Chapter 3

ANALYSIS AND TRANSMISSION OF

SIGNALS
From Fourier Series to Fourier Transform
 We found how to evaluate the frequency spectrum of
periodic functions of period T0 or aperiodic functions
over an interval of T0.
 The representation is in the form of discrete harmonics
of frequencies n0 = 2n/ T0
 What is the spectrum of aperiodic function for all t, i.e.
T0 infinity?
 In this case the spectrum is a continuous function of ,
and is called the Fourier Transform (FT) of the time
function.

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Definition and Properties of FT

- jt
G ( )  F [ g (t )]   g (t ) e dt
-
 G() is, in general, a complex signal that has both magnitude and phase

G()  G()  e jqG ()

 If g(t) is REAL then |G()| is even and qG() is odd. (Conjugate Symmetry)
G*() = G(–)
|G*()| = |G(–)| = |G()|
qG(-) = – qG()
 If g(t) is REAL and EVEN then G() is PURE REAL
 If g(t) is REAL and ODD, then G() is PURE IMAGINARY

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 FT of Impulse Function

  
F [d (t )]   d (t )e - jt dt   d (t )e - j ( 0 ) dt   d (t )dt  1
- - -

 d (t)  1

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 FT of the Gate Function
 0 | t |  / 2
t  
rect   1 / 2 | t |  / 2
  
 1 | t |  / 2
  /2  /2  
 t  t
 - j t - j t 1 - j t 1  j 2 - j 
F rect 
  e dt   e dt 
rect  e  e - e 2 
 
   -    - / 2
- j - / 2
j  
 j 2 
- j 
  e - e 2   sin( / 2)
  
 / 2  2j   / 2
 
The function sin(x)/x is called sinc(x)
 rect(t/)   sinc(/2)

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Inverse Fourier Transform (IFT)


- j t
G ( )  F [ g (t )]   g ( t ) e dt
-

1 jt
g (t )  F [G ( )] 
-1
 G ( ) e d
2 -

g(t)  G()

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Basic Signal Operations in the Frequency Domain

 Magnitude Scaling:
kg(t)  kG()
 Time Scaling
g(at)  |1/a|G(/a)
 Time Shifting
g(t – t )  G()e-jt
0 0

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More on Fourier Transform Operation
 Linearity: g (t)+g (t)  G ()+G ()
1 2 1 2

 Symmetry Property: G(t)  2g(–)

 Frequency Shifting: g(t) e j t  G( –  )
0 0

 Time Differentiation dg(t)/dt  jG()

dng(t)/dtn  (j)nG()
t
1
 Time Integration  g ( )d  G (0)d ( ) +
-
j
G ( )

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Proof of Time Scaling Property

- j t
F [ g (at )]   g ( at ) e dt
-
 Let  = at  d = a dt
if a > 0:   = –  
 1   1 
1 - j    ( at ) 1 - j    ( ) 1  
F[ g (at )]   g (at )e  a  d (at )   g ( )e  a  d  G 
a a a a
- -

 if a < 0:   =   -
 1  - 1 
1 - j    ( at ) 1 - j    ( ) 1  
F[ g (at )]   g (at )e  a  d (at )   g ( )e  a  d  - G 
a a a a
- 

 1  
g (at )  G 
a a
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Proof of Time Differentiation Property
 dg (t )  d 
F  F g (t )
 dt   dt 

d  1 jt

F  -G ( )e d 
 dt  2 

 dg ( t )   1 d 
F  F   j t
G ( ) e d   
 dt   2 -  dt 
 1  j t

F  j G ( ) e d  
 2 -  
[ 
 F F -1  j G ( )  j G ( )

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 FT of a Cosine Function
 cos(0t) = ½ [ej t + e-j t]
0 0

d (t)  1
1  2d () (Symmetry Property)
1∙ ej t  2d (-0) (Frequency Shifting)
0

cos(0t)   [d (-0) + d (+0)] (Linearity)

 Similarly
sin(0t)  (/j [d (-0) - d (+0)]

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 Multiplying by a Sinusoid

 Find F [g(t)cos(ot) ]

Using the frequency shifting property,

g(t)cos(ot)  (1/2)[G( – 0) + G( +0)]

g(t)sin(0t)  (1/j2 )[G( – 0) – G( +0)]

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 Find FT of the signal below

 t +1 
z 2 (t )  2 cos ( 6 t  rect  
 4 

1  4 ( - 6   - j ( -6 ( -1)  4 ( + 6   - j ( +6 ( -1) 

Z 2 ()  (2)4sinc   e + (2)4sinc   e 
2   2   2  
 4sinc ( 2 ( - 6   e j ( -6  + 4sinc ( 2 ( + 6   e j ( +6 

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Convolution
 Time convolution
 
g (t ) * f (t )   g ( ) * f (t -  )d   f ( ) * g (t -  )d
- -

g (t ) * f (t )  G ( )  F ( )

 Frequency Convolution
 
G ( ) * F ( )   G ( s ) * F ( - s )ds   F (s) * G ( - s)ds
- -
1
g (t ) f (t )  G ( ) * F ( )
2
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 Multiplying by a Sinusoid
(Alternative Solution)

 Find F [g(t)cos(ot) ]
Using the convolution property,
g(t)cos(ot)  (1/2)[G()*{ [d (-0)+d (-0) ]
Note that
G()*d (-0) 2[g(t)  (1/2ej t ]G (-0)
0

That is G()*d (-0) = G (-0)

 g(t)cos(ot)  (1/2)[G( – 0) + G( +0)]

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Time-Frequency Duality
 For any relationship between g(t) and G(), there exists a
dual relationship obtained by interchanging the roles in the
original relationship with possibly minor modifications
 Shifting:
0  -jt and g(t) e
g(t – t )  G()e 0  j t  G( – 0)
0

 Convolution
1
g(t)* f (t) G()  F() g(t) f (t)  G()*F()
2
 Scaling
g(at)  |1/a|G(/a)

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Linear Systems
 A system is frequently described by its impulse response
h(t).
 The FT of h(t) is called the transfer function H().
 The input-output relation of a linear system is given by:
y(t) = g(t)*h(t)
 In frequency domain
Y() = G() H()
|Y(|ejq ()=|G(||H(|ej[q ()+q ()]
Y G H

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Distortionless Communication System (1/2)
 If the output signal of a specific communication
system is an amplified/attenuated and delayed
version form of the input signal, than the
system is a distortionless communication
system.
 For such system y(t) = kg(t-td).
 How do we describe h(t) and H() of a
distortionless system?

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Distortionless Communication System (2/2)
 h(t) = k d(t-td)
 H() = ke-jt
d

|H()|=k; qH()=-td
 For a distortionless system, the amplitude
spectrum must be flat, and the phase spectrum
must be a linear function of .
 Note that the phase must be linear with
frequency in order for the delay of various
frequency components be constant
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Filters
 A filter is a systems that passes certain
frequencies and block others.
 Because they operate on frequencies, they are
easier to visualize in the frequency domain.
Therefore, filters are usually represented by
their transfer functions H().

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Low-Pass Filters

 Bandwidth W1
 W1 also called the cutoff frequency

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High-Pass Filters

 Bandwidth not defined

 Filter defined by its cutoff frequency W2

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Band-Pass Filters

 BPF is characterized by two frequencies, the lower

cutoff frequency W1, and the upper cutoff frequency W2
 The bandwidth of the filter is BW = W1 – W2

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Practical Filters (1/2)
 The frequency responses for the three types of filters shown above
are those of ideal filters. There is an extremely sharp transition
between the passbands and stopbands.
 The sharpness of the transition between passband and stopband is
determined by something called the ORDER of the filter.
 The order of the filter is generally determined by the number of
reactive components (capacitors and inductors) used to build the
filter.
 A zero–order filter is a flat filter that allows all signals to pass.
 A first–order filter has very slow transition between the passband
and stopband.
 A second–order filter has a steeper transition, and so on.

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Practical Filters (2/2)

 An ideal filter has an infinite order which makes it unrealizable.

 Also, an ideal filter would result in an infinite amount of delay.

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