Qverview on Underground Storage
of Natural Gas
Donald L. Katz, SPE, U. of Michigan
M. Rasin Tek, SPE, U. of Michigan
Summary
Underground storage of natural gas is a mature
industry vital to a gas delivery system. It developed as
a subdiscipline of gas technology with certain ad-
ditions. This overview treats containment of gas
without migration, monitoring, inventory
verification, retention of well deliverability, practice
and advantages of delta pressure, aquifer behavior,
and compressed air storage.
Introduction
Underground storage is the process which effectively
balances a variable demand market with a nearly
constant supply of energy provided by the pipeline
system. Storage reservoirs are the warehouses to give
a ready supply of gas that can serve a market with
high peak demands in cold weather. The natural gas
simply is injected into underground storage reser-
voirs when market demand falls below the supply
available from the pipeline. It is withdrawn from the
storage environment to supplement the steady supply
from the pipeline when the demand exceeds the
supply. Through the years, underground storage has
become a mature industry.
For northern climates, storage gas represents
about 20070 of the annual sales - on a cold day,
storage gas may reach 50 to 70% of gas sold. With a
superb record of providing continuous fuel service to
residences, hospitals, and commercial buildings,
underground gas storage has been a vital part of
natural gas distribution systems.
Historically, underground storage (which was
practiced first in 1915) experienced a remarkable
growth starting in 1950, resulting in nearly 7.5 Tcf
(212 x 10 9 m 3 ) of storage in more than 399 pools in
26 states by 1979. Some gas storage literature cov-
ering developments over the years are listed in Refs. 1
through 12.
0149·2136/81/0006·9390$00.25
Copyright 1981 Society of Petroleum Engineers of AIME
JUNE 1981
Current Status
The underground storage committee of the American
Gas Assn. (AGA) compiles annual statistics for the
industry. 6, 7 Fig. 1 shows the growth of the total
quantity of gas in storage reservoirs and the quantity
of working gas withdrawn in a given year. Table 1
gives AGA statistics on the reservoirs, facilities, and
magnitude of certain parameters. 6 Fig. 2 is the AGA
map showing the location of storage projects.
Although the annual volumes of gas distributed
currently are not increasing and may even decrease in
some areas as a result of conservation, the change
toward a larger fraction of the gas going to
spaceheating has a tendency to increase the need for
storage.
When the expensive synthesis gas from coal and
pipeline-accessible gas from Alaska and Mexico
arrive in the market, storage will become increasingly
important. In the case of synthetic natural gas
(SNG), storage will permit matching a variable
supply to the variable demand of the markets.
A brief history of the technical developments
during the past 40 years is given next. Early field
design procedures were adapted from natural gas
production technology. A series of studies conducted
during the 1950's resulted in (1) practices for more
efficient use of the storage reservoir, (2) assurance
that injected gas remained in the reservoir, and (3)
ways to handle new problems as they arose. Some of
our more recent activities are described in the
following sections.
Development of Underground Storage
Historical records show that gas storage began by
allowing depleted gas reservoirs produced in the
winter to be recharged in summer by pipeline gas. As
the intercontinental pipeline systems spread rapidly
in the postwar period, reservoirs were selected and
refurbished for full use as underground storage
reservoirs. 1,2 Typically, a depleted gas field was
943
 - 270
9
240
8
200
7 /
,; t80~
~
".
(>0
II - I 50 i;;l

~
=>
u
",i§ AGA Statistics
~

~:>
- t 20
...J
...J
9,6' 111
GO
:3 90

~~
~r~
2 10 ~ 60
~
so 0
ft<§ ~ 0\ /Ga
1 v~ 'lI\\I\G'O""O ~ 30

o~ "'''011.'''' ~O"f Of $'''''Uff MIUS

1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 - - ~--::=- •• ' • ..., - .....

YEARS

Fig. 1 - Growth in annual gas storage capacity and gas Fig. 2 - Map locating underground storage projects, AGA. 6
usage, AGA data. 6

acquired, and the mineral and storage rights were
obtained. Old wells were inspected and upgraded,
plugged wells were investigated, and a development
plan was prepared. Then a number of new wells were
drilled, and a gathering/injection pipeline system was
installed. Usually a compression station was con-
structed to boost the gas received at pipeline
pressures to field pressures. When withdrawal began,
some reservoirs also would require gas compression
to deliver gas at pipeline pressure when meeting their
late-season market sendout commitments.
Eventually a number of depleted oil fields were
converted to gas storage. Oil recovery was part of the
objective in the early years of operation. 2 Oil in
reservoirs, however, added complications over dry
gas storage fields as a result of liquids in the
well bore, possible enrichment of the gas, and con-
densate formation in pipelines. Also, gas sometimes
went into solution in crude oil in amounts that made
it difficult to assess the volume of stored gas in the
reservoir.
In the 1950's, aquifer storage was developed by
injecting gas into structures filled with water. Here
water movement and caprock quality became focal
points for research and technical development. 2
Since the advent of aquifer storage, limited amounts
of natural gas have been stored in salt cavities.
Objectives of Engineering
and Design Efforts
There are three primary objectives in designing and
operating storage reservoirs as depicted in Fig. 3.
The first objective is to know the storage capacity
for gas as a function of pressure and, in some cases,
time. This is called verification of inventory. How
much gas will the reservoir hold at the maximum
storage pressure and how much could be produced
when withdrawing gas down to some base pressure?
The quantities, if time dependent, are needed for an
annual storage cycle typically divided into 120 days
for gas withdrawal and + 200 days for gas injection.
Second, a monitoring system is needed to verify
where the gas resides and ensure that losses are not
occurring. This is called retention against migration.
Continuous reservoir pressures observed by key wells
give the reservoir pressure under operating con-
ditions, and closed pressures on all wells in fall
and/ or spring seasons permit volumetric inventory
calculations. A system of observation wells permits
measurements to verify that injected gas is confined
to the designated area and has not migrated away.
The third objective is the ability to develop and
maintain a specified gas delivery rate. This is called
assurance of deliverability. Generally, it is keyed to

TABLE 1 -1979 AGA STATISTICS ON UNDERGROUND GAS STORAGE6

Total capacity, Tcf (m 3 ) 7.437 (211 x 109 )

Maximum day output, Bcf (m 3 ) 39.7(1.1x109 )
Seasonal gas withdrawn, Tcf (m 3 ) 2.057 (58 x 109 )
Number of storage reservoirs, 26 states 399
Companies in U.S. 78
Companies in Canada 5
Storage compressor stations, hp 1,805,000
Range of storage reservoir pressures, psi (MPa) 300 to 4,000 (2.07 to 27.6)
Aquifers account for 22% of storage capacity
Aquifers account for 15% of maximum day output

944 JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY

 o .---~

f\ ~-t-- ---
\ I\,
50 0 \ -
~---

f---P.-o_\ ~~
- - -- ~-- - --
+-- ,- --

1000
r--~;,="r-- 1--- r--- f - -
f-- ---~6 -""'=-<;'"
-;:::,~-
1500 -=--
--
I-
~~--
\ I--- I-- --- -- ~- -- i -
1\-1 1\
~--

2000 -- - ---
r--
-~\~~~ 1\ -f-
-I-~ -~-

;;:: 2500
I
-1 rS:J - --- h~ +-
1--- -~-
j - t--

,- fJ~\;-~K
1-- ~-~
--
I-
CL
w
03000 t - I -t - - j--

I--

Fig. 3 - The three basic requirements in underground 3500 -~-

r-- j - -
storage of gas. 1\ --t--

'-~r~
I--
~_ \ot> \
4000

I-- --f--- -- f-- - t--f\: 1\

1\
t-

the pressure in the reservoir or to inventory. Wells

may lose their deliverability as a result of water
4500
-r- _+_ 1\
\
interference or contamination of the sandface.
A series of concepts and procedures have evolved 5000
o 500 1000 1500 2000
'\ 2500 3000
~
PRESSURE. psio
in gas storage from the background of natural gas
production technology. These are used to illustrate Fig. 4 - Delta pressure in use in gas storage, 1970. 5
current engineering practices.
Use of Delta Pressures*
Natural gas reservoirs generally are found at
discovery pressure gradients of 0.2 to 0.52 psi/ft (4.5
to 11.8 kPa/m), while the pressure gradient due to 142 0
weight of overburden is about 1 psi/ft (22.6 kPa/m).
In several areas, the practice of using a top pressure 34.4
5000
above discovery was established for depleted gas
reservoirs converted to storage. Aquifer storage
-t ---+- - ---r-+- I I
t--
-H-+
1

reservoirs require gas injection at pressures above the

initial value to displace the water when creating the
,I
4000 276
gas reservoir. In Illinois and Iowa, the delta pressure I
DiSCOVery: _ ----1-
above discovery pressure ranges from a small value-
e.g., 25 psi (172 kPa) - to about 300 to 400 psi (2069
to 2758 kPa). ,,3000
.....
0
Ck-l-l '_1-
prOductl:n History +- MPo
20.7

In a study of caprocks, Ref. 5 presented the range .~

of delta pressures used in gas storage reservoirs at N

ii:: ,
that time (Fig. 4). The larger working gas content and 2000 -------+-- -- 13.8
higher delivery rates obtained because of the high
pressure levels give a dual advantage with only a
moderate increase in risk of gas loss through im-
perfect well casings or cement. Since the time Fig. 4 1000 ''''-'-J-+-- 6.89
was prepared, delta pressures up to 0.75 psilft (17
kPa/m) and actual delta pressure increases to 900 psi
(6.3 MPa) have been used.
5 o 5 10 15
Design Concepts BcI GAS CONTENT OR PRODUCTION

To illustrate the effects of a high delta pressure,

Fig. 5 - Pressurelz vs. gas content at Chester 15 reservoir.
information set forth in planning the Chester 15
reservoir in Michigan is plotted as p/z vs. content.
Fig. 5 uses production-pressure data and com-
pressibility factors for 0.68 gravity gas at the
0 0
reservoir temperature 113 F (318 K). 13 The initial
·Del1a pressure is defined as maximum storage minus discovery pressure.

JUNE 1981 945

 gas content is found at 16.7 Bef (473 X 106 m 3 )
assuming a constant volume reservoir. Using 600 psia
(4.1 MPa) as the pi z value for base condition at the
end of storage [560 psi (3.86 MPa)], the working
storage content with discovery rressure as top
pressure becomes 14.0 Bef (396 x 10 m 3 ).
The reservoir pressure of 3,108 psia (21.4 MPa) at
6,130 ft (1868 m) results in 0.51 psilft (11.5
kPa/m) - a saltwater gradient. Using a 0.7 psilft
(15.8 kPa/m) pressure gradient, the top pressure
would become 4,291 psia (29.6 MPa) and the delta
pressure would be 1,183 psi (8.2 MPa). Fig. 5 shows
how extension of the plz curve increases the gas
content by 3.9 Bef (110 X 106 m 3 ). Thus, the working
storage is increased from 14.0 to 17.9 Bef (396 x 10
to 507 X 106 m 3 ) per cycle. This is a 28070 increase in
working storage. The addition of one well is all that
is required to obtain this added storage capacity
when using delta pressure.

Development of Aquifer Storage Reservoirs

Aquifer storage now constitutes about 22070 of the
total gas storage capacity. Blanket water-bearing
sands with anticlinal structure are prospective sites.
Exploratory wells locate the detailed structure and
-200S.L yield cores for evaluation of porosity, permeability,
and capillary pressure of the prospective storage
STORAGE RfSERVOIR STRUCTURE
zone. Caprock cores are used for similar
measurements and threshold pressure for displacing
Fig. 6 - Generalized structure map and section for a
developing aquifer gas storage reservoir.14
water by gas. 2,5
To ensure that no anomalies exist in the caprock
integrity, water-pump tests are conducted to create a
pressure differential across the caprock. Absence of
GAS BuBBLE direct fluid communication is ascertained from water
levels observed in wells completed across the
caprock. 2 ,4 Fig. 6 is a generalized plan and section of
an aquifer with well locations and completions. In
the pump test observation, Well 4 would be used to
observe water levels with pumping injection well
nearby. 14
The time to develop the desired gas-bubble size is
1 difficult to predict. Fig. 7 illustrates the variation in
'. '. pressure gradients in the water as injected gas
INITIAL AQUIFER PRESSURE Po BuBBLE
leo compresses the water surrounding it.
The rrocedures developed by Van Everdingen and
Hurst 1 have been extended and applied to water
I11111111111111111111 II movement when developing and operating aquifer
DISTANCE ----.
Degree of Compression of Water
storage reservoirs. 3 One of the difficulties in such
relationships is predicting the effective com-
pressibility of the aquifer system. Another concern is
Fig. 7 - Effect of time on pressure distribution in aquifers. 2 handling the long-time effects for storage reservoirs
after many years of operation.

Pound x Day Concept

A simplified concept called the pound-day concept is
helpful for analysis of repetitive cycles. It involves
using the product of time and the driving force
pressure difference in a cumulative manner for the
periods above and below the initial pressure. For
repetitive storage cycles at constant size of gas
bubble, the sum of pounds force x days above initial
pressure should equal the sum of pounds force x days
below; Fig. 8 illustrates this concept. 2

946 JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY

 W
0: I~~ year x+l
:::>
(/)
(/) ~--yearx
W
0: discovery
Q..
...J
...J
W W
II:
=>
(f)
3:
(f)
W >-
w
II:
a. ~
- - - base pressure
/1
Complele Developmenl. No Waler Efflux / 1
// I

L -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ L _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ BASE: WORKING INVENTORY OF GAS

TIME GAS
Fig. 8 - Pound x day concept. 2 Fig. 9 - Pressure cycles on tight storage reservoirs.

For aquifers or converted gas fields with water
drive, a problem may arise when there is not suf-
ficient closure along the caprock. It is well known
that some of the injected inventory proceeds away
from the main bubble, sometimes for large distances
downstructure. 2 Without satisfactory withdrawal
wells to produce gas from thin gas zones, the gas does
not depressurize during the withdrawal cycle. If it
remains at pressures above the original aquifer, it
will continue to press on the water and grow in size.
At some point it may become out of control and pass
a saddle to separate from the main gas body.
Even in tight dry reservoirs, gas can be pushed
farther in 200 days of injection than the distance it
returns in 100 days of withdrawal. It is important to
have all stored gas in responsive communication with
withdrawal wells.
Monitoring Storage Reservoir Aquifers
A generalized aquifer reservoir is used to present
monitoring procedures. 14•16 The possible losses of
gas from the connected gas body through wells or
other means are (1) through imperfect cementing at
casing shoe or opposite any leak in casing joints or
cementing tool, (2) gas displacing water through a
saddle and separating from the gas bubble, and (3)
for aquifers, gas loss vertically through imperfections
in caprock or due to low local threshold pressure
areas.
Referring to Fig. 6, it can be seen that observation
wells are drilled both to locate the structure and to
permit monitoring the location of the gas bubble as it
grows in size.
Wells 2 normally are in water surrounding the gas
bubble; their pressure changes indicate any approach
of the gas phase toward them. Well 3 is such a
monitoring well at the spill point - the highest area
where gas could move laterally by pushing on the
water.
JUNE 1981
Well 5 monitors the pressure of a shallow water
zone by any stray gas which could migrate through
imperfectly cemented well columns.
These wells, plus careful plans for observing the
entire area, provide the data needed to ascertain that
injected gas is confined.
It has been found that gas may penetrate a deeper
aquifer zone that has a higher permeability then
layers close to the top of the reservoir. Neutron logs
detect any gas accumulation in sands. A survey of a
cased hole below the top layers occasionally finds
such gas in collector zones.
Inventory Verification
Each year those responsible for operations must
assure management that the inventory of net stored
gas resides in the reservoir in communication with the
wellbores. Closed-pressure measurements for a
period of 3 to 15 days or more are used for all wells,
normally when at maximum and minimum storage
pressures. For constant pore volume reservoirs for
which the closed pressures are relatively uniform and
stabilized, the use of the pressure-content data relates
the metered production or change in inventory to the
initial content:
change in content PI
Initial content = ----------- ..... (1)
When water movement rates are known to occur
during withdrawal, the volume change of the
reservoir must be used to modify the relationship
accordingly.
For some reservoirs, the key well pressure trace vs.
inventory is used to find whether any change has
occurred from previous years. Pressure content trace
947
 G/ W for water
displacement
problem
top of reefs
Fig. 10 - Adjacent reefs connected by water-filled low
permeability dolometic.
is related to the pore volume occupied by the gas. If
the gas bubble is growing in size, the slope becomes
progressively less steep. On the other hand, any
premature readings in pressure surveys before proper
equalization tend to result in a steeper slope in
pressure content lines. Sometimes use of more than
one key well is indicated for proper tracing of in-
ventory pressure relationship. Loss of a finite
amount of storage gas usually results in the plz vs.
inventory line remaining parallel but shifting to the
right on pressure inventory scale.
Accordingly, when water movement occurs and
when operating at positive (pounds x days) pressure
levels, such pressure trace loops move toward higher
inventories with growth of bubble size. Fig. 9
illustrates the behavior of verification of inventory
by repetitive cycles.
When no positive verification that injected gas still
resides in the reservoir can be made by pressure
change calculations, one must resort to a technique
called "watching the barn doors." By observing that
no gas is being lost in likely avenues of escape, one
can be reasonably assured that net injected gas is still
in the reservoir. 14
Occasionally, simulation of production-pressure
behavior of a storage reservoir on a computer is
helpful in inventory verification. Such simulation
techniques start with history match procedures to
obtain proper kh and ¢h distributions before relating
the operating pressures to programmed inventories.
Efforts have been made to establish procedures for
charging off "gas lost and unaccounted for" that
leaves the system through various mechanisms.
Fugitive gas is a popular term for seepage losses at
screw joints, valve stems? and through valves closed
against the atmosphere. 1
A special problem worthy of separate con-
sideration is gas that breaks through water seals
because 0 f nearby pressure sinks. 17
Gas Flow Between Reservoirs
Given two reservoirs, A and B, located in the same
horizon and separated by a water filled saddle (Fig.
10), unequal pressures between the reservoirs can
cause gas in the higher pressured reservoir to displace
the water seal. The process results in gas being
948
transferred from one reservoir to the other - A to B.
Accordingly, selection of a reservoir for storage must
include a survey of the nearby area. If two adjacent
native gas reservoirs are produced with a significant
pressure gradient between them, the lower-pressured
reservoir may have produced some gas originally
present in the other reservoir. Under these cir-
cumstances, use of native gas production to evaluate
the storage capacity of either reservoir would result
in error.
A simple relationship has been derived for com-
puting the approximate time for water to displace gas
from the water seal separating reservoirs. It neglects
elevation difference and assumes that gas flows
behind the advancing gas water interface with an
estimated constant gas saturation and effective
permeability in plug-flow fashion.
Constant 79 becomes 5 x 1011 in SI units.
By using typical values for all variables except I, L,
kw' andpi -P2'
Using J-tw =0.80 cp, ¢=0.2, Sg =0.5, J-tglJ-tw =0.01,
and k w I kg = 2, one finds (in field units)
1=6.45 L2/k w (PI -P2)·
Reservoirs separated by 5,000 ft (1524 m) with
permeablity of kw = 1,200 md and a pressure dif-
ference of 500 psi (3.45 MPa) are shown to displace
the seal in 269 days. For shorter distances, higher
permeability, or higher pressure differential, time for
displacement can be as low as 4 months. Depleted oil
wells in the basal layer adjacent to reefs occasionally
have received gas. Gas has been shown to transfer
during primary production through a distance of
8,000 ft (2438 m) and in opposite direction during
storage with a reversal of pressure gradient. Should
the saddle be as much as 200 ft (61 m) deep, this only
reduces the effective pressure gradient necessary for
displacement up to 100 psi (689 kPa).
Gas Flow Rate
Once gas has broken through a seal between reser-
voirs, there is interest in finding the expected range of
flow rates. The linear flow formula for the geometry
of Fig. 10 becomes
k hw
qg = 1.12x 10- 7 ~ (PI 2 -P2 2 ) MMcflD.
LJ-tgzT
............................... (3)
In SI units, the constant is 1.42 x 10 - 15 to give
3
m /s. On the example, using PI = 1,500 psia,
P2 = 1,~00 psia, kg = 100 md, J-tg =0.0135 cp,
T=540 R, L=5,000 ft, hW= 1,000 sq ft, and z (for'
0.6 gravity gas) =0.83, Eq. 3 is solved to give 0.463
MMcflD (0.152 m 3 Is).
JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY
 Flow rates between reservoirs separated one mile
(1.6 km) or more have reached 50 MMcflD (16.4
m3/s) with high pressure differentials. Usually rates
of less than 1 MMcflD (0.327 m3/s) are found after
breakthroughs.
- - - - . . , . . - - - .- I- - "g. : - - - : - - , - - - - - - - ,
50
Deliverability of Gas 48
Flow tests on individual wells are obtained as in gas 46
production operations. From gas inventory and/or 44
reservoir pressure measurements plus deliverability 42
data, one can predict the field flow at several stages 40

of the storage cycle. 1,2 38

;36
Performance of storage reservoirs becomes less
predictable during high withdrawal rates due to [ 34
..
;.
pressure sinks which develop as a result of ~32
{ 30
heterogeneities. ~ 28
Another problem of continuing interest relates to i 26
interference by water reaching the well bore. The g 24
presence of water not only reduces the permeability ~22
~
to gas but also effectively cuts down the bottomhole ~ 20
pressure drawdown available for gas flow due to ~ 18 • Oil displa(emenl
increased density of well fluid. For aquifers, water 16 • Gas displa(emenl o. 0

interference problems are likely to subside as the gas 14

bubble thickens with growth in stored gas. Each 12.

10
reservoir and set of wells must be tested to give
assurance for future years with regard to which well
will have water intrusion at a given stage of the
withdrawal cycle. Deliverability of storage wells after
20, 30, or 40 years of repetitive use decreases as a o~~--:-~--:-~_ _~~_--:-~~~--:-~~.
result of sandface contamination. o 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.20 0.24 0.28 0.32 0.36 0.40
Porosity,fra<tion
The deliverability of wells in Michigan Stray sand
reservoirs has declined 4.5070 per year due to fines, Fig. 11 - Residual gas saturation after water drive
salt precipitation, shale sloughing, and oil residues. (Gorring).19
Earlier attempts to treat wells removed salt readily
but gave only a slight increase in deliverability.
Recent techniques generally have been successful-
increasing deliverability by as much as 426070. 18 This
was achieved by alternately injecting volumes of (1) S~f~ce

xylene, (2) 3070 HF / 4070 HCI, and (3) 2070 NH4 Cl.
F
~\c; 'c"- $urface

\\ \ \
Virtually all the wells that were stimulated main- \<& \
\ \"- \ b
\ ,-:;\. \s
tained the increase in deliverability the following.
~
<!l ,~~ \\~
year. q.. \0 (I>

~ " \"6

Recoverability of Base Gas '"

~\
\ \~\
\\
,\'
\ \I\
\ \
In handling financial matters, the subject of recovery ,I ~ 'I
DI \\' I
of base gas arises. It is of particular interest not only I "')\ \\
for tax write-offs but' for abandonment con- J \1
<> ~\~
siderations as well. The total gas content minus the / ~\~ix
base gas is considered working gas generally expected ciP~o~~~ L ____~~
-~- ---------1'
to be available for annual withdrawal. ·Storage
Zone
V

Permeable, fixed volume reservoirs with little or TEMPERATURE

no perceptible water movement should produce gas
to a pressure as low as compression costs permit. Fig. 12 - Temperature and pressure gradients in gas
However, with use in distribution systems an wells. 20
economic limit such as 25 to 100 psi (172 to 670 kPa)
would be prudent.
The problems related to recovery occur when water
drive is substantial, with advancing water sealing off
residual gas at its prevailing pressure. This suggests
that for maximum recovery the gas must be produced
as rapidly as possible ahead of the invading water
front. The residual gas left behind the' advancing
water front is the parameter one would like to have to
JUNE 1981 949
 NIGHTTIME BASE
LOAO POWER TO -,
DAYTIME POWER
- - FROM TURBINE FOR
The alternate cooling and heating of the casing
DRIVE COMPRESSOR I PEAK LOAD DEMANDS surrounded by cement through the cap rock is
AIR INTAKE I believed to cause occasional deleterious effects on the
cement bond. Apparently a small annular gap
I permits dry gas during high-pressure injection
COMPRESSOR TURBINE
conditions to dehydrate the cement. Eventually,
significant gas movement past the casing shoe may
indicate the need for recementing. Temperature and
noise logs are the tools used in diagnosing such
conditions.
!: REGENERATOR The pressure gradients on Fig. 12 illustrate studies
'------,------I><J-L---oo----' VENT OF
FLOW COMBUSTION intended to minimize fuel use to heat gas at the
REGULATION GASES
PIPELINE VALVE wellhead before expansion to pipeline levels. Well E
TOI FROM STORAGE (using a tubing for flow) or Well D (a bottomhole
choke) are alternative operations.
The treatment of temperature and pressure
gradients in underground storage is included in Refs.
21,22, and 23.
PRESSURE
LOSSES Storage in Salt Cavities
GAS FLOWING
IN
WELL BORE
Storage of liquified petroleum gases (LPG's) in salt
cavities grew rapidly in the 1950's.24,11 By washing
AIR UNSTEADY STATE out a cavity with water, the shape and size of the
STORAGE IN
POROUS MEDIA
WATER MOVEMENT cavity is controlled. Normally LPG's are produced
P,. OR IN CAVITY by a head of brine used for displacement.
~/~ Around 1960, Southeastern Michigan Gas Co.
~CONFINING initiated natural gas storage in a salt cavern at 2,100
WATER
ft (640 m) near Marysville, MI. The brine was
removed and the gas pressure was varied, in contrast
Fig. 13 - Compressed air cycle for electric power load to LPG storage practice. Other gas storage projects
leveling. 25
in salt have been developed including the Transco salt
dome storage caverns. 1 Many other fluids including
make reliable estimates on the recovery of base gas. ethylene, ammonia, calcium chloride solutions, and
Katz and Coates 2 presented a systematic approach crude oil are stored in caverns also.
for implementing this procedure. Gorring's chart 2,19
gives residual gas saturation as a function of porosity Absence of Connate Water
(Fig. 11). in Michigan Reefs
An interesting phenomenon was observed in
Temperature and Pressure Gradients southeastern Michigan reefs: stored natural gas did
in Gas Storage Wells not become saturated with water during storage. 26
Gas produced after about 60 to 70070 of the reservoir
Underground storage operations invariably include contents were withdrawn has water content of some 3
gas injection. The temperatures in the well during Ibm of water/MMcf (48 kg/10 6m 3 ). One ex-
injection are different than during production. Fig. planation was that anhydrite (CaS04) in reef rock
12 shows typical depth/temperature curves including absorbed the connate water in a gypsification process
dynamic and short-time closed temperatures. 20 As (CaS04 ·2H 20). An alternative explanation is that
injected gas not heated fully in the well bore enters the fresh water vaporized and recondensed in dense brine
porous storage rock, this solid body cools rapidly in the base rock after gas accumulation.
because of the intimate contact. At the end of a
storage cycle, a cylinder of cooled storage zone of 50
to 100 ft (15 to 30 m) in radius may exist around the Compressed Air Storage
well. Upon close-in, the wellbore heats to geothermal Electric power systems have a daily peak load with
gradient relatively quickly, but the storage zone some variations from a weekly cycle. Their daily
remains at subgeothermal temperatures until ratio of peak to low load matches that of the annual
significant withdrawal has occurred. For reservoirs at gas peak/low load ratio for moderate climates. One
150°F (65°C), cooling may occur as much as 40°F way to use base load power to assist in producing
(22 °C) or so from that indicated by geothermal peaking power with combustion turbines is to
gradient. compress the air at ni~ht and store it in an un-
Subsequently, during the initial withdrawal period derground reservoir. 11,2 During the day, the air is
the gas leaves the storage zone at temperatures lower withdrawn under pressure and used to burn jet fuel
than geothermal. In due time, however, the flowing which powers a generator during peak demand. The
gas at the well bore reaches a temperature closer to economics and technology are being examined by'
geothermal equilibrium depending on thermal industry and U.S. DOE-EPRI sponsored projects.
properties, flow rates, and well geometry. One consideration is to store hot air to increase the
950 JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY
efficiency of the process. Fig. 13 illustrates the 7. AGA Committee on Underground Storage, Survey of Un-
compression storage/power generation system derground Gas Storage Facilities in U.S. and Canada, Catalog
No. XU0678.
contemplated using the same types of reservoirs as in 8. Tek, M.R. and Wilkes, 1.0.: New Concepts in Underground
gas storage. Storage of Natural Gas, AGA Monograph LOO400, Arlington,
VA (1966).
Summary 9. Hardy, H.R.: A Study to Evaluate the Stability of Un-
Gas storage has become a necessary and vital part of derground Gas Storage Reservoirs, AGA Monograph Ll9724,
Arlington, VA (1972).
the gas delivery system to the ultimate user. It per- 10. Bergman, D.F., Tek, M.R., and Katz, D.L.: Retrograde
mits a steady supply of gas to serve a widely fluc- Condensation in Natural Gas Pipelines, AGA Monograph
tuating demand. Much of the technology used is L22277, Arlington, VA (1975).
similar to that used in natural gas production. Some 11. Katz, D.L., and Lady, E.R.: Compressed Air Storage,
Ulrich's Books Inc., Ann Arbor, MI (1976) 244.
significant developments, however - especially in 12. Gas Technology, Reprint Series, SPE, Dallas (1977) 2, 31.
aquifer storage - have raised gas storage technology 13. Exhibit H to FERC, Michigan Wisconsin Pipeline Co. (docket
to the status of a special subdiscipline. CP-74-316).
14. Katz, D.L.: "Making Good Use of Observation Wells, Proc.,
Nomenclature AGA Transmission Conf., St. Louis (1977) T-251.
15. van Everdingen, A.F., and Hurst, W.: "The Application of
h thickness, ft (m) LaPlace Transformation to Flow Problems," Trans., AIME,
Kg permeability to gas, md 186,305.
Kw permeability to water, md 16. Gas Technology, Reprint Series, SPE, Dallas (1977) 2, 419.
L length, ft (m) 17. Katz, D.L.: "Containment of Gas in Storage Fields," Proc.,
P = pressure, psia (Pa) AGA Transmission Conf., New Orleans (1978) T-403.
18. Fogler, H.S., and Crain, E.R.: "Stimulation orGas Storage
qs gas flow rate, MMcflD at 14.7 psia and 60°F Fields to Recover Deliverability," Proc., AGA Transmission
(m 3 /s at 101 kPa and 15.6°C) Conf. (1979).
Sw gas saturation, fraction 19. Katz, D.L., et al.: "How Water Displaces Gas from Porous
t time, days Media," Oil and Gas 1. (1966) 64,55.
20. Gas Technology, Reprint Series, SPE, Dallas (1977).
T = temperature, of rC) 21. Horne, R.N. and Shinohara, K.: "Wellbore Heat Loss in
W = width, ft (m) Production and InjectionWells," 1. Pet. Tech. (Jan. 1979)
z compressibility factor for gas, dimensionless 119.
i-tg viscosity of gas, cp (Pa· s) 22. Chierici, G.L., Sclocchi, G., and Terzi, L.: "Pressure,
Temperature Profiles and Calculations for Gas Flow," Oil
i-tw viscosity of water, cp (Pa· s) and Gas 1. (1980) 78, 65.
cf> porosity, fraction 23. Tek, M.R.: "Design of Storage Fields," Proc., AGA
Transmission Conf., Salt Lake City (1980) T-422.
Subscripts 24. Katz, D.L.: "Outlook for Underground Storage," Northern
1 first condition Ohio Geological Soc. Fourth Symposium on Salt (1974) 253.
25. Katz, D.L., and Lady, E.R.: "Underground Compressed Air
2 second condition Storage For Electric Load Leveling," 1. Pet. Tech. (Nov.
g = gas 1978) 1656.
w = water 26. Katz, D.L., and Lundy, C.L.: "Analysis of the Absence of
initial Connate Water in Michigan Reef Gas Reservoirs," paper
presented at AAPG Regional Meeting, Evansville, IN, Oct. 1-
References 4,1980.

1. Katz, D.L., et al.: Handbook of Natural Gas Engineering, SI Metric Conversion Factors
McGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc., New York City (1959) 802.
2. Katz, D.L. and Coats, K.H.: Underground Storage of Fluids, cp x 1* E-03 Pa·s
Ulrich's Books Inc., Ann Arbor, MI (1968) 575. ft x 3.048* E-OI m
3. Katz, D.L., et al.: Movement of Underground Water in lbf x 4.448 222 E+OO N
Contact with Natural Gas, AGA Monograph on Project No. mile x 1.609 344* E+OO km
31, Arlington, VA (1963).
4. Witherspoon, P.A., Javandel, I., Neuman, S.P., and Freeze, psia x 6.894 757 E+OO kPa
R.A.: Interpretation of Aquifer Gas Storage Conditions from OR x 5/9 K
Water Pumping Tests, AGA Monograph NS 38, Arlington, sq ft x 9.290 304* E-02 = m2
VA (\967). "Conversion factor is exact. JPT
5. Ibrahim, M.A., Tek, M.R., and Katz, D.L.: Threshold
Pressure in Gas Storage, AGA Monograph, Arlington, VA
(1970).
Original manuscript received in Society of Petroleum Engineers office July
6. AGA committee on underground storage, Task Group on 16, 1980. Paper accepted for publication Feb. 19, 1981. ReVised manuscript
Statistics, 29th Annual Report on Statistics, XU0578, received April 9, 1981. Paper (SPE 9390) first presented at the SPE 55th Annual
Arlington, VA (1979). Technical Conference and Exhibition, held in Dallas, Sept. 21·24, 1980.

JUNE 1981 951