mix Design ASTM D1559-89
3.20 Refusal Density Mix Design TRL Overseas Road Note 31, app. D:1990
3.21 Indirect Tensile Strength Test ASTM D3967 and NPRA 014 test 14.554
3.22 Determination of Binder Content and Aggregate Grading by Extraction ASTM D2172-88, method B
3.23 Effect of Water on Bituminous Coated Aggregates, Boiling Test ASTM D3625-96

Appendix 2
Units of Measurements
Prefixes
The standard units of measurement to be used are based on the International System (SI) units. However, the units
applicable to road design also include some units which are not strictly part of SI. Multiples and sub-multiples of SI
units are formed either by the use of the indices or prefixes. Definitions of applicable prefixes are given in Table A2.1.
Table A2.1 Definition of prefixes
Prefix Sy mbol Multiply ing factor

mega M 106
ki lo k 103
hecto h 102
d e ca da 10
d e ci d 1 0 -1
centi c 10 -2
mi lli m 10 -3
mi cro µ 1 0 -6
Basic Units
Table A2.2 Basic units, multiples and sub-multiples
R ecommended Multiples
Quantity U nit Sy mbols
and Sub-Multiples
Length metre m km, mm

Mass ki logram kg Mg, g, mg, t (1t = 103kg)
Ti me second s day(d), hour (h), mi nute(m)
Area square metre m2 km2, mm2, hectare
(1ha = 10,000 m2)
Volume(soli ds) cubi c metre m3 cm3, mm3
Volume (li qui d) li tre l ml, (1 ml = 1 cm3)
D ensi ty ki logram per C ubi c metre kg/ m3 Mg/ m3 (1 mg/ m3 = 1 kg/l)
Force Newton N MN, kN (1N = 1 kgm/s2)
Pressure and Stress Pascal (N/m2) Pa MPa, kPa
Electri c conducti vi ty Si emens per metre S/m mS/cm
Angle degree or o
mi nute ( ), second ( )
grade g (3600 ci rcle), (400g ci rcle)
Temperature degree C elsi us o
C
Vi scosi ty (dynami c) Pascal.second Pa.s mPa.s
Ki nemati c vi scosi ty m2/s mm2/s, St (stokes)
1 cSt = 1 mm2/s

Appendix 3
Abbreviations
10%FACT kN See TFV

AADT Average Annual Daily Traffic
AASHO Former name of AASHTO
AASHO-Road Test Pavement research project conducted by AASHO to test the performance of
various pavements on a full scale
AASHTO® American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
AC Asphalt Concrete
ALD mm Average Least Dimension
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
BEMIX Classification of a material stabilised with bitumen emulsion (Bitumen
Emulsion MIX)
BS British Standard
BS-Heavy Compaction effort for soils, standardised by the CML test method 1.9
BS-Light Compaction effort for soils, standardised by the CML test method 1.9
Cx Classification of cement- or lime stabilised material, x denoting the minimum
UCS value (7 days, at 97% MDD of BS-Heavy)
CBR [%] California Bearing Ratio, described by the CML test method 1.11
CBRdesign [%] CBR value for a homogenous section of subgrade, calculated
statistically or by subjective judgement, to use in pavement design
CBRsoaked [%] California Bearing Ratio measured after standardised 4 days soaking of
specimens in water, described by the CML test method 1.11
CI Coarseness Index, used for classification of materials for gravel wearing
courses. /Chapter 11 - Gravel Roads/
CM Classification of cement- or lime modified material (low UCS strength)
CML Central Materials Laboratory, Dar es Salaam
CRR Material denotation for blasted, crushed, rock
CRS Material denotation for crushed stones
CUSUM Cumulative sum, statistical calculation method /Appendix A8.3/
DCP Dynamic Cone Penetrometer
DBM x Classification of a hot mixed bituminous base course material (Dense Bitumen
Macadam) x denoting the upper nominal particle size in the material
dMAX [mm] Maximum particle size of soils and aggregates
dMIN [mm] Minimum particle size of soils and aggregates
dX [mm] The sieve size through which x% of all particle pass
E80 Equivalent Standard Axle (8160 kg)
EIA Environmental Impact Assessment
EIS Environmental Impact Statement

Appendix 3
Abbreviations
E-Modulus [MPa] Elasticity Modulus, describing stress/strain properties of structural pavement layers
ESA Equivalent Standard Axle (=E80)
FBMIX Classification of a material stabilised with foamed bitumen (Foamed Bitumen MIX)
FDD [%] Field Dry Density
FI [%] Flakiness Index, described by the CML test method 2.4
FMC [%] Field Moisture Content
Gx Classification of gravel and soil materials, x denoting the minimum CBR
GC Grading Coefficient = [ (%pass28mm) (%pass0.425mm) ] x (%pass5mm) /100
/Chapter 11 Gravel Roads/
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GM Grading Modulus = (300 - %pass2mm - %pass0.425mm - %pass0.075mm) / 100
GW Gravel Wearing course materials /Chapter 11 Gravel roads/
ICL [%] Initial Consumption of Lime, derived from laboratory test CML 1.22
IRI m/km International Roughness Index
ISO International Standard Organisation
lab Laboratory
LAMBS Classification of a hot mixed bituminous base course material (Large Aggregate
Mixes for Base)
LL [%] Liquid Limit, described by the CML test method 1.2
LS [%] Linear Shrinkage, described by the CML test method 1.4
max Maximum
MC [%] Moisture Content
MC x Medium Curing (type of cutback bitumen), x denotes the upper nominal
viscosity limit
MDD [kg/m3] Maximum Dry Density (compaction effort shall be stated)
MoW Ministry of Work
min Minimum
MSS Magnesium Sulphate Soundness test
NEMC National Environment Management Council
NPRA Norwegian Public Roads Administration
OMC [%] Optimum Moisture Content (at MDD of BS-Heavy unless stated)
pen Penetration, used to identify a type of bitumen (penetration grade)
PI [%] Plasticity Index, described by the CML test method 1.3
PIw [%] Plasticity Index, weighted for the samples amount of material passing 0.425 mm,
based on the CML test method 1.3
PMx Penetration Macadam, x denoting the upper nominal particle size in mm
PSI Pavement Serviceability Index

Appendix 3
Abbreviations
RAP Resettlement Action Plan

RC x Rapid Curing (type of cutback bitumen), x denotes the upper nominal
viscosity limit
Sx Subgrade classification, x denoting minimum CBR value
SC x Slow Curing (type of cutback bitumen), x denotes the upper nominal viscosity limit
SI International standardisation by International Organization for Standardization
SIA Social Impact Assessment
SL Shrinkage Limit
SP Shrinkage Product = [ LS x (%pass 0.425mm) ] /Chapter 11 Gravel Roads/
ST Surface Treatment, a general term for all types of sprayed bituminous seals
SSS Sodium Sulphate Soundness test
TFV kN Ten percent Fines Value, described by the CML test method 2.7
TFVdry kN As TFV. Used when dry test conditions need to be emphasised in the text
TFVsoaked kN As TFV. Ten percent Fines Value measured after 24 hours soak in water
TLCX [million E80] Traffic load class, x denoting maximum number (in million) of E80 in the class
TLCX -H [million E80] Traffic Load Class, x denoting maximum number (in million) of E80 in the
class, -H denoting that there is a large proportion of very heavy loads in the traffic stream
TMH Technical Methods for Highways (South African series of standards)
UCS [MPa] Unconfined Compressive Strength, described by the CML tests 1.9 and 1.21
method for cement- or lime stabilised materials
VEF Vehicle Equivalency Factor /Chapter 4 Traffic/

Appendix 4
Cross Section and
Pavement Performance
Table A4.1 should be observed to enhance pavement performance where diversions from the standard cross section
are made for budgetary reasons in agreement with the Ministry of Works. The alternative cross section design
should strive for the maximum technical benefits described in Table A4.1 without making unacceptable
compromises to other aspects of the road design, project economy or traffic safety. Traffic safety aspects are not
discussed in this manual and should be assessed in each individual case where diversions are made from standard
cross sections.
Table A4.1 Cross section design for enhanced pavement performance
D esign feature Technical benefits
Wi de lanes Good lateral di stri buti on of wheel loads
Steep crossfall Good water run-off, hence less li keli hood of moi sture i ngress i nto the pavement
a) Reduced ri sk of moi sture i ngress i nto the carri ageway

b) Reduced vari ati ons i n moi sture contents across the cross secti on, hence reduced
ri sk of longi tudi nal cracks developi ng i n the shoulders
Wi de shoulders c) Good lateral support for the pavement
d) Good basi s for future rehabi li tati on, i .e. less li keli hood of road wi deni ng at the
ti me of rehabi li tati on
a) Si mpli fi ed constructi on
Pavement layers extended b) Strength benefi ts where shoulders are bei ng traffi cked
c) Mi ni mi sed ri sk of trapped water
to the full wi dth of the d) Good basi s for future rehabi li tati on
shoulders e) Where shoulders are sealed: reduced vari ati ons i n moi sture contents across the
cross section, hence reduced risk of longitudinal cracks developing in the shoulders
a) Reduced vari ati ons i n moi sture contents across the cross secti on, hence reduced
Flat embankment si deri sk of longi tudi nal cracks developi ng i n the shoulders
slopes b) Good lateral support for the pavement
c) Increased di stance to si de drai ns, hence reduced probabi li ty of moi sture i ngress

Appendix 5
Handling of Bitumen
Products
A5.1 Safety - General

Training personnel in the correct use of bituminous materials and equipment will assist in reducing the possibility
of accidents resulting in personal injuries. At least one person fully trained and qualified as a first aid attendant shall
be employed who will be available at all times of operations. Particular injuries are burns due to splashes from hot
bituminous materials or contact with hoses or pipes carrying materials at high temperatures.
Personnel handling hot bituminous materials shall always wear suitable protective clothing and footwear. When
skin is splashed with hot bitumen no attempt should be made to remove the bitumen. The bitumen covered burned
area should be drenched or immersed immediately in cold, preferably running water. If iced water is available it
should be used. Medical assistance should be obtained without delay to have the burn treated.
A5.2 Heating Procedures

Heating Site
The site should be selected so that the sprayer and tankers have ready access to the heaters under all weather
conditions. Particular care should be given to selecting a relatively level site which allows fire outbreaks to be
cleared and shall remain free from pools of oil and accumulation of flammable material.
The heating site shall be located minimum 100m from storage sites for cutter oil and on the side furthest from the
loading point for these materials.
Before leaving a heating site it shall be cleaned up by removing all debris and pools of bitumen and oil and neatly
stacking all materials remaining on the site.
Fire precautions
Handling and spraying of petroleum products at high temperatures creates a potentially high fire hazard. Most fires
are due to the human error and it is therefore important for personnel to be instructed on the dangers and the
precautions that must be taken.
Some of the necessary precautions to be taken are:
n studying and following fire legislation applying to the locality, particularly as the operation involves lighting of
fires in the open
n firebreaks shall be prepared by grading or by controlled burning around the camp, storage and heating sites,
plant and equipment in order to prevent the spread of fire into adjoining property
n heating sites shall be completely cleared of all vegetation and other such flammable materials
n overheating, frothing or overflow of any bitumen, fluxed bitumen cutback bitumen and oil must be avoided.
When ´´boil over´´ occur the burners on any heating equipment shall be turned off immediately and earth or
sand quickly shovelled over any material on the ground that take fire
n smoking, fires or naked lights shall be prohibited within 15m of any operation involving the heating, blending,
transfer, or spraying of oil or bituminous materials
n spraying papers, combustible rubbish, etc, shall be carted to a suitable site for disposal
n fire fighting equipment shall be available at site and personnel shall be properly instructed in their correct use
and maintenance
n open drums of kerosene or other flammable liquid shall not be allowed within 60 m of a tanker site when
burners are in use
n do not heat cutback bitumen at a rate greater than 30oC per hour

Appendix 5
Handling of Bitumen
Products
A5.3 Temperature for Storage

Maximum temperature for storage of bitumen and its products is shown in Table A5.1.
Table A5.1 Maximum temperature for storage
Max storage temperature (0C )

Ty pe of binder
U p to 24 hrs Ov er 24 hrs
80/100 Pen. grade bi tumen 175 125
150/200 Pen. grade bi tumen 160 110
MC 3000 C utback bi tumen 155 100
MC 800 C utback bi tumen 130 80
MC 70 C utback bi tumen 70 Ambi ent
MC 30 C utback bi tumen 60 Ambi ent
60% Bi tumen emulsi on 60 Ambi ent
A5.4 Cutting-back Operations

Cutters
Cutting back is the addition of volatile oils to produce a temporary reduction of the binders viscosity. Depending on
the volatility of the cutters used, a cutback bitumen that is rapid curing, medium curing or slow curing will be
produced. Table A5.2 shows the cutters that produce the respective types of cutback bitumen.
The viscosity of the cutback bitumen is determined by the amount of cutter used and not the type of cutter used. The type of cutter determines the
length of time (Rapid, Medium or Slow) for evaporation to take place producing RC, MC or SC grades.
Table A5.2 Cutters
Grade of the produced cutback C utter N otes
RC (Rapi d C uri ng) Petrol Hazardous, shall not be used

MC (Medi um C uri ng) Kerosene (Power paraffi n, i llumi nati ng
-
paraffi n, Jet A1 avi ati on turbi ne fuel)
SC (Slow C uri ng) D i esel or heavy fuel oi ls -
Safety procedures
The operation of cutting back bitumen on site may be hazardous unless appropriate safety precautions are taken to
prevent fire and safeguard personnel handling the operation.
The following safety precautions shall be adhered to:
n cutter shall not be mixed with bitumen having a higher temperature than 140oC
n do not heat cutback blends above the required temperature
n the blending site shall be located at a minimum 100 metres from installations, homes or places that people
occupy

Appendix 5
Handling of Bitumen
Products
n within a radius of 100 metres no open fire or smoking shall be allowed during the blending operation. This
includes heaters in bitumen tanks
n the blending site shall not be closer than 100 metres to storage sites of cutter or fuel
The following mistakes are absolute hazards that carry considerable risk of explosion and fire:
n the manhole shall NEVER be used for adding cutter to hot bitumen
n cutter shall NEVER be pumped into an empty tank that is still hot after having contained bitumen
n the level in the tank shall NEVER be allowed to fall below that specified by the manufacturer while the
heaters are in operation, normally minimum 150 mm above the highest point of the heater pipes
A5.5 Anti-Stripping Additives

Purpose of anti-stripping additives
The adhesion between bitumen and aggregate depends on close contact between the two materials. Stripping is the
breaking of the adhesive bond between the aggregate surface and the bitumen. By adding a comparatively small
quantity of anti-stripping additive to the bitumen, the surface tension of water is reduced and the bitumen is able to
wet aggregates surfaces.
Adhesion agents have the following properties:
n promote the adhesion of binder to damp aggregate by displacing a film of water
n prevent loss of adhesion under the influence of subsequent rain, assuming that satisfactory adhesion had been
achieved originally
n provide satisfactory adhesion during construction
Safety
Anti-stripping agents are often corrosive and require use of protective gloves and eye goggles during handling.
Liquid agents easily cause splashing and require special care, however some solid agent may appear in a liquid
form depending on ambient temperature and should be treated equally with caution.
Anti-stripping additives are used in bitumen to promote adhesion in adverse conditions. There are many brands on the market in the form of liquids,
pastes or pellets and their effectiveness varies.
The handling of procedures required vary depending on the type of the product, however in general the additive may be added to the sprayer before
or after the bitumen, depending upon the consistency, and whether the a primer or binder is being prepared. The contents of the sprayer should be
circulated for 20 minutes to ensure thorough mixing.
Admixture of additives
The most common method of admixture is to pour the calculated amount into the bitumen distributor immediately
before the spraying operation is to start and allow 30 minutes of circulation to ensure a homogeneous mix.
A wire basket suspended inside the bitumen distributor can improve matters if a solid anti-stripping agent give a problem in not dissolving properly.
Anti-stripping agents that has been kept hot in the bitumen distributor for more than five hours shall be considered
stale, and an additional dosage is then required, amounting to half of the originally specified percentage.
There is a variety of anti-stripping agents in the market, of which some are less adversely affected by high temperatures.

Appendix 5
Handling of Bitumen
Products
A5.6 Check of Bitumen Distributors

Correct operation of bitumen sprayer is of the utmost importance in all sprayed work. The distributor driver and
sprayer operator must be skilled and properly trained, with an understanding of the operation of the sprayer.
There are three basic requirements of a bitumen sprayer:

n to spray the product uniformly over the entire area to be covered
n to apply the product at the correct quantity
The main tests for bitumen sprayers are:

n general inspection
n road speed indicator
n nozzle calibration
n transverse distribution of spray bar
n pump output
n consistency of sprayer output
n thermal characteristics
n power output of prime mover
n preparation of application rate chart
The uniform distribution of the binder is controlled by the spray nozzle.

The following checks need to be made before commencing the sprayer run:
n check the line to guide the sprayer driver has been properly marked and instruct the driver regarding any special
requirements
n record the volume and temperature of the sprayer contents while it is on level ground and circulation has
stopped
n determine the length of the sprayer run from the quantity in the sprayer and the application rate
n check the spray bar horizontal and vertical alignment and its cleanliness
n determine the appropriate number of nozzles for the width to be sprayed
n check that the nozzles in use are symmetrical about the sprayer
n check the alignment and setting of the nozzle to ensure that the fans of material from intermediate nozzles are
parallel and at the correct angle to the centre line of the spray bar
n set the height of the spray bar so that the lower faces of the nozzles are at the correct height above the pavement,
in accordance with the manufactures specifications
n fit and end shield to the spray bar when necessary to prevent splashing material on kerb and gutters
A5.7 Waste Disposal and Spillage

Bitumen waste shall be discharged to an approved land-fill which may be a borrow pit in use during road
construction, but it shall always be covered by soil before being abandoned. Uncovered, the bitumen would remain
viscous and be a hazard to pedestrians and animals. Small amounts of bitumen waste may be discharged on site
during operations, such as when testing nozzles of bitumen distributors or when blinding off the start and end of
road sections being sprayed by the use of paper or sheets. Such spillage shall be burnt if it cannot be disposed of in
an approved land-fill. Although burning bitumen emits clouds of thick black smoke, it is better to incinerate such
limited discharge than to leave it on the ground.

Appendix 6
Problem Soils-
Investigation Procedures
A6.1 Expansive Soils

General
This appendix gives procedures to identify expansive soils and to classify these according to their expansiveness.
Routine investigations
Routine investigations include:
n simple geological and geomorphological assessments
n field assessment
n routine indicator testing of Atterberg limits and grading, [CML tests 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.7 and 1.8]
n analysis of routine test data
Simple geological and geomorphological assessments are carried out during desk studies of projects for
supplementary information about the likelihood of encountering expansive soils.
Field assessments
Identification of expansive soils by examinations in the field requires that centreline soil surveys and reporting are
carried out in strict accordance with the given standards by the Ministry of Works. The information in Table A6.1 is
routinely to be collected as part of proper field assessments, with typical features of expansive soils given in
keyword form:
Table A6.1 Features of expansive soils soil descriptions
Soil description Ty pical features of expansiv e soils
Soi l type The more clayey the soi l, the more li kely to be expansi ve
C onsi stency when sli ghtly moi st to dry Sti ff to very sti ff
C onsi stency when wet Soft to fi rm and sti cky
Structure Typi cal cracked surface, sli cked-si ded fi ssures
Only a reli able i ndi cator when combi ned wi th local

C olour
knowledge
Local knowledge from road projects i n the area i s i nvaluable
Laboratory tests
A soil is potentially expansive and requires extended investigations if exhibiting the following properties:
n the result of the field assessments indicates expansive soils, and
n PIW is greater than 20%
where:
PIW = Plasticity Index tested on fraction <425mm according to CML test 1.2 and weighted for the
samples actual content of particles <425mm, i.e.:
PIW = PI x (% passing 425mm) / 100

Appendix 6
Problem Soils-
Extended investigations
General
Extended investigations shall include:
n testing of Shrinkage Limit [ASTM D4943-89]
Calculation of expansiveness
Expansiveness (eex ) on the basis of extended investigations is calculated from the following formula:
eex = 2.4 x wp - 3.9 x ws + 32.5
where:
wp = Plastic Limit tested on fraction <425mm according to CML test 1.3 and weighted for the samples
actual content of particles <425mm (see below).
ws = Shrinkage Limit tested on fraction <425mm according to ASTM D4943-89 and weighted for
the samples actual content of particles <425mm. (see below).
Weighting for particles <425mm :
wp = (Plastic Limit) x (% passing 425mm) / 100 [CML test 1.3]
ws = (Shrinkage Limit) x (% passing 425mm) / 100 [ASTM D4943-89]
In-depth studies
General
In-depth studies of expansive soils include:
n oedometer compression test with unloading and consolidation stages
n determination of swell index from unloading stages
n instrumental analysis to identify characteristic clay mineralogy, e.g. X-ray diffraction, differential thermal
analysis, electron microscopy
Classification of expansive soils may have far reaching budgetary consequences on major road projects traversing long sections affected by this
problem. Such projects may warrant in-depth studies of the expansiveness of the soil including determination of clay mineralogy.
Calculation of expansiveness
Expansiveness (eex ) on the basis of in-depth studies is calculated from the following formula after determination of
swell index ( CS) from oedometer tests:
eex = 644 x CS - 18.4

where:
CS = Swell Index determined in accordance with TRL/ODA Project
Report no. PR/OSC/012/93, ref. /6-3/
A6.2 Dispersive Soils

General
This appendix describes available procedures for testing of dispersive soils. Where dispersive soils are suspected
after having made field observations, it is recommended to perform simple indicator testing.
If the problem is expected to be severe on any project then specialised testing should be employed.

Appendix 6
Problem Soils-
Field observations
Topography
Excess of sodium, which in combination with low contents of soluble salts is the feature that characterises disper-
sive soils, is released during weathering of geological formations that are rich in sodium. The sodium is in turn
deposited in locations where drainage is restricted and dispersive soils are therefore found in low lying areas in
relatively flat terrain.
Erosion pattern
A good field indicator of dispersive soils is by observation of the erosion pattern. Severe erosion is seen if disper-
sive soils are present where earth moving activity has exposed the clay horizon below the top soil cover, or where
these soils have been used in any fillings. The erosion is shown as extensive developments of piles and gullies. The
erosion can take the form of vertical pinnacles, appearing to have a sandy surface.
Colour
Dispersive soils commonly have a light grey colour, however colour is not considered a reliable indicator of disper-
sive soils.
Vegetation
The vegetation cover in the presence of dispersive soils is normally sparse.
Indicator testing
Crumb test
A simple indicator test that is recommended for initial field identification of dispersive soils is the crumb test (CML
test 1.17). A crumb of soil is placed in a glass of distilled water, its behaviour is observed and the dispersion is
classified depending on the degree of muddiness of the water. See Figure A10.1.
Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3 Grade 4
Figure A6.1 Crumb test - bottom of the glass
Double hydrometer test

The double hydrometer test is recommended as indicative laboratory testing for identification of dispersive soils.
The procedure is as follows:
a) Determine the percentage passing 0.005 mm with standard hydrometer testing using a chemical dispersing
agent such as ordinary sodium hexametaphosphate.
b) Carry out a separate hydrometer analysis using no dispersing agent and determine the percentage passing 0.005 mm.
c) The percentage dispersion is defined as:
%-passing 0.005 mm from b)
Dispersion = x 100
%-passing 0.005 mm from a)
and where:
Values greater than 30% are significant
Values greater than 60% are critical

Appendix 6
Problem Soils-
Specialised testing
General
Specialised testing is only required for road projects where dispersive soils are considered a major problem. The test
procedures are not fully described here, but reference is made to the Central Materials Laboratory, Ministry of
Works for further details.
Presence of dispersive soils is a far more severe problem in construction of dams than normally for highways. A number of procedures for testing and
interpretation of results have been developed in dam engineering to control dispersive behaviour, some of which are included here.
Chemical testing
Chemical test of pore water extracts, including tests of pH are carried out and the results analysed to
establish potentially dispersive properties.
Pinhole test
The pinhole test is a physical test whereby water under various heads of pressure is caused to flow through a hole of
1 mm diameter in a sample specimen. Erosion and widening of the hole is observed and dispersive properties
derived from the results.

Appendix 7
Environmental Impact
Assessment (EIA)
General
This appendix deals with Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA):
n what it is and what purpose it serves
n when and how EIA is commissioned
Definition and purpose of EIA

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) discovers unintended consequences of a project. Those are impacts.
Such impacts may affect:
n cultural heritage
n society
n the local economy
n natural resources, now or in the future
The purpose of EIA is to ensure that a project does not achieve its own goals at the expense of loss or inconvenience
to non-beneficiaries or future generations.
It is cheaper to discover and deal with potential problems in advance than to rectify them retrospectively.
Procedure for conduct of EIA

General
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is commissioned by the Ministry of Works. The conduct of EIA is a
mandatory requirement in Tanzania, for new roads and road up-grading, as for other substantial developments. Full
EIA is not required for regravelling and similar periodic maintenance. Environmental assessment is conducted in
three stages:
1. scoping (reported)
2. detailed EIA (reported)
3. continued EIA (by monitoring throughout the project)
The consultancy firm doing the engineering work may be invited to undertake the Environmental Impact Assessment for a road project. Advice may be
sought from National Environment Management Council (NEMC) on any aspect of EIA in the country.
Scoping
Scoping is the investigative stage, parallel to feasibility study of a road. The product of scoping is a preliminary
Environmental Impact Statement (EIS), often called the Scoping Study.
Detailed EIA
Detailed EIA is conducted at the same time as preliminary design, so that the findings may be incorporated into
detailed design. The written output from detailed EIA is the full Environmental Impact Statement (EIS).
Approval of an EIS implies commitment to implement its recommendations. Funding of a project is normally dependant on approval of the EIS by the
client, the environmental authority (NEMC) and, where applicable, by the financier.
Continued EIA by monitoring

EIA is not concluded by the presentation of an EIS. It continues throughout the project by the observance of
mitigation measures and by the feedback of the findings of environmental monitoring to project managers. Monitor-
ing verifies the attainment of intended mitigation measures.
If an adverse impact is not being mitigated as foreseen, further measures have to be adopted.

Appendix 7
Environmental Impact
Assessment (EIA)
Social Impact Assessment (SIA) and Resettlement Action Plan (RAP)

Consideration of socio-economic aspects should be combined with appraisal of biophysical attributes in the EIA.
Then, a separate Social Impact Assessment (SIA) is not required. If the proposed roadworks would displace any
settlement or economic activity, a Resettlement Action Plan (RAP) will be necessary.
Displacement of illegal structures within a road reserve does not normally require a RAP; but the Ministry of Works should be consulted on a case-to-
case basis.
Using EIA and the RAP

Mitigation measures
Usually the Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) includes a set of mitigation measures to bring potentially
adverse impacts within tolerable limits. This is done in three ways.
n Vulnerable ecosystems or land uses may be by-passed by realignment of the road
n Recommendations may be made for conditions to be observed during construction and maintenance
n Compensation is the mitigation measure of the last resort, to be used when potentially adverse impacts cannot
be avoided by either realignment or operational conditionalities
Very rarely will an EIA conclude that a project should be halted. Conditions to be observed during construction and maintenance should be mentioned
in the invitations to tender.
Implementing RAP
Implementing a Resettlement Action Plan (RAP) requires detailed records of persons and properties affected,
negotiation of compensation in keeping with prevailing regulations, and satisfactory conclusion of the actual
resettlement.
The principle of fair compensation is that compulsory resettlement should leave the displaced persons and businesses no worse off, and preferably
slightly better off, than they were previously.

Appendix 8
Worked Examples
A8.1 Design Traffic Loading

Input data
n Design period = 20 years.
n Pavement construction is expected to be completed 3 years after the time of traffic survey.
n Traffic growth rate = 3.5% (for all heavy vehicle categories).
Traffic counts (Chapter 4.2.1)

D irection 1 D irection 2
Vehicle category /counts Vehicle category /counts
B u ses MGV H GV VH GV B u ses MGV H GV VH GV
D ay 1 0 13 11 24 13 24 11 9
D ay 2 11 17 5 17 14 26 9 12
D ay 3 15 28 11 20 15 13 16 20
D ay 4 13 19 15 24 10 29 9 26
D ay 5 11 36 9 26 15 30 10 38
D ay 6 14 18 15 33 13 25 12 21
D ay 7 16 9 8 11 13 16 13 28
D ay 8 17 11 4 2 0 5 7 9
TOTAL 92 151 78 157 93 168 87 163
D ai ly 13 19 10 20 13 21 11 20
Summary of axle load survey and equivalency factors. Assessment of axles heavier than
13 tonnes. (Chapters 4.2.2, 4.2.3 and 4.2.4 )
Vehicle
Avg. Avg. Total E80 from all E80 from Avg. Avg. Total E80 from all E80 from axles
category Gross VEF No. of axles axles heavi er Gross VEF No. of axles heavi er than
wt.(ton) (80 kN) veh. than 13 tonnes wt.(ton) (80kN) veh. 13 tonnes
Buses 17.396 3.922 92 360.824 0 17.265 4.033 93 375.069 13.25

MGV 12.217 3.705 151 559.455 280.19 12.615 3.262 168 548.016 220.93
HGV 23.146 8.959 78 698.802 282.40 22.480 8.557 87 744.459 359.15
VHGV-SEMI 39.196 8.087 114 921.918 133.57 45.160 13.81 131 1809.11 128.35
-TR
40.548 10.031 43 431.333 204.72 33.987 7.936 32 253.952 173.58
0.000 0.000 0 0 0 0.000 0.000 0 0 0
Avg. of all 39.566 8.620 42.966 12.657
VHGV s
SUM of 157 1353.25 163 2063.06 301.93
VHGV s
TOTAL 478 a=2972.33 b=900.88 511 a=3730.60 b=895.26

Appendix 8
Worked Examples
From the heaviest loaded direction, proportion of E80 made up from axles heavier than 13tonnes (in direction 2):
= (b/a) x 100 = (895.26/3730.60) x 100 = 24%
This value is less than 50%, thus the Traffic Load Class will not be denoted heavy (-H) and no special measures are
required in the pavement design or design of improved subgrade.
Traffic growth and design traffic loading (Chapters 4.2.5 and 4.2.6)
B u ses MGV H GV VH GV B u ses MGV H GV VH GV
D ai ly counts 13 19 10 20 13 21 11 20
VEF 3.922 3.705 8.959 8.620 4.033 3.262 8.557 12.657
E80/day 50.986 70.395 89.590 172.400 52.429 68.502 94.127 253.140
Total E80/day 383 468
Use the heaviest direction in axle loading for calculating the traffic loading, in this case direction 2. The cumulative
number of standard axles, E80 = 365 x t1 x (1 + I)N - 1
i
where: t1 = average daily number of standard axles in the year of traffic survey
i = annual growth rate expressed as a decimal fraction
N = calculated period in years
Substituting: t1 = 468
i = 0.035 for all heavy vehicle categories
The cumulative number of E80 for the design period and the time from present until completed pavement
construction is calculated using (20 + 3) = 23 years, and let be denoted as E8023.
E8023 = 365 x 468 x (1 + 0.035)23 1 = 5.9 million E80
0.035
The cumulative E80 for the time from present to completion of pavement construction is calculated using 3 years,
and let be denoted as E803.
E803 = 365 x 468 x (1 + 0.035)3 1 = 0.5 million E80
0.035
Hence E80design = E8023 - E803 = 5.9 0.5 = 5.4 million E80
Construction traffic (Chapter 4.2.7)

On the completed pavement 90,000 m3 of construction materials is expected to be transported using trucks of a
capacity of 15 m3 and having an equivalency factor (VEF) of 12.5 when fully loaded.
Therefore 6000 loads will be required.
E80construction = 6000 x 12.5 = 0.075 million E80
Hence Total E80design = 5.4 + 0.075 = 5.475 i.e. say 5.5 million E80

Appendix 8
Worked Examples
Traffic Load Classes (TLC) (Chapter 4.3)

Design traffic loading of 5.5 million E80 puts the project road into TLC 10. /Table 4.3/
A8.2 Subgrade CBRdesign
Input data
n Traffic: TLC 3.
n Climate: Moderate.
n Alignment: Shallow embankment or cuttings throughout the route.
n Subgrade CBR: 3, 4, 5, 5, 6, 7, 7, 8, 8, 8, 9,10, 6, 8, 9, 9, 9, 11, 12, 12, 14
Identify homogenous sections from site reconnaissance (Chapter 5.2.3)

Section 1: CBR values: 5 - 6 - 3 - 5 - 4
Section 2 (cutting): CBR values: 8 - 10 - 8 - 7 - 8 - 7 - 9
Section 3: CBR values: 12 - 8 - 6 - 9 - 14 - 11 - 9 - 12 - 9
The 90%-ile CBR value (Chapter 5.2.3)

For sections with no cuttings, the CBRdesign is obtained by plotting a graph of CBR (arranged in ascending order )
against test number and obtain the CBR value corresponding to: /Figures A8.1 and A8.2/
d = 0.1 x (n 1)
where: d = is the value in the horizontal axis starting from sample 1
n = number of tests used in the design
The use of standard deviation in a normal distribution ( MEAN - 1.3 x std.dev ) gives excessively conservative
results. A direct use of the measured CBR values and exclusion of 10% of the number of tests shall be the applied
method.
For cuttings, use the lowest CBR value for the section (Chapter 5.2.3)
Section 2 in a cutting has a CBR of 7% as its lowest.
Subgrade CBRdesign (Chapter 5.2.3)

Section 1: CBRdesign = 3%
Section 2 (cutting): CBRdesign = 7%
Section 3: CBRdesign = 7%
Determine subgrade class (Chapter 5.2.3)

Section 1: S3
Section 2 (cutting) : S7
Section 3: S7

Appendix 8
Worked Examples
Design of improved subgrade layers (Chapter 5.5.1)

Section
1 2 3
Subgrade class S3 S7 S7
150mm 150mm 150mm

Upper layer G15 G15 G15
150mm
Lower layer G7 not required
Graphs to determine the 90%-ile value

Section 1
CBR values plotted 7
in ascending order 6
4
CBR(%)
CBR data n = 5 tests

3 d = 0.1 x (n-1)
3
= 0.4
4 90%-ile 2
5 3,4
5 CBR DESIGN 1 d=0.4
6 3%
0
1 2 3 4 5
Test
Figure A8.1 CBRdesign as the 90%-ile value for section 1
The CBRdesign value is obtained by normal rounding off the 90%-ile value.
Section 2
Cutting, lowest CBR is used as CBRdesign.
Section 3
CBR values plotted
in ascending order
16
CBR data
14
6
8 12
CBR(%)
9 10
9 8
9
6 n = 9 tests
11 90%-ile d = 0.1 x (n-1)
12 7,6 4 = 0.8
d=0.8
12 CBR DESIGN 2
14 8% 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Test
Figure A8.2 CBRdesign as the 90%-ile value for section 3
The CBRdesign value is obtained by normal rounding off the 90%-ile value.

Appendix 8
Worked Examples
A8.3 The CUSUM Method to Establish Homogenous Sets

of Data
The CUSUM is a method to establish homogenous sections by analysis of one parameter at the time. The method
utilises plotting of the cumulative sum of difference from the average value. The calculations, plotting and interpre-
tation of data are shown below in an example where rutting measurements on an existing pavement are analysed.
B C
Chainage Rutting Difference CUSUM
Plotting of CUSUM against Chainage
measured from average (Accumulated
[Km] [mm] (A - B ) values of C )
1 14 -1,2 -1,2
2 13 -0,2 -1,4 Homogenous sections
3 15 -2,2 -3,6
4 14 -1,2 -4,8
5 13 -0,2 -5,0 10
6 14 -1,2 -6,2 5
7 7 5,8 -0,4
0
CUSUM
8 9 3,8 3,4
9 8 4,8 8,2 -5
10 13 -0,2 8,0 -10
11 15 -2,2 5,8 -15
12 18 -5,2 0,6 -20
13 14 -1,2 -0,6 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
14 16 -3,2 -3,8
15 14 -1,2 -5,0 Chainage
16 14 -1,2 -6,2
17 15 -2,2 -8,4
18 18 -5,2 -13,6 Interpretation of data:
19 14 -1,2 -14,8
15 A change of slope indicates change of conditions along
20 -2,2 -17,0
the data. Four distinct homogenous sections can be seen
21 9 3,8 -13,2 in the above chart.
22 10 2,8 -10,4
23 9 3,8 -6,6
24 12 0,8 -5,8
25 9 3,8 -2,0
26 11 1,8 -0,2
Average: A = 12,8

Appendix 8
Worked Examples
A8.4 Pavement Rehabilitation Design Maximum

Deflection Method
Input data:
Two homogenous sections of a pavement rehabilitation project with granular base course have the following
deflection data after more than 20 measurements had been taken on each section:
Section 1:
n mean: 0.73 mm standard deviation: 0.029 mm
Section 2:
n mean: 0.79 mm standard deviation: 0.086 mm
Traffic loading /Chapter A8.1/

n past traffic loading: 2.0 million E80
n future traffic loading (design traffic loading ): 8.0 million E80
Design deflection:
Calculate design deflection for each homogenous section:
Section 1: (mean deflection) + 1.3 x (standard deviation)
= 0.73 + 1.3 x 0.029 = 0.77 mm
Section 2: (mean deflection) + 1.3 x (standard deviation)
= 0.79 + 1.3 x 0.086 = 0.90 mm
Expected total pavement life

Section 1: a design deflection of 0.77 mm gives expected pavement life of 4.0 million E80. /Figure 9.5/
Section 2: a design deflection of 0.90 mm gives expected pavement life of 3.0 million E80. /Figure 9.5/
Residual life
Section 1: Residual life = expected life past traffic loading
= (4 2) million E80 = 2 million E80.
Section 2: Residual life = expected life past traffic loading
= (3 2) million E80 = 1 million E80.
Strengthening of the pavement is required since the residual life is less than the future design traffic loading.
Target deflection
Sections 1 and 2: Future traffic loading of 8.0 million E80 plus 2.0 million E80 past traffic loading gives a target
deflection = 0.53 mm /Figure 9.5/
Required strengthening, SNdiff

Using target deflection and measured design deflection /Figure 9.7/
Section 1: SNdiff = 1.00 Section 2: SNdiff = 1.30

Appendix 8
Worked Examples
Select overlay alternatives

Using SNdiff as input the follow asphalt overlays are required: /Table 9.7/
Section 1: AC = 60 mm Section 2: AC = 80 mm
A8.5 Pavement Rehabilitation Design Structural Number

Method
Input data:
Existing pavement: Material coefficients:

/Table 9.4/
t 1 = 60 mm Asphalt concrete, severely cracked a1 = 0.18
t 2 = 180 mm Natural gravel, PI = 10, CBR = 40% a = 0.10
t 2 = 150 mm Natural gravel, PI = 15, CBR = 15% a = 0.08
CBR = 8%
Design traffic loading: 8 million E80 (TLC 10)

Wet climatic zone
Rural main road with high traffic speed
Strength deficiency - SNdiff

Calculations: /Chapter 9.2.2/
SNexist = (a1 x t 1) / 25.4 = (0.18 x 60) / 25.4 = 0.43
Old AC a1 = 0.18 t1 = 60mm SNdiff = SNrequired - SNexist = 2.35 - 043 =1.92 (highest, i.e. critical)
SNrequired = 2.35 /Table 9.5/ for TLC 10 and CBR=40
CBR = 40% a2 = 0.10 t2 = 180mm

SNexist = [(a1 x t1)+(a2 x t2) ] / 25.4 = [(0.18 x 60)+(0.10 x 180)] / 25.4 = 1.33
SNdiff = SNrequired - SNexist = 2.75 - 1.33 = 1.42

CBR = 15% a3 = 0.08 t3 = 150mm
SNexist = [(a1 x t1)+(a2 x t2)+(a3 x t3)] / 25.4 = [(0.18 x 60)+(0.10 x 180)+(0.08 x 150)] / 25.4 = 1.61
SNdiff = SNrequired - SNexist = 3.30 - 1.61 = 1.69
CBR = 8%
Among the values of SNdiff (1.92 - 1.42 - 1.69) calculated at different levels in the existing pavement, 1.92 is the
highest and becomes the value for which rehabilitation design is carried out.

Appendix 8
Worked Examples
Rehabilitation options
Using SNdiff = 1.92 as input to /Table 9.7/ the nearest value of SNdiff in the table is 2.00 The following overlay
alternatives are given in the table:
1) The appropriate type of bituminous base course shall be selected depending on traffic load class according to
/Table 8.7/ in /Chapter 8 Pavement Design - New Roads/.
2) Best suited for roads with low traffic speed such as urban roads. For roads with high traffic speed a levelling course made
of a bituminous mix may be necessary to provide satisfactory riding quality.
3) Limited to the conditions given in /Tables 8.4/ and /8.5/ in / Chapter 8 Pavement Design - New Roads/ with regards to
traffic loading and climate. Consideration shall be given to reprocessing of the existing pavement.
Overlay alternatives
The nearest value for SNdiff has been selected.
SNdiff
Asphalt concrete Bituminous mix Penetration Granular base
overlay for base course macadam course
1) 2) AC 50 mm 3)
PM 80 125 mm
Alternatively:
ST
2,00 AC 50 mm
PM 60 100 mm
AC 50 mm
CRR 00 mm
Bit. 100 mm PM 60 100 mm
Discussion
Overlays
n Overlays with a bituminous mix is not considered viable due to the high risk of reflective cracking from the
severely cracked AC surfacing of the existing pavement, unless specialised interlayer systems are employed.
n Overlay with granular base course and AC surfacing could be employed, but reprocessing of the existing
pavement is advisable if there is deformation in the existing pavement.
n Penetration macadam will arrest reflective cracking, but on a high speed road surface dressing alone on a
penetration macadam is not well suited.
n The following overlay alternative is appropriate, provided site conditions such as severe deformation in the
existing pavement, does not prohibit this construction method.
AC 50 mm
PM 80 125 mm
Partial reconstruction
If deformation of the existing surface is severe it is likely that partial reconstruction is the most viable rehabilitation
option. i.e. to reprocess the existing surface and base course to subbase in the new pavement /Chapter 9.3.2/.

Appendix 8
Worked Examples
New surfacing
New base course and surfacing to be selected in compliance with
New base course /Chapter 8.3.2/ depending on achieved quality of the new subbase.
Exitsing AC reprocessed, or removed, depending on chosen method.
Reprocessed AC
Existing base course (and subbase) reprocessed to subbase
Existing base course (and subbase) in the new pavement.
A8.6 Surface Dressing Design Including Determination of

ALD
Determination of the average least dimension (ALD) of aggregates
The average least dimension (ALD) of an aggregate is the average minimum size of each particle. The ALD may be
determined by using the following procedures:
Method A
The least dimension of a sample of approximately 200 representative aggregate particles is measured manually. The
aggregates are obtained by careful sample sub-division in accordance with CML test 2.4. The mean value of the
measurements is then calculated.
Method B
A more practical method, however of sufficient accuracy, is by using the test results from the grading analysis and
the flakiness index to determine ALD is determined as follows:
1. Draw the grading curve as a smooth curve /Figure A8.3/ through the plotted points except that the nearest
point above 50% is joined to the nearest point below 50% passing by a straight line unless a curved shape is
obviously required.
2. The median size, which is the particle size where 50% of the aggregate would be passing, is read off in mm as
the ordinate corresponding to the crossing point between the grading curve and the line for 50% passing.
3. The flakiness index is determined in accordance with CML test 2.4.
4. The ALD is read off from the nomograph shown in /Figure A8.4/ using median size and flakiness index as
input data.
In this example the median size obtained after grading is 17.2 mm /Figure A8.3/. Assuming the flakiness index is
23, locate these data on line A and C respectively /Figure A8.4/. Finally join A to C and then read the ALD on B,
which is 11.8 mm in this example.
Figure A8.3 Determination of median size

Appendix 8
Worked Examples
Method: Join A to C
Read average least dimension on B
Figure A8.4 Determination of average least dimension
Design a double surface dressing /Chapter 10.2.6/

/Table 10.4/ A coarse surfacing type has been chosen, using 20mm and 10mm chipping in 1st and 2nd layer
respectively.
Input data:
n double surface dressing, new road, dry, primed base course
n AADT = 700, two lane road with surfaced width of 6.5 m
n 20% heavy vehicles
n 20 mm chipping: ALD = 11.5 mm
n 0.1% passing 0.075 mm (not dusty), water absorption 0.8%
n flat terrain
Aggregate spread rates /Chapter 10.2.1/

/Table 10.1/ To be determined on site. For planning purposes the following apply:
n 1st layer for 20 mm aggregate: 0.016 m3/m2
n 2nd layer for 10 mm aggregate: 0.009 m3/m2
Bitumen spray rate 1st layer:

/Chapter 10.2.4/ The road has a surfaced width of 6.5 m, i.e. the AADT can be used directly.
/Table 10.5/ Basic hot bitumen spray rate: = 0.11 x ALD
= 0.11 x 11.5
= 1.27 l/m2

Appendix 8
Worked Examples
/Table 10.5/ There is no correction of spray rate for the 1st layer.
Bitumen spray rate 2nd layer

/Chapter 10.2.4/. The road has a surfaced width of 6.5 m then the AADT is used directly.
/Table 10.6/ Basic hot bitumen spray rate: = 0.90 l/m2
/Table 10.6/ There is no correction of spray rate for the 2nd layer.
Design of a combined seal using single surface dressing and a sand cover seal
/Chapter 10.4.2/
Input data:
n double surface dressing, new road, dry, primed base course
n AADT = 200, two lane road with surfaced width of 6.5 m
n 20% heavy vehicles
n river sand in combination as 2nd layer
n 0.15% passing 0.075 mm (not dusty), water absorption: 0.7%
n flat terrain
Aggregate spread rates

/Table 10.1/ To be determined on site. For planning purposes the following spread rates apply:
1st layer for 14 mm aggregate: 0.012 m3/m2 /Chapter 10.2.1/

2nd layer sand: 0.010 m3/m2 /Chapter 10.4.1/
Bitumen spray rate 1st seal

/Chapter 10.2.4/ The road has a surfaced width of 6.5 m then the AADT is used directly.
/Table 10.3/ Basic hot bitumen spray rate: = 0.16 x ALD

= 0.16 x 8.0
= 1.28 l/m2
/Table 10.3/ There is no correction of spray rate for the 1st layer.
Bitumen spray rate for sand seal 2nd seal /Chapter 10.4.1/
/Table 10.11/ The binder for sand seals shall be cutback bitumen of type MC3000.
The hot spray rate of MC3000 cutback bitumen ranges between 0.80 l/m2 and 1.00 l/m2 to be
determined on site depending on the surface texture of the underlying seal.

Appendix 9.1
Physical (topography)
Appendix 9.2
Geology
Appendix 9.3
Soils
Appendix 9.4
Vegetation
Appendix 9.5
Rainfall
MAY 1999
ISBN 9987 - 8891 - 1 - 5

Pavement and Materials Design Manual 1999 TZ

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MAY 1999

ISBN 9987 - 8891 - 1 - 5

Pavement and Materials

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Printed by: Allkopi AS, Oslo Norway

The Working Group consisted of the following members:

Base course Materials testing methods

Cut back slope Roadway

Figure 1 Cross section terms

Original ground level

Cutting Pavement layers Formation level

Asphalt concrete surfacing Surface treated pavements

Gravel wearing course Surfacing

Figure 3 Pavement details

3 Cross Section, Shoulders and Drainage ....................................................................................................... 3.1

5.8.3 Geo-textiles as filter .............................................................................................................................. 5.9

7.7.1 Geo-textiles used as separating layers ................................................................................................ 7.17

10.1.1 Materials and construction ................................................................................................................. 10.2

11.3.2 Major gravel roads ............................................................................................................................. 11.4

List of Tables and Figures

7.15 Material requirements  FBMIX ....................................................................................... 7.14

10.14 Mix proportions for asphalt concrete ............................................................................. 10.19

Pavement Materials Pavement

Comparison of alternatives and

Refinement of design, if required

Comments: 1.1 The Manual  Background

1.2 Purpose of the Manual

1.3 Structure of the Manual

1.3.2 Structure of the contents

1.2 Ministry of Works

Ministry of Works 1.3

Comments: Chapter 10  Bituminous Surfacings describes the design and material

1.4 Design Aspects and Policy

1.4.2 Material testing methods

1.4 Ministry of Works

service - with maintenance - over a chosen design period. A successful Comments:

1.4.4 Pavement rehabilitation (paved roads)

1.4.5 Gravel roads

Ministry of Works 1.5

1.5 Construction and Maintenance

1.5.1 Extent and type of drainage

1.5.2 Use of stabilisation with lime or cement

1.5.3 Availability of equipment and materials

1.6 Ministry of Works

1.5.4 Construction under traffic Comments:

1.5.5 Maintenance strategy

hazardous for the traffic or where there is profound inconvenience and

1.5.6 Type of surface on the shoulders

1.5.7 Use of stage construction

n earthworks and culverts

Ministry of Works 1.7

1.8 Ministry of Works

Pavement Materials Pavement

Comparison of alternatives and

Refinement of design, if required

Comments: 2.0 General

The environmental factors having the greatest effect on pavement

2.1 Climatic Zones

D ry Less than 1 month

2.2 Ministry of Works

2.2 Moisture Regime Comments:

Figure 2.1 Map showing climatic zones

Ministry of Works 2.3

7.15 Material requirements FBMIX ....................................................................................... 7.14

Comments: 1.1 The Manual Background

Comments: Chapter 10 Bituminous Surfacings describes the design and material