2018

3rd SEM WORKSHOP PROJECT AT TAML

DEVARAJU V
TATA ADVANCED MATERIAL PVT LTD
10/29/2018
 AN ISO 9001:2008 CERTIFIED TRAINING INSITTUTION

NETTUR TECHNICAL TRAINING FOUNDATION

NEEM PROGRAM CONDUCTED BY NTTF AND TATA

ADVANCE MATERIAL

LEARNINGS AT A TATA ADVANCED MATERIAL

DURING THREE YEARS PROGRAM

DIPLOMA IN AEROSPACE MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY

(ADVANCE COMPOSITE)
NTTF LEARN AND EARN TRAINING CENTER
NEC BANGALORE - 560 100
2016-2019
 AN ISO 9001:2008 CERTIFIED TRAINING INSITTUTION
NETTUR TECHNICAL TRAINING FOUNDATION

Certificate
This is to certify that the project titled
3rd SEM TAML WORKSHOP
Is a bonafide record of the project work done by
DEVARAJU V ID no LE/TAML /B1/08

In partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of DIPLOMA IN AEROSPACE MANUFACTURING
TECHNOLOGY under the institution Nettur Technical Training Foundation, NEC Training Centre, during
the Academic year 2016– 2019

UNIT HEAD EXTERNAL EXAMINER CO-ORDINATOR

GIRIDHAR TAML KIRAN MH

ABSTRACT
As part of our diploma in aerospace manufacturing technology(advanced
composite) curriculum, we have selected the COMPOSITE INTRODUCTION
project named “ADVANCE COMPOSITE”. The main aim of the project is to
make the Robotic arm, which comprises of three stepper motors, to interface
with the PIC16F877A-based micro-controller

Our project comprises of three main areas:

 ELECTRICAL DESIGNS
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We feel privileged to acknowledge the contribution of several peoples for the successful
completion of THIRD SEM TAML WORKSHOP OF THE PROJECT
We are grateful to Mr. KIRAN MR (DT-COO, NTTF) for formulated the notion of
the project work and facilitated us to know something more besides our regular
practical curriculum.
We would like to use this opportunity to thank Mr. SURESH.N, (PRINCIPAL,
NTTF-NEC) for extending his official support for the progress of the project.
We sincerely thank Mr. SHIJU GANGADHARAN (Section In charge, project in
charge & STO, NEC-NTTF) & Mrs. SIREESHA DEVI M.M (Assistant TRG Manager) &
Mr. A. PALANI KUMAR (CP15 Course Head) for their co-operation and hard work in
arranging this project work.

We would like to utilize this opportunity to express our gratitude to all the staff
members of NTTF for supporting us during all the activities, proceedings and successful
completion of our project.
 TAML WORKSHOP 3rd SEM
Content……………
1. Thermoplastic
2. Introduction to composite
3. Raw materials
4. Reinforcement materials
5. Matrix materials
6. Resin system
7. Consumables used in composite
8. Fabrication method
9. Mechanical fastener
10. Adhesive bonding
11. Inspection method
12. FAI PROCESS
13. Importance of material testing
14. Case study of P8i

BY-DEVARAJU V
 THERMOPLASTIC

A thermoplastic material it can be compared to a set of strings that

are mixed on a table, each of these string is represents a polymer,
the greater degree of mixing of the strings greater the effort will be
made to separate the strings from each other, due the friction that
occurs between each of the cords offers resistance to separate, in
this example the friction represents the intermolecular forces that
holds together the polymer.

Depending on the degree of the intermolecular interactions that occurs between the
polymer chains, the polymer can take two different types of structures, amorphous or
crystalline structures, being possible the existence of both structures in the same
thermoplastic material:
 Amorphous structure - polymer chains acquire a bundled structure, like a ball of thread
disordered, amorphous structure that is directly responsible for the elastic properties of
thermoplastic materials.
 Crystal structure - polymer chains acquire an ordered and compacted structure, it can
be distinguished mainly lamellar structures and micelle form. This crystal structure is
directly responsible for the mechanical properties of resistance to stresses or loads and
the temperature resistance of thermoplastic materials.
If the thermoplastic material has a high concentration of polymers with amorphous
structures, the material will have a poor resistance to loads but it will have an excellent
elasticity. But on the contrary, if the thermoplastic material has a high concentration of
polymers with a crystalline structure, the material will be very strong and even stronger
than thermoset materials, but with a little elasticity that provides the characteristic
fragility of these materials.

Properties of thermoplastic materials are:

 It may melt before passing to a gaseous state.
 Allow plastic deformation when it is heated.
 They are soluble in certain solvents.
 Swell in the presence of certain solvents.
 Good resistance to creep.
Examples and applications of thermoplastic plastic materials:
 High pressure polyethylene as applied to rigid material covered with electrical machines,
tubes, etc...
 Low pressure polyethylene elastic material used for insulation of electrical cables, etc...
 Polystyrene applied for electrical insulation, handles of tools...
 Polyamide used for making ropes, belts, etc...
 PVC or polyvinyl chloride for the manufacture of insulation materials, pipes, containers,
etc...
Examples of thermoplastic adhesives:
 Acrylates
 Cyanoacrylates
 Epoxy cured by ultraviolet radiation
 Acrylates cured by ultraviolet radiation

Thermoplastic Advantages
 Highly recyclable

 High-Impact resistance
 Reshaping capabilities
 Chemical resistant
 Aesthetically superior finishes
 Hard crystalline or rubbery surface options

Thermoplastic Disadvantages
 Expensive
 Can melt if heated

Thermoset Plastic Advantages

 More resistant to high temperatures
 Highly flexible design
 Thick to thin wall capabilities
 High levels of dimensional stability
 Cost-effective

Thermoset Plastics Disadvantages

 Can’t be recycled
 More difficult to surface finish
 Can’t be remolded or reshaped
 INTRODUCTION TO COMPOSITES

Composite material is a macroscopic combination of two or

more distinct materials, having a recognizable interface between them.
Composites are extending the horizons of designers in all branches of
engineering, and yet the degree to which this is happening can easily pass
unperceived. The eye, after all, does not see beyond the glossy exterior or the
race performance of a GRP1 yacht, nor does it sense the complexity of the
structure of a composite helicopter rotor blade or of a modern CFRP2 tennis
racket. Nevertheless, this family of synthesized materials offers the possibility of
exciting new solutions to difficult engineering problems.

In composites, materials are combined in such a way as to enable us to make

better use of their virtues while minimizing to some extent the effects of their
deficiencies. This process of optimization can release a designer from the
constraints associated with the selection and manufacture of conventional
materials. He can make use of tougher and lighter materials, with properties that
can be tailored to suit particular design requirements. And because of the ease
with which complex shapes can be manufactured, the complete rethinking of an
established design in terms of composites can often lead to both cheaper and
better solutions.

The ‘composites’ concept is not a human invention. Wood is a natural composite

material consisting of one species of polymer — cellulose fibers with good
strength and stiffness — in a resinous matrix of another polymer, the
polysaccharide lignin. Nature makes a much better job of design and
manufacture than we do, although Man was able to recognize that the way of
overcoming two major disadvantages of natural wood — that of size (a tree has a
limited transverse dimension), and that of anisotropy (properties are markedly
different in the axial and radial directions) — was to make the composite material
that we call plywood. Bone, teeth and mollusk shells are other natural
composites, combining hard ceramic reinforcing phases in natural organic
polymer matrices. Man was aware, even from the earliest times, of the concept
that combining materials could be advantageous, and the down-to-earth
procedures of wattle-and-daub (mud and straw) and ‘pied’ (heather incorporated
in hard-rammed earth) building construction, still in use today, pre-date the use of
reinforced concrete by the Romans which foreshadowed the pre-tensioned and
post-tensioned reinforced concretes of our own era. But it is only in the last half
century that the science and technology of composite materials have developed
to provide the engineer with a novel class of materials and the necessary tools to
enable him to use them advantageously. The simple term ‘composites’ gives little
indication of the vast range of individual combinations that are included in this
class of materials. We have mentioned some of the more familiar ones, but the
diagram Figure 1.1 gives a clearer idea of the scope for ingenuity which is
available to the Materials Scientist and his customer, the Design Engineer. First,
within each group of materials — metallic, ceramic and polymeric — there are
already certain familiar materials which can be described as composites. Many
members of the commonest and largest group of engineering materials, the
family of steels, consist of combinations of particles of hard ceramic compounds
in a softer metallic matrix. These particles are sometimes plate-like, sometimes
needle-shaped, and sometimes spherical or polygonal. Polymers, too, are often
two-phased, consisting of a matrix of one polymer with distributions of harder or
softer particles contained within it; wood is a perfect example of this, as we have
seen. And concrete is a classic example of a ceramic/ceramic composite, with
particles of sand and aggregate of graded sizes in a matrix of hydrated Portland
cement. These materials have been well known for many years, and Materials
Scientists have learned to control their properties by controlling their
microstructures; that is to say, the quantity, the form, and the distribution of what
we might refer to as the ‘reinforcing phase’. The idea of mixing components
across the materials class boundaries is a natural extension of this idea. Making
additions of hard, or fire-resistant, or simply cheap, ceramic powders to plastics
to make filled polymers; and making additions of very hard, or abrasive, or
thermally stable ceramic particles to metals to make the class of materials known
as ‘cermet’ to produce machine tool tips capable of cutting hard metals at high
speeds or high temperatures; are only two examples of important developments
in our exploitation of these materials. But even more significant is the extension
of this principle to incorporate filamentary metals, ceramics and polymers into the
bulk forms of any of these three classes of materials to make fiber composites —
reinforced plastics, like CFRP and GRP, metal-matrix composites (MMCs) like
silicon-carbide-fiber-reinforced aluminum, and ceramic-matrix composites
(CMCs) like carbon fiber-reinforced glass.
Classification of Composites
 Figure 1: Classification of composites
Definition: An advanced composite material comprises at least two chemically
different materials (heterogeneity): reinforcement, and a matrix that binds the
reinforcement and is separated from it by a sharp interface.

Phases of Composites
 Matrix Phase: Polymers, Metals, Ceramics Also, continuous phase, surrounds
other phase (e.g.: metal, ceramic, or polymer)

 Reinforcement Phase: Fibers, Particles, or Flakes Also, dispersed phase,

discontinuous phase (e.g.: metal, ceramic, or polymer)
→ Interface between matrix and reinforcement
Examples:
– Jell-O and Cole slaw/mixed fruit
– Peanut brittle
– Straw in mud
– Wood (cellulose fibers in hemicellulose and lignin)
– Bones (soft protein collagen and hard apatite minerals)
– Pearlite (ferrite and cementite)

Factors in Creating Composites

Factors in creating composites:
– Matrix material
– Reinforcement material
RAW MATERIALS
 Typical Composite Materials

 Typically, basic composite parts or components

are made up of at least two parts – a
reinforcement material substrate e.g. fiberglass,
carbon fibers or aramid (Kevlar™) fibers and a
resinous binder.

 The relatively brittle and firm resin matrix transfers

forces acting on the part to the load-capable
flexible fibers.

 The low weights of both resin and fibers lend

these parts extremely high strength-to-weight
ratios.

 Furthermore, simple composite “skins” may be

fixed to the top and bottom of so called “core
materials” to form sandwich structures, e.g.
composite beams, still holding true to exceptional
strength characteristics of these parts.

Structural fibers and fab

When compared to an unreinforced cured resin system, the mechanical characteristics of
reinforcement fibers are tremendously higher. The mechanical performance of a composite part
is therefore dictated in most part by that of the structural fibers.

The following factors determine the ultimate mechanical properties of a cured composite part:
  Basic mechanical characteristics of the reinforcement fibers
  Bond / surface interaction between resin system and fibers
  Amount of fibers per volume in the composite (fiber count)
 Orientation of fibers in cured part

Note: The bond between fibers and resin can be improved by surface treatment. This is
especially important when bonding composite parts. See SWP 12 on Adhesive
Bonding.

As mentioned above, the orientation of fibers play an important role. In almost all cases
reinforcement fibers are available in different types of weaves, making up a fabric. The following
are typical commercially available reinforcement fibers and weaved fabrics:

Glass fibers
Many unique chemical compositions of glass fibers are manufactured worldwide. These
different compositions are designated by an alphabet letter and each display varying
mechanical and chemical properties.

The most common are:

  E-glass
  C-glass
  S-glass
 H-glass.

The E denotes high Electrical resistance, the C Chemical resistance, S high Strength
characteristics and the H stands for Hollow glass (extremely light fibers).

Many more types of glass fiber exist, too numerous to all be mentioned here. Refer to a
supplier’s catalogue and datasheets for fiber-specific information. As an example the properties
of the already mentioned E-, C- and S-glass are listed below:

Property E-glass C-glass S-glass

Physical

Density 2540 kg/m3 2490 kg/m3 2480 kg/m3

 Hardness 6.5 6.5 6.5

Mechanical

Tensile strength 25°C 3.447 GA 3.309 GA 4.585 GA

Tensile strength 350°C 2.620 GA - 4.447 GA

Tensile strength 550°C 1.724 GA - 2.413 GA

Young’s Modulus 72.395 GA 68.948 GA 85.495 GA

Raw Materials

Chemical Composition

Silicon oxide 54.3% 64.6% 64.2%

Aluminum oxide 15.2% 4.1% 24.8%

Iron oxide - - 0.21%

Calcium oxide 17.2% 13.2% 0.01%

Magnesium oxide 4.7% 3.3% 10.27%

Sodium oxide 0.6% 7.7% 0.27%

Potassium oxide - 1.7% -

Boron oxide 8.0% 4.7% 0.01%

Properties of single-fiber E-, C- and S-glass

Carbon fibers
Carbon fibers are usually made by taking strands of poly-acrylonitrile (PAN) in the form of multi-
filament yarn and then oxidizing, carbonizing and graphitizing it to form carbon fiber filaments.
These are then usually given a surface oxidation treatment to promote bonding with resins.
Other properties of carbon fiber include:
  High thermal conductivity
  Conducts electricity
 Electrically opaque to radio waves

Aramid (Kevlar) fibers

Also a relative newcomer, aramid fiber has many of the characteristics of carbon fiber but sets
itself apart from carbon and glass with its unique degree of toughness. Several types of aramid
fibers can be found commercially.

Some benefits include:

  Electrically non-conductive
  Heat resistant
 Transparent to radio waves

One big drawback of using aramid fiber in a composite part is that it cannot be sanded after
curing. Be sure to leave gaps between the edges of aramid fabrics and part ends.

Important: Special shears, sharpened at a specific angle are needed in order to cut aramid
fabrics correctly.

Aramid fibers are hygroscopic (absorbs moisture from the atmosphere) and UV sensitive. Fibers
should therefore be stored in a dry, darkened storage room. Moisture will adversely affect its
bonding properties with resins.

It should also be noted that aramid only bonds satisfactorily with epoxy and vinyl ester resin
systems. Using aramid fabrics with polyester resins is not recommended – poor interlaminated
bonding can be expected.

Other fiber types

Many exotic, experimental and classified fibers are in existence around the world, each having
unique properties still being explored and tested. Many of these fibers are either very rare or
very expensive and are therefore beyond the scope of this manual.

Types of fabrics
Different fabrics are mainly recognized by varying strand thickness and type of weave. Consult
with manufacturers on their unique fabrics with different yarn thicknesses and weaves for
specific purposes.

In general, the following types of woven fabric can be found commercially:

PLAIN WEAVE TWILL WEAVE SATIN WEAVE

LENO WEAVE BASET WEAVE

Sandwich structure core materials

Sandwich structures are made by “sandwiching” a core material between two skins. The basic
idea behind these structures is to significantly increase a structure’s bending stiffness whilst
only marginally increasing the overall weight. With this in mind there are 2 basic characteristics
a core material should display:
  Low weight
 High volume

This basically means any core should have a low density (other than the skin material
consisting of heavier resin and fibers). Several compounds are suitable as cores and can be
placed under 3 main categories:
  Foams
  Honeycombs
 Woods
Refer to SWP 18 on Sandwich Structures, where core materials are discussed in greater
detail.

Foams
Foamed plastic materials are affordable and easy to use as cores. The mechanical and physical
properties of different foams vary greatly and their specific datasheets should be consulted for
more detail.

Examples are:

o PVC foam
o Polystyrene foams
o Polyurethane foams
o Polymethyl meth acrylamide foams
o Styrene acrylonitrile (SAN) co-polymer foams
o Metallic foams
o Other thermoplastics

Important: Polystyrene “bead foam” is not suitable for use as a sandwich core material.
This is foam made by exposing polystyrene granules to steam which then
expand in a mould. The bonds between these beads are weak and varied. Air
might also become trapped in the structure. These factors make this type of
foam unusable.

Honeycombs
Composite honeycombs are made from a variety of materials. Used mostly in the aerospace
industry, honeycombs can also be found in stage flooring sandwich structures, marine vessels.
Of all the core materials, honeycomb has the best compressive strength (next to balsa, see
section 4.2.3)

Examples are:

o Aluminum honeycomb
o Nome honeycomb
o Thermoplastic honeycomb
o Glass fiber / plastic honeycombs
o Carbon fiber / Kevlar honeycombs
o Stainless steel, titanium and super-alloy honeycombs

Woods
Balsa wood offers good strength whilst having a very low density. If the grain is orientated
perpendicular to the sandwich skins, balsa wood’s compressive strength is better than most
honeycombs.
Examples are:

o Balsa (most common because of low

density) o Cedar
o Spruce
o Mahogany
o Redwood
o Pine
o Fir
o Many others

Woods are normally cheaper than foams, but prone to the attack from insects, mildew and will
deteriorate when exposed to moisture. Proper sealing and treatment is therefore necessary
where woods are used.

REINFORECEMENT
Reinforcement
The role of the reinforcement in a composite material is fundamentally one of
increasing the mechanical properties of the neat resin system. All of the different
fibers used in composites have different properties and so affect the properties of
the composite in different ways. However, individual fibers or fibre bundles can
only be used on their own in a few processes such as filament winding. For most
other applications, the fibers need to be arranged into some form of sheet, known
as a fabric, to make handling possible. Different ways for assembling fibers into
sheets and the variety of fibre orientations possible lead to there being many
different types of fabrics, each of which has its own characteristics.

Properties of Reinforcing Fibres

The mechanical properties of most reinforcing fibers are considerably higher than
those of un-reinforced resin systems. The mechanical properties of the fibre/resin
composite are therefore dominated by the contribution of the fibre to the
composite.
The four main factors that govern the fibre’s contribution are:

1. The basic mechanical properties of the fibre itself.

2. The surface interaction of fibre and resin (the ‘interface’).
3. The amount of fibre in the composite (‘Fibre Volume Fraction’).
4. The orientation of the fibers in the composite.

The basic mechanical properties of the most commonly used fibers are the surface
interaction of fibre and resin is controlled by the degree of bonding that exists
between the two. This is heavily influenced by the treatment given to the fibre
surface.

Styles of reinforcement

Many reinforcing fibers are marketed as wide, semi-continuous sheets of

‘prepreg’ consisting of single layers of fibre tows impregnated with the required
matrix resin and flattened between paper carrier sheets. These are then stacked,
as discussed in chapter 3, the orientations of each ‘ply’ being arranged in
accordance with design requirements, and hot pressed to consolidate the
laminate. This process is able to cope with curved surfaces, provided the degree
of curvature is not too great, but there may be a possibility of local wrinkling of
the fibers when prepregs are pressed into doubly curved shapes. One means of
overcoming this problem is to use the reinforcement in the form of a woven cloth
since textile materials can readily be ‘draped’ over quite complex formers. Many
of the fine filamentary reinforcing fibers like glass, carbon and SiC can be readily
woven into many kinds of cloths and braids, the fibers being effectively placed by
the weaving process in the directions required by the designer of the final
composite structure. In simple designs, this may call for nothing more elaborate
than an ordinary plain weave or satin weave, with fibers running in a variety of
patterns but in only two directions, say 0° and 90°, but weaving processes to
produce cloths with fibers in several directions in the plane of the cloth are all
readily available. Fibres of different types may also be intermingled during the
weaving processes to produce mixed-fibre cloths for the manufacture of some of
the ‘hybrid’ composites that will be discussed later.

Most of the continuous fibers that we have considered are expensive raw
materials, and it is often only the fact that the overall cost of a manufactured
composite product may nevertheless be lower than a competing product made
from cheaper, conventional materials by more costly processes that makes a
composites design solution an attractive alternative. Thus, although large
quantities of glass fibers are supplied in chopped form for compounding with both
thermoplastic and thermosetting matrix polymers, it may not seem economical to
chop the more expensive types of reinforcement.

Nevertheless, there are some advantages in using even these fibers in chopped
form, provided they can be arranged in the composite in such a way as to make
good use of their intrinsically high strengths and stiffnesses. Parratt and Potter
(1980) described a process for producing both chopped fibers, like glass and
carbon, and naturally short filaments, like whiskers or asbestos fibers, in the form
of prepreg sheets with fibers that were very well aligned in either unidirectional or
poly-directional patterns. These prepregs also have excellent ‘drapability’ and
can be used to form complex shapes, as discussed by Tsuki et al. (1997). As will
be seen in chapter 4, provided the short fibers are well above some critical
length, which for carbon, for example, may be of the order of only a millimetre,
they are able to contribute a high fraction of their intrinsic properties to the
composite without the loss that occurs with woven reinforcements as a result of
the out-of-plane curvature of the fibers.

MATRIX MATERIALS
Matrix
Matrix materials
• Fibers and whiskers in composites are held together by a binder known as
matrix.
This is required since fibers by themselves:
– Given their small cross‐sectional area, cannot be directly loaded.
– Further, they cannot transmit load between themselves.

• This limitation is addressed by embedding fibers in a matrix material.

• Matrix material serves several functions, the important ones being:

– Binds fibers together.
– Transfers loads and stresses within the composite structure.
– Support the overall structure
– Protects the composite from incursion of external agents such as humidity,
chemicals, etc.
– Protects fibers from damage due to handling.

• Matrix material strongly influences composite’s overall transverse modulus,

shear properties, and compression properties.

• Matrix material also significantly limits a composite’s maximum permissible

operating temperature.
• Most of the matrix materials are relatively lighter, more compliant, and weaker
vis‐à‐vis fibers and whiskers.
• However, the combination of fibers/whiskers and matrix can be very stiff, very
strong, and yet very light.
– Thus most of modern composites have very high specific strengths, i.e. very
high strength/density ratios.
– This makes them very useful in aerospace applications, where weight
minimization is a key design consideration.

Choosing the Right Matrix Materials

While selecting matrix material for a composite system, several considerations have
to be factored into, principal ones being:
– Physical properties such a specific gravity.
– Mechanical properties such as modulus, strength, CTE, conductivity, etc.
– Melting of curing temperature for the matrix material
– Viscosity: It strongly affects processing attributes of the composite, and also
uniform flow of matrix material into the composite system.
– Reactivity with fibers: One would certainly not desire possibility of chemical
reactions between fibers and matrix material.
– Fabrication process compatible with matrix and fibers
– Reactivity with ambient environment
–Cost
Functions of the matrix

• The matrix binds the fibers together, holding them aligned in the important
stressed directions. Loads applied to the composite are then transferred into the
fibers, the principal load-bearing component, through the matrix, enabling the
composite to withstand compression, flexural and shear forces as well as tensile
loads. The ability of composites reinforced with short fibers to support loads of
any kind is dependent on the presence of the matrix as the load-transfer medium,
and the efficiency of this load transfer is directly related to the quality of the
fibre/matrix bond.

• The matrix must also isolate the fibers from each other so that they can act as
separate entities. Many reinforcing fibers are brittle solids with highly variable
strengths. When such materials are used in the form of fine fibers, not only are
the fibers stronger than the monolithic form of the same solid, but there is the
additional benefit that the fibre aggregate does not fail catastrophically.
Moreover, the fibre bundle strength is less variable than that of a monolithic rod
of equivalent load-bearing ability. But these advantages of the fibre aggregate
can only be realized if the matrix separates the fibers from each other so that
cracks are unable to pass unimpeded through sequences of fibers in contact,
which would result in completely brittle composites.
• The matrix should protect the reinforcing filaments from mechanical damage
(eg. abrasion) and from environmental attack. Since many of the resins which are
used as matrices for glass fibers permit diffusion of water, this function is often
not fulfilled in many GRP materials and the environmental damage that results is
aggravated by stress. In cement the alkaline nature of the matrix itself is
damaging to ordinary glass fibers and alkali-resistant glasses containing
zirconium have been developed (Proctor & Yale, 1980) in an effort to counter
this. For composites like MMCs or CMCs operating at elevated temperature, the
matrix would need to protect the fibers from oxidative attack.

• A ductile matrix will provide a means of slowing down or stopping cracks that
might have originated at broken fibers: conversely, a brittle matrix may depend
upon the fibers to act as matrix crack stoppers.

• Through the quality of its ‘grip’ on the fibers (the interfacial bond strength), the
matrix can also be an important means of increasing the toughness of the
composite.

• By comparison with the common reinforcing filaments most matrix materials are
weak and flexible and their strengths and moduli are often neglected in
calculating composite properties. But metals are structural materials in their own
right and in MMCs their inherent shear stiffness and compressional rigidity are
important in determining the behaviour of the composite in shear and
compression. The potential for reinforcing any given material will depend to some
extent on its ability to carry out some or all of these matrix functions, but there
are often other considerations. We consider now the likely qualities of various
classes of matrix materials.

Polymer matrix materials

Polymers as Matrix Materials

• Polymers: Most widely used matrix materials

– Common examples: Polyesters, vinylesters, PEEK, PPS, nylon, polycarbonate,
polyacetals, polyamides, polyether imides, polystyrene, epoxies, ureas, melamines,
silicones.

• Advantages:
– Low cost
– Easy to process
– Low density
– Superior chemical resistance
• Limitations:
– Low strength
– Low modulus
– Limited range for operating temperature
– Sensitivity to UV radiation, specific solvents, and occasionally humidity

Thermoplastics
• Soften or melt when heated. This process is reversible.
• Their structure has long chains of molecules with strong intra‐molecular bonds,
but weak inter‐molecular bonds.
• When exposed to heat, these inter‐molecular bonds breakdown, and the
material starts “flowing”.
• Semi‐crystalline of amorphous in structure
• Examples: polyethylene, PEEK, polyamides, polyacetals, polysulfone, PPS,
nylon, polystyrene.
Thermosets
• These polymers do not melt, but breakdown (decompose) when heated.
• Amorphous structure
• They have networked structures with strong covalent bonds linking all
molecules.
• These networks permanently breakdown upon heating. Hence, these polymers,
once “set”, cannot be reshaped.
• Examples: epoxies, polyesters, phenolics, urea, melamine, silicone, polyimides.

Thermosets: Epoxies
• Epoxy thermosets, like polyester thermosets, are produced from epoxy resins.
These resins come in viscous liquid form, and have low molecular weight.

• The viscosity of these resins strongly depends on the extent of polymerization

of its molecules.

• Common epoxy resins are produced through a reaction between

epichlorohydrin and bisphenol‐A. Alternative formulations replace bisphenol‐A
with other chemicals.

• A “curing agent” (or hardener, or activator) triggers the polymerization process

amongst resin molecules, thereby generating a very dense network of cross‐
linked polymer. Diethylene triamine is a very commonly used curing agent.
• The exothermic reaction between hardener (curing agent) and resin
(compound) does not produce a by‐product. Further, like polyesters, epoxies also
undergo shrinkage during the curing process.
• Epoxies, like polyesters, can be produced at room temperatures. However, by
proper selection of curing agents, the curing process can be conducted at
elevated temperatures as well.

• The curing process time strongly depends on the choice of resin as well as
curing agent. It can vary between minutes to 24 hours.

• Many a times, heat is applied to accelerate the curing process. Typically, curing
time decreases, almost exponentially, with increasing temperature.

Thermosets: Phenolics
• Produce less smoke during oxidation/charring process
• Very low flammability
• Dimensionally stable when subjected to changes in temperature
• Good adhesion properties
• Good candidates for public transportation systems, where flammability and
smoke concerns are very significant
• Also used in aircraft applications for similar reasons

Resin systems
Typically material composites include at least two parts – a reinforcement material substrate
e.g. fibreglass, carbon fibers or aramid (Kevlar™) fibers and a resinous binder. The sole
purpose of the hardened (cured) resin system is to keep the fibers in place and along their
correct orientation. Thus a resin should also be able to chemically connect to the different layers
of material.

Resin systems fall in the thermosetting plastic category can be classified under the following
groups, according to their chemical composition:
  Epoxy resin
  Polyester resin
  Vinyl-ester resin
 Polyurethane resin

Other binding materials categories (for information purposes) are:

  Thermoplastic (e.g. Perspex)

  Phenolics
  Unsaturated Silicones polyesters
  
 Polyimides

In this SWP only the thermosets will be discuss

Epoxy resin systems

Epoxy resins are nearly transparent after curing. They are commercially available in hardware
stores for small scale repairs as well as in large quantities (resin and different hardeners) for
aerospace and marine applications.

Epoxies are used as either a structural matrix material reinforced with fibers (glass, carbon,
aramid, boron) or as a structural adhesive.

Some properties of epoxy resin systems:

  Resin-to-hardener ratio is usually between 1:1 and 5:1

  Excellent chemical- and corrosion resistance
  Excellent thermal properties
  Better mechanical properties compared to polyester resins
  Good gap filling properties when mixed with additives (see section 4.4)
  Offers excellent adhesive properties (including to polyester resin surfaces)
 Low shrinkage compared to Polyester resins.

  Gelcoat does not readily adhere to epoxy surfaces
 Deteriorates when exposed to UV light

Polyester resin systems

Polyester resins may have a slightly yellow, transparent colour and are also known as
thermosetting plastics (will set at high temperatures.) Because of their sensitivity to UV light and
degradation over time, polyester resins are often coated with a protective layer.

Properties of polyester resin systems:

 The hardener and accelerator agents are pre-mixed in the resin - the system only
 requires a catalyst to set off the reaction.
  MEKP (Methyl-ethyl-ketone-peroxide) is used as the abovementioned catalyst
  Usually requires only 2% catalyser by weight
 Offers good resistance against chemicals, corrosion and exposure to the environment

  Flame retardant (self-extinguishes)

  Very easily processed in low cost equipment
  Usually cheaper than epoxy systems
  Typical shelf life of less than 6 months
 Storage containers for these resins must be tightly closed to slow down the natural
 hardening process
  Hygroscopic (draws in moisture from surrounding air)
 High shrinkage compared to epoxies.

Polyurethane resin systems

Polyurethane is widely used in flexible and rigid foams, heavy duty adhesives and sealants,
fibers and hard plastic parts. Products containing polyurethane are often referred to as
"urethanes,” but should not be confused with the specific substance, urethane (ethyl
carbamate).

Polyurethane system properties:

  Offers excellent thermal insulation

  Resists the spreading of flames
  Results in parts with high strength-to-weight ratios
  Easily processed
 Usually cheaper than epoxies

Vinyl-ester resin systems

Vinyl-ester resins may have a coloured tint, ranging from green to blue to purple. They are also
slightly more transparent then polyester resins and flows more easily.

A Vinyl-ester system is a good alternative to a polyester or epoxy resin system, having inferior
characteristics to those of epoxies, but better compared to those of polyester.

Properties:
  Vinyl-ester resins are more flexible than polyester resins
  Also catalyzed with MEKP, at a similar mixing ratio
  Better corrosion and temperature resistance
  Better strength properties
  Resists water absorption
  They degrade faster than polyester resins
 Shelf life less than three months

Hardeners
Hardeners are substances or a mixture added to a plastic composition to promote or control the
curing action by taking part in it. Resins are sometimes referred to as “Part A” while hardeners
are referred to as “Part B”.
The reaction can normally not be controlled by modifying the mixing ratios. Mixing ratio must be
used as per the manufacturer’s datasheets.

Different hardeners can be found for specific types of resins. As explained above in section 4.3,
some resin systems only require a catalyzing agent.

Furthermore different hardeners (as in epoxy systems) differ normally only in respect to the pot
life of each different hardener-resin mixture.

Applications of resin systems

The different applications for which specific resins can be used allow us to reclassify different
sub-types of resin systems. Therefore common applications will be listed and described in the
following sections, along with a few examples of resins available on the market.

Laminating resins
Laminating resins easily wet any cloth, due to their low viscosity. They also chemically connect
to the weave, resulting in a strong composite material.

Examples of laminating resins include:

  SP Systems Ampreg 20, 22,

  Axon Epolam 2015, 2020, 2022
  Axon Epolam 2080 (high temperature epoxy)
  Hexion L285 (LBA aircraft certified system)
 NCS and Scott Bader Polyester resins

Bonding resins
Bonding materials have to have a higher viscosity to prevent the material from flowing off the
area being bonded

A few examples:
  SP Spabond 345
  Axson H 9940
 Laminating resins (mixed with cotton flocks and carb-o-sil, see section 4.4)

Gelcoats
Gelcoats can be divided into spray-paintable gelcoats and mould surface gelcoats. Whereas the
mould surface gelcoat is usually black or some darker colour, the spray-painting Gelcoat can
have any colour, although it is frequently white.

Spray-paint Gelcoat:

Properties: Thick when mixed according to standards but can be diluted.

Examples:

  SP 127
  Hexion, T 35
  Azko Nobel, Schwabellack
 NCS Ultra gel P1075

Mold surface Gel coat:

Properties: Develops a hard and durable surface.

Examples:

  Axon GC1050
  Hex ion F 200/F 15 (polish able surface)
 Hex ion F 260/F 16 (non- polish able surface)

Casting resins
Casting materials can be used for both high and low density foams or to form polyurethane-
based rubbers.

Examples:

  Axon F16
  Axon 3034
 Axon 5056

Resin additives (fillers)

By augmenting a resin-hardener mixture with a variety of additives, a wide range of different
properties can be obtained.

These additives work well when mixed with epoxy resin systems
Cotton flocks
This additive is made from natural cotton and appears as fine fibers. A mixture of cotton fibers
and epoxy is referred to as “flux”. Other names: “Micro fibers”, “Cotton flakes”
The mixture is used in structural joints and in areas where a very hard, durable build-up is
required.

Preparation:
Flux is normally mixed with 1 part cotton and 1 part carb-o-sill to one part resin.

Effects:
Turns resin into a tough bonding compound

Examples where used:

  Bonding of parts
  Filler material
 To create chamfers when needed

Carb-o-sill
Carb-o-sill or fused quartz is a non-crystalline form of silicon dioxide, also called silica. Other
names are:
  Aerosol (German)
  Fused silica
 Colloidal Silica (SP Systems)

Carb-o-sill can be used to reduce the flow of epoxies on vertical surfaces, as well as for filling
pinholes.

Uses:
  Carb-o-sill can be mixed with epoxies or gel coats to modify the flow characteristics
 Carb-o-sill can be mixed with micro balloons or cotton flocks to give non-sag properties
to fillers.

Effects:
It decreases the viscosity of resin.

Examples where used:

  Sealant in water tanks
  As a bonding adhesive when mixed with laminating resin and other fillers (see 4.3.1)
  A filler material, when combined with micro balloons.
 Sealing paste on vacuum bag edges

Micro balloons
Micro balloons are hollow spheres made from either glass or phenolic. The differences are:
 Glass Micro balloons Phenolic Micro balloons

Other names Micro balloons Glass bubbles

Color White Reddish/brown

Particle Size 40-80 microns 50 microns

Raw Materials

Density 250g/liter 200g/liter

Sand ability Good Moderate

Waterproof Moderate Good

Cost Expensive Less expensive

Also known as glass bubbles, micro balloons are used in composites to fill polymer resins for
specific characteristics such as weight, sand ability and sealing properties.

The term “micro” or “micro balloons” was applied to the mixture of solid microspheres and epoxy
early in the development of composite structures. Although microspheres have been replaced
by glass bubbles, “micro” is still commonly used to refer to a micro balloon and resin mixture.

Effects:
Lightens resin and eases its processing and application

CONSUMABLES
CONSUMABLES:-
Capable of being consumed.

Industrial consumables are those products that help to manufacture

the final product.
Eg:-
Release film, breather etc.
*Note:-
  A product that is typically used .
 Goods that get used up in manufacturing but are not
considered a material.
Consumables Inventory planning, Procurement, Management and Feeding
Consumables for Assembly or production is a non-core, but a complex activity for
OEM to spend on human resources and on management systems. Besides, if it
is not focused and managed efficiently it would cost OEM from several thousand
dollars a day to Hundreds of thousand dollars. Seine can offer solutions from
being a simple demand supplier to a complete Line Feed Management Solutions
Provider. Seine structured its consumables business as a demand supplier in its
early stages and gradually grown in to a life cycle management solution provider
to OEM Clients.

Hazards such as falling debris, excessive noise, electrical wiring, and chemical
exposure can be prevalent on industrial sites. For those laboring among these
potential safety threats, at least a minimal level of personal protective equipment
(PPE) is necessary. Though all PPE should be selected based on the hazards
involved, here is a list of five to wear:
1. Hard hats safeguard against falling objects and other flying debris and may
be necessary for industrial and construction environments. Face shields
and other head gear offer an additional barrier of protection. Full-face
respirators are available for those exposed to harmful levels of chemicals
or dust in the air.
2. Eyewear: Safety glasses help protect eyes from flying objects, radiation
from hot objects, and other vision-threatening dangers.
3. Safety gloves for hand protection when working with sharp objects,
chemicals, rugged or sensitive materials, and extreme temperatures.
Gloves should fit well, be chemically compatible with the materials to be
handled, and be suitable for the task involved. For example, heat-insulated
 Neoprene gloves offer good chemical resistance.
4. Hearing protection: Earplugs and noise reduction tools are helpful in
industrial facilities, construction, and transportation. Earmuffs can provide
equal pressure distribution and maximum high-frequency attenuation. Some
are crafted for use in high volume areas such as heavy industry facilities, jet
engine environments, and near riveting activities.
5. Safety footwear so your feet and toes do not get crushed or damaged.

FABRICATION METHODS
LAYUP
Layup is a simple method for composite production. The process consists of
building up or placing layers of composite fiber in a sequenced layup using
a matrix of resin and hardener.
There are several types of methods define.

· Hand Layup Method

· Autoclave Method
· Vacuum Bagging Method
· Filament Winding
· Pultrusion winding
· Resin Transfer Moulding Method
· Resin Infusion Moulding Method
· High Temperature Compression Moulding
· Low Temperature Compression Moulding
Hand Layup Method

Resins are impregnated by hand into fibers which are in the form
of woven, knitted, stitched or bonded fabrics. This is usually
accomplished by rollers or brushes, with an increasing use of nip-
roller type impregnators for forcing resin into the fabrics by
means of rotating rollers and a bath of resin. Laminates are left to
cure under standard atmospheric conditions
Advantages
· Design flexibility
· Large and complex items can be produced.
· Tooling cost is low.
· Design changes are easily effected.
· Sandwich constructions are possible.
· Semi-skilled workers are needed.

Disadvantages
· Only one molded surface is obtained.
· Quality is related to the skill of the operator.
· Low volume process.
· Longer cure times required.
Applications

· Standard wind-turbine blades

· Production boats
· Architectural moldings.

Autoclave Method
In the production of composite aerospace and aircraft
components, autoclave curing has traditionally been used to
achieve the desired fiber content (resin-to-fiber ratio) and the
absence of resin voids to produce light weight and strong
components. Autoclave curing achieves this by placing the part
under vacuum in an autoclave and then pressurizing the autoclave
during the heated cure cycle. The high pressure on the part
(within the pressurized autoclave) helps to minimize resin voids
and to achieve the desired resin/fiber ratio.

Autoclaves are utilized where the highest of material performance

standards are required such as a void content of less than 2% and high
glass transition temperatures. Aerospace autoclaves normally operate
from 120 to 230 degrees Celsius within a nitrogen environment at 7
bars of pressure. Liquid nitrogen is injected into the heated autoclave
to create the internal pressure. Most common materials cured in an
autoclave are advanced composites such as carbon fiber and epoxy
resins. Curing cycles range from 90 minutes to 12 hours.
Controlled Variables
· Temperature
· Pressure
· Vacuum
Autoclav

e
curing chart
Applications
· Vulcanization
· Composite Curing
· Sterilisation

Vacuum Bagging
Is a technique employed to create mechanical pressure on a laminate
during its cure cycle. Pressurizing a composite lamination serves several
functions. First, it removes trapped air between layers.
Vacuum bagging techniques have been developed for fabricating a
variety of aerospace components and structures. The process is
principally suited to prepreg materials. This method utilizes a flexible
film or rubber bag that covers the part lay-up. The bag permits
evacuation of the air to apply atmospheric pressure. The primary
limitation of this method is the limited pressure that can be applied.
The bag used in this method has two fold objectives:

· It provides a means for removing volatile products during cure;

and
· It provides a means for the application of a pressure of one atom
which is adequate for some materials.

The essential steps in the process are the lay-up, preparation of bleeder
system and the bagging operation. The required number of plies are cut
to size and positioned in a mold. When individual plies of a prepreg
material are formed to the lay-up tool, certain amount of voids exists
between layers. The lay-up is covered with a flexible membrane or
vacuum bag, which is sealed around the edges of the mold by a sealant.
An edge bleeder is also placed near the edges of the lay-up. Its function
is to absorb excess resin, which may flow during curing.
Requirement for proper bagging are:
 p Bag to be impervious to air pressure,
q Bag to uniformly apply the cure pressure,
r Bag not to leak under over-pressure, and

Filament Winding

Filament winding is a fabrication technique

mainly used for manufacturing open (cylinder) or closed end
structures (Pressure vessels or tanks).
This process involves winding filament under tension over a
rotating mandrel.
Once the resin has cured, the mandrel is removed or extracted,
leaving the hollow final product.
Process:-
The process of Filament Winding

· Uses a continuous length of fiber strand / roving (Called Direct

Single end Roving), or tape
· Patterns may be longitudinal, circumferential, helical or polar
· Mostly requires thermal curing of work pieces
· Filament winding processes can be either Continuous or
Discontinuous type.

Continuous winding Process

Continuous winding processes are used to manufacture low pressure,
small to very large diameter pipes continuously on a mandrel formed
out of an endless band (commonly known as the Drostholm Process).
Pipes manufactured through this process are primarily used for media
(water, sewage, waste-water) transmission / distribution networks.
Continuous winders are usually 2 axis machines capable of laying fibre,
fiberglass cloth, veil in a continuous hoop pattern.

Discontinuous Winding Process

Discontinuous winding process is used to manufacture high pressure
parts, pipes, pressure vessels and complex components. Multi axes
machine are used to customize the angle of lay for the fiberglass band.

Filament winding machines:

· 2 axis Pipe winder – pipes of all sizes (up to ⌀6000m)

· 2 axis multiple spindle - for small tubes under ⌀400m (higher
productivity)
· 4 axis bottle/ tank winder – general purpose winder
· 4 axis multiple spindle – for small bottles & tubes (higher
productivity)
· 6 axis winder – Aerospace / R&D / Tape winding / Special
applications
Pultrusion winding
Pultrusion is a continuous process for
manufacturing of composite material with constant cross section

Pultruded FRP sections are usually made by pultrusion process. This

process creates continuous composite profile by pulling raw composites
through a heated die. Pultrusion combines words “pull” and “extrusion”
where extrusion is pulling of material such as fiberglass and resin,
through a shaping die. Many resin types can be used in pultrusion
including polyester, polyurethane and vinyl ester epoxy resins etc. Fiber
is wetted or impregnated with resin and is organized and then removed
of excess resin. After that the composite is passed through a heated steel
die. Precisely machined and often chromed, the die is heated to a
constant temperature.

Generally it is produced in sections of various profiles like Beams,

Angles, Tubes, Hollow Square, solid Rods of various profiles.
Advantages:

1. Increased Strength (fiber processed under tension)

2. High Fiber Content
3. Highly Automated 4. Consistent Quality
5. High Production
6. Low Labor Required
7. Low Cost

Resin Transfer Molding

RTM is a low pressure molding process, where a mixed resin and
catalyst are injected into a closed mould containing a fibre pack or
preform. When the resin has cured the mould can be opened and the
finished component removed.

A wide range of resin systems can be used including polyester,

vinylester, epoxy, phenolic etc, combined with pigments and fillers
including aluminium trihydrates and calcium carbonates if required.

The fiber pack can be either, glass, carbon, aramid, or a combination of

these. There are a large variety of weights and styles commonly
available.

Working Process
Reinforcement mat or woven roving is placed in the mold, which is then
closed and clamped. Catalyzed, low-viscosity resin is pumped in under
pressure, displacing the air and venting it at the edges, until the mold is
filled. Molds for this low-pressure system are usually made from
composite or nickel shell-faced composite construction.
Benefits of RTM
There are several benefits to using the resin transfer molding process
over the alternative processes available. Some key benefits include:
p Good surface quality
q Wide range of reinforcements
r Large, complex shapes
s Dimensional tolerances
t Low capital investment
u Less material wastage
v Tooling flexibility
w Low environmental impact
x Labor savings

Application
Small complex aircraft and automative componant, train sheeta.

Resin Infusion Method

Vacuum infusion, also called resin infusion, is a fabrication technique
that uses vacuum pressure to drive resin into a laminate.Working
Process Dry materials are laid into the mold and the vacuum pressure

is applied before resin is introduced. Once a complete vacuum is

achieved, resin is forced into the laminate via vacuum tubing. The
vacuum infusion process offers a better fiber-to-resin ratio than hand
lay-up or vacuum bagging. In a typical hand lay-up, reinforcements are
laid into a mold and manually wet out using brushes, rollers, or through
other means. And resin out of the laminate, and results in a stronger and
lighter product.
Benefits of Vacuum Infusion
Vacuum infusion provides a number of improvements over traditionally
vacuum bagged parts.
These benefits include:
• Better fiber-to-resin ratio
• Less wasted resin
• Very consistent resin usage
• Unlimited set-up time
• Cleaner

Compression Molding Method

Compression molding is a forming process in which material is placed
directly into a heated metal mold, then is softened by the heat, and
forced to conform to the shape of the mold as the mold close.
The advantage of compression molding is its ability to mold large, fairly
intricate parts. Also, it is one of the lowest cost molding methods
compared with other methods such as transfer molding and injection
molding
There are two types of compression molding are defined.
· Low temperature compression molding.
· High temperature compression molding.

High temperature compression molding

It is a high-volume, high-pressure method suitable for molding
complex, high-strength fiberglass reinforcements. Advanced
composite thermoplastics can also be compression molded with
unidirectional tapes, woven fabrics, randomly oriented fiber mat or
chopped strand.
In this method tool will only generate the heat, here no need to
use any other heater or heating machine.

Low temperature compression molding

It is a method of molding in which the moulding material, generally
preheated, is first placed in an open, heated mould cavity. The mold
is closed with a top force or plug member, pressure is applied to
force the material into contact with all mold areas,
while heat and pressure are maintained until the molding material
has cured. The process employs thermosetting resins in a partially
cured stage, either in the form of granules, putty-like masses, or
preforms.