MOTIVATION AND STRESS IN WORKPLACE

AIM: To understand work motivation & its relationship with stress of employees in an
organization.

BASIC CONCEPTS

MOTIVATION

The term motivation can be traced to the Latin word movere, which means “to move.”
Building on this concept, Atkinson (1964) defines motivation as "the contemporary or
immediate influence on direction, vigour, and persistence of action", while Vroom (1964)
defines it as "a process governing choice made by persons among alternative forms of
voluntary activity". Motivation can also be defined as the processes that account for an
individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal.
Mowday and Shapiro (2004) defined motivation as ‘‘factors or events that energize,
channel, and sustain human behavior over time’’. According to Kanfer (1990), motivation
is a hypothetical construct: we cannot see it or feel it. However, we can observe the
effects or by-products that are indicative of differing levels of motivation.

Pinder (1998) argued that motivation determines the form, direction, intensity, and
duration of work-related behavior. The form of behavior refers to the types of activities
an employee would choose to engage in at work. For example, some employees may
choose to focus on task-based performance, whereas other employees choose to invest
their efforts on building interpersonal relationships and facilitating group cohesion. The
direction of motivation refers to the specific path employees take in accomplishing the
goals they set for themselves. For example, a nurse may have a predetermined schedule
for the various tasks he or she needs to accomplish within a given time frame, and this
schedule serves to guide behavior during the course of the day. The intensity component
of motivation addresses the vigor and amount of energy put into goal- directed work
performance. A market analyst can approach the tasks he or she faces with intense energy
or detached resignation. Finally, duration refers to how long an individual pursues a
particular course of direction at work, perhaps persisting even when facing obstacles.
MEANING OF MOTIVATION

The key to understanding the process of motivation lies in the meaning of, and
relationships among, needs, drives, and incentives.

Figure 1 : Motivation Process

In a systems sense, motivation consists of these three interacting and interdependent

elements:

1. Needs. Needs are created whenever there is a physiological or psychological imbal-

ance. For example, a need exists when cells in the body are deprived of food and water or
when the personality is deprived of other people who serve as friends or companions.
Although psychological needs may be based on a deficiency, sometimes they are not. For
example, an individual with a strong need to get ahead may have a history of consistent
success.

2. Drives. With a few exceptions, drives, or motives (the two terms are often used inter-
changeably), are set up to alleviate needs. A physiological drive can be simply defined as
a deficiency with direction. Physiological and psychological drives are action oriented
and provide an energizing thrust toward reaching an incentive. They are at the very heart
of the motivational process. The examples of the needs for food and water are translated
into the hunger and thirst drives, and the need for friends becomes a drive for affiliation.

3. Incentives. At the end of the motivation cycle is the incentive, defined as anything that
will alleviate a need and reduce a drive. Thus, attaining an incentive will tend to restore
physiological or psychological balance and will reduce or cut off the drive. Eating food,
drinking water, and obtaining friends will tend to restore the balance and reduce the cor-
responding drives. Food, water, and friends are the incentives in these examples.

There are three major components to motivation: creation, perseverance and passion.
Creation triggers an action, such as enrolling in a training class. Persistence is the
sustained attempt toward a goal even though obstacles may exist, such as involved in
training courses which requires a considerable investment of time, energy and resources.
Finally, passion is the basic interest, dynamism and the drive that makes employees to
achieve a goal. Motivation may be described in many ways and in general it is of either
extrinsic or intrinsic. Extrinsic motivations are “those that arise from outside the
individual and often involve rewards such as trophies, money, social recognition or
praise” that comes from outside. Intrinsic motivations are “those that arise from within
the individual, purely for the personal gratification of solving a problem”. Motivation
pinpoints the inspired human behaviour which is categorized by their willingness and
desires. Organisations need to pay attention to employee motivation with the reason that
it is important for “work related behaviour” (Pinder 2008) and “effectiveness” (Rainey
and Steinbauer 1999). In governmental organizations, procedure and rule-based
commanding systems are practiced to get work done by individual employees (Miller and
Whitford 2007) than monetary increments and incentives. Though it has made employees
to perform for a short period it is identified as “a type of control” (Ouchi 1978), and in
the long run it is creating an adverse effect on employee intrinsic motivation (Frey 1997).

THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

CONTENT THEORIES

The main theories of motivation can be grouped into two main categories which are
Content Theories and Process Theories (Hellreigel et al, 1979). Content Theories try to
explain specific issues which really motivate employee at work. These theories are
regarded to identifying people’s needs and related strengths, as well as the objectives they
attempt to achieve in order to satisfy their needs. These theories emphasise on what
motivates people and try to determine the link between needs and certain behaviour .

1. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs.

In the 1940s, Abraham Maslow, proposed a ‘hierarchy of needs’ in his 1943 paper ‘A
Theory of Human Motivation’. The theory indicates that every individual looks for
satisfaction continuously from lower level of needs to higher level of needs. Maslow
indicated that individual has five classifications of needs, which is followed an instructed
order:

  Physiological needs: are the basic needs for human survival such as food, drink,
shelter, sexual satisfaction and other physical needs.

  Safety needs: is the higher level of needs after physical needs, where people
seek for security and protection from physical and emotional harm and at the
 same time the physical needs are assured and will continue to be met. These needs
could be freedom from danger, job security and health care, etc.

  Social needs: are needs of affection, belongingness, acceptance, love and

friendship by people whose opinions and companionship an individual value. For
instance, acceptance from a group, acceptance among friends and family, good
friendship and relationship.

 Esteem needs: are needs that come from internal esteem factors like self- respect,
autonomy and feeling of achievement or accomplishment, or external esteem such
as status, recognition from others, and attention.
 Self-Actualisation needs: are the highest level of needs, they are the needs for
growth, obtaining one’s potential, and self-fulfilment; the desire or the drive to be
or become the one that they are capable of becoming.

According to the Hierarchy of Needs theory, when each lower level of needs is
fulfilled, the next higher level of needs will become stronger. survival and well-being.

Figure 2 : Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

2. Herzberg’s Motivator - Hygiene Theory (1959)

Herzberg’s theory states that there are certain factors in work environment that are likely
to lead to job satisfaction, whilst in an- other way, a separate set of factors can result in
job dissatisfaction. Herzberg’s theory developed basing on the fact that job satisfaction
and dissatisfaction behave independently from each other. The hygiene factors are
connected to work environment and extrinsic to the job itself. The hygiene factors are
used to build a suitable working environment for employees and at the same time, they
serve to prevent dissatisfaction. Motivator factors, on the other hand, affect the feelings
of satisfaction or no satisfaction, however, do not affect dissatisfaction (Mullins, 2007).
In preference to motivators, they bring job satisfactions and shape the way of work within
the company regarding intrinsic aspects.

 Motivators (or Satisfiers): (e.g., challenging work, recognition, responsibility)

that give positive satisfaction, arising from intrinsic conditions of the job itself, such
as recognition, achievement, or personal growth

 Hygeine (Dissatisfiers): These are ‘dissatisfiers’ as their as their absence cause

dissatisfaction but their presence is not motivating. These are extrinsic to the work
itself, and include aspects such as salary, company policies, supervisory practices, or
wages/salary.

3. Alderfer’s ERG Theory.

Clayton Alderfer (1969) proposed his theory of Existence, Relatedness and Growth
(ERG) with the purpose of establishing a relationship of human needs in an
organisational setting. In this theory, Alderfer reclassified the five levels of need of
Maslow’s theory into three broader classifications of human needs.

* Existence needs category combines Maslow’s physiological needs and safety needs
together into one. It basically means that this first category of Alderfer’s theory includes
essential needs for survival and safety. These needs are foods, shelter, and safe working
conditions.

*Relatedness needs category is equivalent to social needs level of Maslow’s needs theory;
they are needs to have and maintain interpersonal relationships, and to connect to others.
Extrinsic motivation also belongs to this group.

*Growth needs category contains esteem needs and self-actualisation of Maslow’s theory.
They are needs of developing and growing, gaining self- improvement and intrinsic
motivation through accomplishment.

4. McClelland’s theory of needs (1987)

According to McClelland, there are 3 psychological needs which he considers the most
important: achievement, power and affiliation.

An achievement motive is a motive to master challenges and reach a high standard of

excellence. Achievement behaviour has two components: motive for success and motive
to avoid failure (or fear of failure). Achievement motivation is defined as the positive
orientation towards success.

The need for affiliation (Naff) is our need to establish and maintain relationships with
others. Contact with friends and family provides emotional support, positive stimulation,
a basis for social comparison (e.g. we can compare our beliefs with others) and attention.

A person's need for power (nPow) can be one of two types - personal and institutional.
Those who need personal power want to direct others, and this need often is perceived as
undesirable. Persons who need institutional power (also known as social power) want to
organize the efforts of others to further the goals of the organization.

5. Theory X and theory Y (McGregor)

Douglas McGregor of MIT expounded two contrasting theories on human motivation in

the 1960s: The X Theory and the Y Theory and promoted Theory Y as the basis of good
management practice. Theory X (older version) represents a negative view of human
nature that assumes individuals generally dislike work, are irresponsible, and require
close supervision to do their jobs. Theory Y (modern version) denotes a positive view of
human nature and assumes individuals are generally industrious, creative, and able to
assume responsibility and exercise self-control in their jobs. According to this theory the
higher-level needs of esteem and self-actualization are continuing needs in that they are
never completely satisfied. As such, it is these higher-level needs through which
employees can best be motivated.

PROCESS THEORIES

Process Theories try to indicate the relationship within the dynamic variables; those
create motivation. These theories are more related into which way behaviour is
introduced, directed and maintained. Process theories emphasise on the real process of
motivation & study how personal needs collaborate and affect each other to produce
behaviours (Maloney, 1986)

1. Equity theory

As per the equity theory of J. Stacey Adams (1960) people are motivated by their beliefs
about the reward structure as being fair or unfair, relative to the inputs. People have a
tendency to use subjective judgment to balance the outcomes and inputs in the
relationship for comparisons between different individuals. If people feel that they are not
equally rewarded they either reduce the quantity or quality of work or migrate to some
other organization. However, if people perceive that they are rewarded higher, they may
be motivated to work harder.Equity theory says that it is not the actual reward that
motivates, but the perception, and the perception is based not on the reward in isolation,
but in comparison with the efforts that went into getting it and the rewards and efforts of
others. If everyone got a 5% raise, B is likely to feel quite pleased with her raise, even if
she worked harder than everyone else. But if A got an even higher raise, B perceives that
she worked just as hard as A, she will be unhappy.In other words, people's motivation
results from a ratio of ratios: a person compares the ratio of reward to effort with the
comparable ratio of reward to effort that they think others are getting.

2. Expectancy Theory.

Expectancy theory pioneered by Victor Vroom in 1964 is based on the hypothesis that
work behaviour is decided by a person expectations which are likely results of such
behaviour . In this theory, together with Edward Lawler and Lyman Porter, Vroom
discovered that an employee’s performance is relied on individual determinants like
personality, skills set, knowledge, work and life experi- ence and capability. Vroom
asserted that effort, performance and motivation are con- nected in an individual’s
motivation. Certain performances will have foreseeable job outcomes based on
individual’s expectations by which these outcomes satisfy organi- sational or individual
goals. Organisational goals focus on measuring in term of quality, quantity, or timeliness
of output while individual goals can be money, recognition, job promotion and job
security (Olgesby et al 1989). The theory is comprised of three key components which
are Expectancy, Instrumentality, and Valance. Vroom has created a model where he
shows these components affect motivation:

Figure 3: Expectancy theory

  Valence refers to the value an individual places on the rewards of an outcome,
which is based on their needs, goals, values and sources of motivation. Influential
factors include one's values, needs, goals, preferences and sources that strengthen
their motivation for a particular outcome.

 Instrumentality is the belief that a person will receive a reward if the performance
expectation is met. This reward may present itself in the form of a pay increase,
promotion, recognition or sense of accomplishment. Instrumentality is low when
the reward is the same for all performances given.

 Expectancy is the belief that one's effort (E) will result in attainment of desired
performance (P) goals. Usually based on an individual's past experience, self-
confidence (self efficacy), and the perceived difficulty of the performance
standard or goal.

3. Porter and Lawler Model.

Porter and Lawler (1968) developed a much more complex model of work motivation
using Vroom’s model as a foundation. This theory indicates the relationship between
efforts, performance, rewards and satis- faction. The effort of an employee is mostly
reliant on the value of expected reward. Therefore, in expectation of the reward,
employee effort results in better performance. However, to be able to have better
performance, a person need to have the necessary abilities and skills. In between efforts
and performance, there are traits and abilities that take places. These traits and abilities
can be personal knowledge, skill and ability, task complexity, understanding of the role
etc. The performance results in rewards; it could be either intrinsic rewards that built in
by oneself for her/his good performance or extrinsic rewards such as payment and
promotion which are offered by the organisation. Satisfaction is always linked to rewards.
If the real rewards are better than the expected rewards, people get more satisfaction and
another way around. This satisfaction will have an impact on forthcoming personal
values.
CONTEMPORARY THEORIES

1. GOAL-SETTING THEORY

This motivation theory was developed primarily by Edwin Locke and Gary Latham
(1990). The goal-setting theory posits that goals are the most important factors affecting
the motivation and behavior of employees. Goal-setting theory emphasizes the
importance of specific and challenging goals in achieving motivated behavior. The goal
setting theory states that when the goals to be achieved are set at a higher standard than in
that case employees are motivated to perform better and put in maximum effort. It
revolves around the concept of “Self-efficacy” i.e. individual’s belief that he or she is
capable of performing a hard task. According to Locke and Latham, goals affect
individual performance through four mechanisms. First, goals direct action and effort
toward goal-related activities and away from unrelated activities. Second, goals energize
employees. Challenging goals lead to higher employee effort than easy goals. Third,
goals affect persistence. Employees exert more effort to achieve high goals. Fourth, goals
motivate employees to use their existing knowledge to attain a goal or to acquire the
knowledge needed to do so.

2. Reinforcement theory of motivation

Reinforcement theory of motivation is a behaviourist approach with the basic premise

that behaviours followed by positive consequences will occur more frequently.
Behaviours followed by negative consequences will not occur as frequently. B.F. Skinner
(1974), who propounded the reinforcement theory, holds that by designing the
environment properly, individuals can be motivated. Instead of considering internal
factors like impressions, feelings, attitudes and other cognitive behavior, individuals are
directed by what happens in the environment external to them. Skinner argued that the
internal needs and drives of individuals can be ignored because people learn to exhibit
certain behaviors based on what happens to them as a result of their behavior. This theory
has an impressive record for predicting quality and quantity of work, persistence of effort,
absentee- ism, tardiness, and accident rates. It does not offer much insight into employee
satisfaction or the decision to quit.

3. Self determination theory (Deci and Ryan, 2002)

Self-determination is the degree to which we feel our actions are autonomous and have
the freedom to do what we like. Autonomous behaviour comes from one’s sense of self,
unlike controlled behaviour that comes from outside pressure. It identifies 3 needs that, if
satisfied, allow optimal function and growth and lead to self actualization.
Needs required for growth and self actualization

1. Competence: This concerns feeling effective in mastering challenges and to

perfect skills. This leads to exploratory behaviour. In the purest form, behaviour
becomes intrinsically motivated rather than extrinsically motivated

2. Relatedness: This refers to the need to relate to others by forming close

meaningful bonds with others.

3. Autonomy: This is the need to experience freedom of self and not being
controlled by external forces.

Deci and Ryan suggest that when people experience these three needs, they become
self-determined and are intrinsically motivated to pursue the things that interest them.
Any social situation that provides opportunities for individuals to satisfy the needs for
competence, autonomy, and relatedness are the key to enhancing that individual's
motivation.

Motivation has often been grouped into two main types: extrinsic and intrinsic. With
extrinsic motivation, a person tends to do a task or activity mainly because doing so will
yield some kind of reward or benefit upon completion. Intrinsic motivation, in contrast,
is characterized by doing something purely because of enjoyment or fun.

4.SELF-EFFICACY THEORY

Self-Efficacy theory of Bandura follows the principle that people are likely to engage in
activities to the extent that they perceive themselves to be competent at those activities.
Self-efficacy is the belief in one’s effectiveness in performing specific tasks. Albert
Bandura’s theory of self-efficacy has important implications with regard to motivation.
According to staples et al. (1998), self-efficacy theory suggests that there are four major
sources of information used by individuals when forming self-efficacy judgments. Four
sources of self-efficacy are:
*Performance Accomplishments.
*Vicarious Experience.
*Social Persuasion.
* Physiological and Emotional States.

Performance Accomplishments
Personal assessment information that is based on an individual’s personal
accomplishments. Previous successes raise mastery expectations, while repeated failures
lower them.
Vicarious Experience
This is often referred to as modeling, and it can generate expectations in observers that
they can improve their own performance by learning from what they have observed.

Social Persuasion
Activities where people are led, through suggestion, into believing that they can cope
successfully with specific tasks. Coaching and giving evaluative feedback on
performance are common types of social persuasion.

Physiological and Emotional States

The individual’s physiological or emotional states influence self-efficacy judgments with
respect to specific tasks. Emotional reactions to such tasks (e.g., anxiety) can lead to
negative judgments of one’s ability to complete the tasks.

RECENT TRENDS IN MOTIVATION RESEARCH

CURRENT STRATEGIES & PRACTICES OF MOTIVATING EMPLOYEES

Feedback

Feedback is the way managers continuously shape employee performance (Reem, 2011).
According to Reem (2011), when done correctly, it motivates employees and improves
their actions. However, poorly carried out, it can achieve adverse results and demotivate
employees. Thus, managers should structure feedback in a way that helps the employee to
accept the comments. Rather than using criticism and focusing on negative performance,
a better strategy is to have the attention on devising methods for future improvements
(Lazeby, 2008).

Training

Tella, Ayeni and Popoola (2007) hold the view that no matter how automated an
organization may be, increase in productivity hang on the effectiveness of the workers.
Workers’ ability to carry out a given task influences their performance in the
organization. Reem (2011) posits that training plays a vital role in motivating employees
and preventing them from failing as a result of lack of ability. It gives workers the chance
to improve upon their skills and it boosts up their self-confidence. In agreement, Mensah
(2011) states that training is an ‘indispensable strategy’ for motivating workers as it gives
them the opportunity to upgrade themselves in order to keep up with changing situations.
Employee Engagement

Employees are encouraged to work harder when they are involved in decisions that
concern their work. Yavuz (2004) draws attention to the fact that those employees whose
ideas are taken into consideration, whose suggestions are respected and who ‘feel
themselves in on things’ are more likely to work harder. Perry, Mesch and Paarlberg
(2006) also contend that involving workers in decisions leads to higher satisfaction with
the organization, especially in terms of decisions taken at the organisational level and it
also leads to stronger commitment to the organization. Furthermore, a study by Campbell,
Fowles and Weber (2004) cited by Utriainen and Kyngas (2009) show that involving
workers in decision making raises their satisfaction level.

TECHNIQUES OF EMPLOYEE MOTIVATION

Job enlargement, job enrichment and job rotation are three basic approaches;

1. Job Enlargement:

Job enlargement involves expanding the job of an employee that has them doing more
work of a similar nature to what they already do. This may be allowing them to complete
the whole task instead of just part of it, for example, packaging the products as well as
manufacturing them. This process ideally removes the boredom out of the job by
eliminating the repetitiveness out of tasks and allowing them to complete the whole
process, further increasing their responsibility.

2. Job Enrichment:

Job enrichment is an attempt to give workers more control over their tasks and more
responsibility for design, execution, and output. The worker assumes some of the
functions previously carried out by his or her immediate supervisor or by other staff.

3. Job Rotation:

Job rotation is a practice whereby each employee learns several operations in

manufacturing process and rotates through each in a set period. Job rotation has important
implications for firm learning. On one hand, when employees rotate, the firm receives
information about the quality of various jobs - employee matches. On the other hand,
without rotation, the firm receives only direct information about one match, but the
information it gets about this one match is very reliable.
Motivational strategies and employee’s performance

Literature stresses on the impact of motivational strategies on employee’s performance.

For instance, Petrovsky and Ritz (2013) conduct a systematic review of published
empirical research on the effects of Public Sector Motivation (PSM) on performance and
show that all studies found have been conducted at the individual level. Performance
indicators in all but three studies were obtained by surveying the same mployees who
were also asked about their PSM. Using survey data from 240 organizational units within
the Swiss federal government, the paper compares results from an individual-level
analysis to two analyses where the data are aggregated to the organizational level; one
without and one with the correction for common-method bias. The study finding showed
that there is a positive correlation between attraction to policy making in the public sector
and performance at the individual level.

Asharaf, Azam and Asharaf (2015) sought to find out the motivational strategies and its
impact on employee motivational level. The purpose of the study was to provide effective
motivational strategies for the public banking sector of Azad Kashmir in Pakistan. The
results of the study shows that employees believe that the organizational strategies i.e.
good wages, job security, advancement opportunity, good working conditions, interesting
challenging work, relationship with employees, recognition and involvement have
positive impact on their motivational level. Results shows that "Advancement
Opportunity" have very high impact among the variables of motivational strategies.

GLOBAL IMPLICATIONS

Most current motivation theories were developed in the US by and about US adults . Goal
setting and expectancy theories emphasize goal accomplishment as well as rational and
individual thought characteristics consistent with US culture . In Japan , Greece and
Mexico , where uncertainty avoidance characteristics are strong , security needs would be
on top of Maslow’s hierarchy . Countries that score high on nurturing characteristics –
Denmark , Finland etc would have social needs on top. Group work will motivate
employees more when the country’s culture scores high on the nurturing criterion. The
view that a high achievement need acts as an internal motivator presupposes two US
cultural characteristics- willingness to accept a moderate degree of risk and concern with
performance . Equity theory has gained a strong following in the US because US style
reward systems assume workers are highly sensitive to equity in reward allocations US
equity is meant to closely tie pay to performance. However , in collectivist cultures ,
employees expect rewards to reflect their individual needs as well as their performance .
Evidence shows individuals in both individualistic and collectivistic cultures prefer an
equitable distribution of rewards over an equal division.
MOTIVATION IN INDIAN CONTEXT

Karma-Yoga forms the very basis of Indian work values and varies from the Protestant
work values in terms of the intention of the doer (karta) i.e., Indians consider work to be
a duty, an obligation towards others which one owes to them in previous life, hence
performing one’s duty without desire for worldly gains will yield higher (transcendental)
benefit like liberation (mukti ) from the cycle of birth, death and rebirth (samsara.) In
India, work holds an elevated position and is considered a duty according to Bhagavad
Gita. Indian culture offers valuable guidance to individuals through various holy
scriptures like Vedas, Bhagavad Gita, Puranas, and Upanishads which lays down moral
codes governing one’s day to day conduct. Our values, beliefs, and actions is largely
shaped by our orientation towards work which includes cause and effect relation, sense of
doership, locus of control, and understanding of self with respect to the rest of the world
etc. Chakraborty (1987) refers work as the process of chitta-shuddhi (a refinement
process of mind and soul). According to this philosophy; one should aspire to cleanse
one’s mind and intellect through one’s work by acting in a selfless and detached way
( Nishkama Karma.) The pursuit of Karma Yoga will help to attain the practical aspects
of positive psychology in the life of an individual by helping him to lead a pleasurable
and satisfied life. Extrinsic motivation pushes one to work for results that may bring
about situations that one likes or will avoid unpleasant emotions. Contrary to this intrinsic
motivation inspires one to work because one enjoys the work itself. Karma Yoga is one
such model for intrinsic motivation (Kumar and Kumar, 2013).

NATURE OF STRESS

The word stress has its origin in the Latin words ‘strictus’, meaning tight or narrow and
‘stringere’, the verb meaning to tighten . Stress is often explained in terms of
characteristics of the environment that are disruptive to the individual. Hans Selye, the
father of modern stress research, defined stress as “the non- specific response of the body
to any demand” that is, regardless of the cause of the threat, the individual will respond
with the same physiological pattern of reactions. According to Ivancevich and Matterson,
“Stress is the interaction of the individual with the environment. It is an adaptive
response, mediated by individual differences and/or psychological process; that is a
consequence of any external (environmental) action, situation or event that places
excessive psychological and/or physical demands upon a person. ”According to Beehr
and Newman, “Job stress is a condition arising from the interaction of the people and
their jobs, and characterized by changes within people that force them to deviate from
their normal functioning.”

Stress is not a factor that resides in the individual or the environment, instead it is
embedded in an ongoing process that involves individuals transacting with their social
and cultural environments, making appraisals of those encounters and attempting to cope
with the issues that arise. Stress is a dynamic mental/cognitive state. It is a disruption in
homeostasis or an imbalance that gives rise to a requirement for resolution of that
imbalance or restoration of homeostasis. The perception of stress is dependent upon the
individual’s cognitive appraisal of events and the resources available to deal with them.
An individual’s response to a stressful situation largely depends upon the perceived
events and how they are interpreted or appraised. Lazarus has distinguished between two
types of appraisal, i.e. primary and secondary. Primary appraisal refers to the perception
of a new or changing environment as positive, neutral or negative in its consequences.
Negative events are appraised for their possible harm, threat or challenge. Harm is the
assessment of the damage that has already been done by an event. Threat is the
assessment of possible future damage that may be brought about by the event. Challenge
appraisals are associated with more confident expectations of the ability to cope with the
stressful event, the potential to overcome and even profit from the event. When we
perceive an event as stressful, we are likely to make a secondary appraisal, which is the
assessment of one’s coping abilities and resources and whether they will be sufficient to
meet the harm, threat or challenge of the event. These resources may be mental, physical,
personal or social. If one thinks one has a positive attitude, health, skills and social
support to deal with the crises s/he will feel less stressed. This two-level appraisal process
determines not only our cognitive and behavioral responses but also our emotional and
physiological responses to external events. These appraisals are very subjective and will
depend on many factors. One factor is the past experience of dealing with such a stressful
condition. If one has handled similar situations very successfully in the past, they would
be less threatening for her/him. Another factor is whether the stressful event is perceived
as controllable, i.e. whether one has mastery or control over a situation. A person who
believes that s/he can control the onset of a negative situation, or its adverse
consequences, will experience less amount of stress than those who have no such sense of
personal control. For example, a sense of self-confidence or efficacy can determine
whether the person is likely to appraise the situation as a threat or a
challenge. Thus, the experience and outcome of a stressor may vary from individual to
individual.

Figure 4: Psychological meaning of stress

CAUSES OF STRESS

The antecedents of stress, or the so-called stressors, affecting today’s employees are as
follows. These causes come from both outside and inside the organization, from the
groups that employees are influenced by and from employees themselves.

Extraorganizational Stressors

Extraorganizational stressors include things such as societal/technological change,

globalization, the family, relocation, economic and financial conditions, race and gender,
and residential or community conditions. The phenomenal rate of change and economic
turbulence has had a great effect on people’s lifestyles, and this of course is carried over
into their jobs. It is generally recognized that a person’s family has a big impact on one’s
stress level. A family situation—either a brief crisis, such as a squabble or the illness of a
family member, or long-term strained relations with parents, spouse, or children—can act
as a significant stressor for employees. Relocating the family because of a transfer or a
promotion can also lead to stress. For example, under globalization, expatriate managers
(those with an assignment outside their home country) may undergo cultural shock and
then when repatriated (relocated to the home country) may experience isolation; both are
significant stressors. Life’s changes may be slow (getting older) or sudden (the death of a
spouse). These sudden changes have a dramatic effect on people, and medical researchers
have verified that especially sudden life changes do in fact have a very stressful impact
on people. As the workforce becomes increasingly diverse potential stress-related issues
include differences in beliefs and values, differences in opportunities for rewards or
promotions, and perceptions by minority employees of either discrimination or lack of fit
between themselves and the organization.

Organizational Stressors

Besides the potential stressors that occur outside the organization, there are also those
associated with the organization itself. Although the organization is made up of groups of
individuals, there are also more macro level dimensions, unique to the organization that
contains potential stressors. Figure 3 shows that these macro level stressors can be
categorized into administrative policies and strategies, organizational structure and
design, organizational processes, and working conditions. Some specific examples of
more specific job stressors especially related to performance includes role ambiguity,
conflict and overload, job insecurity, work-family conflict, environmental uncertainty,
and situational constraints. A recent meta-analysis found each of these to be negatively
related to job performance.

Figure 5: Macrolevel Organizational Stressors

Group Stressors

The group or team can also be a potential source of stress. More generally, group
stressors can be categorized into two areas:

1. Lack of group cohesiveness.

Cohesiveness, or “togetherness,” is very important to employees, especially at the lower
levels of organizations. If an employee is denied the opportunity for this cohesiveness
because of the task design, because the supervisor does things to prohibit or limit it, or
because the other members of the group shut the person out, the resulting lack of
cohesiveness can be very stress producing.

2. Lack of social support

Employees are greatly affected by the support of one or more members of a cohesive
group. By sharing their problems and joys with others, they are much better off. If this
type of social support is lacking for an individual, the situation can be very stressful.
There is even research evidence indicating that the lack of social support is so stressful
that it accounts for some health care costs. In addition to the group per se, group-level
dynamics may become stressors. For example, one study found that organizational
politics was a potential source of stress in the work environment and another study found
social stressors such as conflicts with coworkers and supervisors and social dislikes or ill
will of all kinds, over time, can lead to depressive symptoms for the employees involved.

Individual stressors

Individual dispositions such as Type A personality patterns, personal control, learned

helplessness, and psychological hardiness may all affect the level of stress someone
experiences.

Type A Characteristics

Friedman and Rosenman define the Type A personality as “an action-emotion complex
that can be observed in any person who is aggressively involved in a chronic, incessant
struggle to achieve more and more in less and less time, and if required to do so, against
the opposing efforts of other things or other persons. It is now accepted that Type As per
se do not predict heart problems, and in fact Type As may release and better cope with
their stress than do Type Bs. The more recent studies indicate that it is not so much the
impatience that is closely associated with Type As that leads to heart problems, but rather
anger and hostility.

Personal Control

Besides Type A personality patterns, another important disposition is an individual’s

perception of control. In particular, if employees feel that they have little control over the
work environment and over their own job, they will experience stress. Studies have
shown that if employees are given a sense of control over their work environment, such
as being given a chance to be involved in the decision-making process that affects them,
this will reduce their work stress. A large study by Cornell University medical
researchers found that those workers who experience a loss of control, especially in
relatively low-level jobs, have triple the risk of developing high blood pressure. The
researchers concluded that lack of control turns stress into physical problems. They also
found that if a high-stress job included latitude to control the situation, there was no
increase in blood pressure.

Learned Helplessness

The feeling of loss of control goes back to some of the classic research on learned
helplessness conducted by Seligman. In conducting experiments on dogs who could not
escape shock, Seligman found that they eventually accepted it and did not even try to
escape. Later, when the dogs could learn to escape easily, they did not—they had learned
to be helpless. Other studies found that people, too, can learn to be helpless, which helps
explain why some employees just seem to have given up and seem to accept stressors in
their work environment, even when a change for the better is possible. More recently,
Seligman and his colleagues have concentrated on people’s attributions for their lack of
control. Specifically, they suggest that people are most apt to experience helplessness
when they perceive the causes of the lack of control:

1. To be related to something about their own personal characteristics (as opposed to

outside, Environmental forces)
2. As stable and enduring (rather than just temporary)
3. To be global and universal (cutting across many situations, rather than in just one
sphere of life)

Psychological Hardiness

Hardiness is a personality style, which is characterized by a sense of commitment, control

and perception of problems as challenges. It consists of ‘the three Cs’, i.e. commitment,
control, and challenge. Hardiness is a set of beliefs about oneself, the world, and how
they interact. It takes shape as a sense of personal commitment to what you are doing, a
sense of control over your life, and a feeling of challenge. Stress resistant personalities
have control which is a sense of purpose and direction in life; commitment to work,
family, hobbies and social life; and challenge, that is, they see changes in life as normal
and positive rather than as a threat. Kobasa and her colleagues studied executives under
considerable stress who were both measurably hardy and nonhardy. She found that the
hardy executives had a lower rate of stress-related illness and were characterized as
having commitment (they became very involved in what they were doing); welcoming
challenge (they believed that change rather than stability was normal); and feeling in
control (they felt they could influence the events around them). She suggests that the
predisposition of psychological hardiness helps those with it to resist stress by providing
buffers between themselves and stressors.

EFFECTS OF STRESS

Physical Problems Due to Stress

Most of the attention and basic research over the years have been devoted to the impact
that stress has on physical health. Specific physical health concerns that have been linked
to stress include the following: (1) immune system problems, where there is a lessened
ability to fight off illness and infection; (2) cardiovascular system problems, such as high
blood pressure and heart disease; (3) musculoskeletal system problems, such as tension
headaches and back pain; and (4) gastrointestinal system problems, such as diarrhea and
constipation. For example, heart attacks are a way of life (or death in this case) on
stresspacked Wall Street. For the 5,000 people who work at the stock exchange, the heart
attack death rate is 60 percent higher than the national rate for men between 18 and 65.

Psychological Problems Due to Stress

High levels of stress may be accompanied by anger, anxiety, depression, nervousness,

irritability, tension, and boredom. One study found that stress had the strongest impact on
aggressive actions, such as sabotage, interpersonal aggression, hostility, and complaints.
These types of psychological problems from stress, in turn, are especially relevant to poor
job performance, lowered self-esteem, and resentment of supervision, inability to
concentrate and make decisions, and job dissatisfaction. These outcomes of stress can
have a direct cost effect on the organization. For example, the National Centers for
Disease Control reported that psychological stress is the source of numerous job-related
insurance claims.

Behavioral Problems Due to Stress

Direct behaviors that may accompany high levels of stress include under eating or
overeating, sleeplessness, increased smoking and drinking, and drug abuse. There is
research evidence over the years indicating a relationship between stress and especially
absenteeism and turnover. For example, workers may experience stress and react by
getting drunk and staying home from work the next day with a hangover. They then feel
bad about this drinking. They may feel that they are letting everyone down “the morning
after” and eventually quit or are fired from the job.

CONSEQUENCES OF STRESS

Individual Consequences

The individual consequences of stress, then, are the outcomes that mainly affect the
individual. The organization also may suffer, either directly or indirectly, but it is the
individual who pays the real price. Stress may produce behavioral, psychological, and
medical consequences.

Behavioral Consequences

The behavioral consequences of stress may harm the person under stress or others. One
such behavior is smoking. Research has clearly documented that people who smoke tend
to smoke more when they experience stress. There is also evidence that alcohol and drug
abuse are linked to stress, although this relationship is less well documented. Other
possible behavioral consequences are accident proneness, violence, and appetite
disorders.

Psychological Consequences

The psychological consequences of stress relate to a person’s mental health and well-
being. When people experience too much stress at work, they may become depressed or
find themselves sleeping too much or not enough. Stress may also lead to family
problems and sexual difficulties

Medical Consequences

The medical consequences of stress affect a person’s physical well-being. Heart disease
and stroke, among other illnesses, have been linked to stress. Other common medical
problems resulting from too much stress include headaches, backaches, ulcers and related
stomach and intestinal disorders, and skin conditions such as acne and hives.

Organizational Consequences

Clearly, any of the individual consequences can also affect the organization. Other
results of stress have even more direct consequences for organizations. These include
decline in performance, withdrawal, and negative changes in attitudes.

Performance
One clear organizational consequence of too much stress is a decline in performance. For
operating workers, such a decline can translate into poor-quality work or a drop in
productivity. For managers, it can mean faulty decision-making or disruptions in working
relationships as people become irritable and hard to get along with.

Withdrawal

Withdrawal behaviors also can result from stress. For the organization, the two most
significant forms of withdrawal behavior are absenteeism and quitting. People who are
having a hard time coping with stress in their jobs are more likely to call in sick or
consider leaving the organization for good. Stress can also produce other, more subtle
forms of withdrawal. A manager may start missing deadlines or taking longer lunch
breaks. An employee may withdraw psychologically by ceasing to care about the
organization and the job. Employee violence is a potential individual consequence of
stress. This also has obvious organizational implications as well, especially if the
violence is directed at an employee or at the organization in general.

Attitudes

Another direct organizational consequence of employee stress relates to attitudes. Job

satisfaction, morale, and organizational commitment can all suffer, along with motivation
to perform at high levels. As a result, people may be more prone to complain about
unimportant things, do only enough work to get by, and so forth.

Burnout

Burnout, another consequence of stress, has clear implications for both people and
organizations. Burnout is a general feeling of exhaustion that develops when a person
simultaneously experiences too much pressure and has too few sources of satisfaction
Burnout generally develops in the following way : First, people with high aspirations and
strong motivation to get things done are prime candidates for burnout under certain
conditions. They are especially vulnerable when the organization suppresses or limits
their initiative while constantly demanding that they serve the organization’s own ends.

In such a situation, the individual is likely to put too much of himself or herself into the
job. In other words, the person may well keep trying to meet his or her own agenda while
simultaneously trying to fulfill the organization’s expectations. The most likely effects of
this situation are prolonged stress, fatigue, frustration, and helplessness under the burden
of overwhelming demands. The person literally exhausts his or her aspirations and
motivation, much as a candle burns itself out. Loss of self-confidence and psychological
withdrawal follow. Ultimately, burnout results. At this point, the individual may start
dreading going to work in the morning, may put in longer hours but accomplish less than
before, and may generally display mental and physical exhaustion.

MODELS OF STRESS

JOB DEMAND CONTROL MODEL

In 1979, with his Job Demand Control Model (JDC model), US sociologist Robert
Karasek presented an assessment of stress and stress factors in the work environment
(labour intensity) and health promotion in the workplace.It has become one of the best-
known models with regard to workload and work-related stress and emphasises two
important aspects:

Height of strain (demands) – These are the requirements that are set at work, including
work rate, availability, time pressure, effort and difficulty. Such requirements represent
the psychological stressors in the work environment.

Decision latitude (control) – This concerns the freedom an employee has to control and
organise his own work. This latitude refers to the control that employees have about their
duties and how they want to perform these tasks. It consists of both competence and
decision-making authority.

Both the job requirements and the management capabilities can be low or high. The Job
Demand Control Model shows that the strain itself does not lead to high psychological
stress. It is about the combination of the strain and the decision latitude that the job
offers. The Job Demand Control Model is aimed at balancing requirements and
autonomy; the decision latitude someone has. Robert Karasek posits that employees, who
have demanding jobs, experience a lot of stress if they cannot decide when they do the
work. The jobs stress model is characterized by its simplicity and can be used to identify
and analyse psychological fatigue or work-related stress in employees. It also offers
starting points for interventions. If an employee finds his workload to be high due to the
large number of tasks he needs to complete, the manager is would be wise to ask him
about the degree of control latitude.
If the same employee finds it difficult that he has little or no influence on the organization
of his work, then the job stress model shows that he is in a stressful job, but actually
needs a more active job. As such, the possibilities are diverse.
Figure 6: Job Demand Control Model (1979)

Person---Environment Fit Model

The historical roots of the Person–Environment (P–E) Fit approach can be traced back to
KurtLewin and his notion of interactional psychology. Lewin simply believed that human
behavior is a function of the interaction between characteristics of the person and
characteristics of the situation. One aspect of this interaction that is relevant to
occupational stress is the degree to which there is a fit between the person and the
situation. According to this approach, an employee perceives the work environment as
stressful when there is a lack of fit (Caplan, 1987). The general notion of P–E Fit is rather
simple but there are many ways in which fit and misfit) between an employee and the
work environment can occur. According to Kristof (1996), fit (and misfit) may indicate
the degree to which an employee’s skills and abilities match the requirements of the job
he or she is performing. An employee who lacks the skills and abilities necessary to
perform a job may feel overwhelmed and inadequate. Conversely, when job requirements
are well below an employee’s capabilities, the results may be boredom, frustration, and
dissatisfaction. In either case, it is very likely that such an employee will perceive the job
as stressful. The concept of P–E Fit (and misfit) may also occur at a more ‘‘macro’’ level
of analysis. More specifically, one can speak of the degree of fit between characteristics
of the employee and characteristics of the organization. For example, suppose an
employee who places a very high value on individual accomplishment goes to work for
an organization that places a very high value on teamwork. This would obviously be a
poor fit and it is likely that such an individual would ultimately find working in such an
environment stressful. Perhaps the major limitation of the P–E Fit approach is that,
compared to the Environment component, we seem to be much further ahead in the
measurement of the Person component of the model. That is, psychologists have devoted
considerable time and energy to conceptualizing and measuring individual characteristics
such as abilities, skills, and personality. Far less attention has been given to
conceptualizing and measuring unique characteristics of organizations.

STRESS MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES

Perhaps the most common method of combating the effects of workplace stressors is
referred to as stress management training or, more commonly, stress management
(Murphy, 1984). Stress management training is designed to help provide employees with
the resources necessary to cope more effectively when they are faced with stressors.The
content of stress management training programs varies widely from organization to
organization (Beehr et al., 2001), but there are some common program components. For
example, most programs have some educational component; that is, employees are
provided with information regarding the nature of stress and its effects. It is also very
common for such programs to include some form of training that is designed to help
employees reduce the physical effects of stressors. In many cases, this involves some
form of relaxation training, in which employees learn to release the muscular tension that
often accompanies stressful encounters at work. Among other interventions, in
biofeedback training, employees learn to control physiological responses (e.g., heart rate
and respiration) to stressors with the aid of physiological monitoring equipment
(Smith,1993).
Another common component of stress management training programs involves teaching
techniques that are designed to help employees alter their appraisals of the work
environment. The manner in which the work environment is cognitively appraised is a
key factor in determining whether it is considered a stressor. One commonly used method
of accomplishing this is Meichenbaum’s (1977) Stress-Inoculation Training, In the first
phase, participants are provided with information about stress, as well as a conceptual
framework for understanding the phases of the treatment that will follow. In the second
phase, participants learn and rehearse various coping strategies, which are typically
taught in the form of ‘self-statements.’The idea underlying this phase is that people often
engage in dysfunctional self-statements when they encounter stressors, and these may
ultimately exacerbate the effect of the stressor. The final phase of Stress Inoculation is
referred to as Application Training. In this phase, participants learn to apply and use
positive self-statements in everyday situations.This involves developing an awareness of
situations that are perceived as stressful and of the negative self-statements that
accompany such situations. Once this is done, participants learn to substitute self
statements that facilitate coping.

Individual Coping Strategies

Relaxation Techniques:
It is an active skill that reduces symptoms of stress and decreases the incidence of
illnesses such as high blood pressure and heart disease. Usually relaxation starts from the
lower part of the body and progresses up to the facial muscles in such a way that the
whole body is relaxed. Deep breathing is used along with muscle relaxation to calm the
mind and relax the body.

Meditation Procedures:
The yogic method of meditation consists of a sequence of learned techniques for
refocusing of attention that brings about an altered state of consciousness. It involves
such a thorough concentration that the meditator becomes unaware of any outside
stimulation and reaches a different state of consciousness.

Biofeedback:
It is a procedure to monitor and reduce the physiological aspects of stress by providing
feedback about current physiological activity and is often accompanied by relaxation
training. Biofeedback training involves three stages : developing an awareness of the
particular physiological response, e.g. heart rate, learning ways of controlling that
physiological response in quiet conditions; and transferring that control into the
conditions of everyday life.

Creative Visualization:
It is an effective technique for dealing with stress. Creative visualisation is a subjective
experience that uses imagery and imagination. Before visualising one must set oneself a
realistic goal, as it helps build confidence. It is easier to visualise if one’s mind is quiet,
body relaxed and eyes are closed. This reduces the risk of interference from unbidden
thoughts and provides the creative energy needed for turning an imagined scene into
reality.

Exercise: Exercise can provide an active outlet for the physiological arousal experienced
in response to stress. Regular exercise improves the efficiency of the heart, enhances the
function of the lungs, maintains good circulation, lowers blood pressure, reduces fat in
the blood and improves the body’s immune system. Swimming, walking, running,
cycling, skipping, etc. help to reduce stress. One must practice these exercises at least
four times a week for 30 minutes at a time. Each session must have a warm-up, exercise
and cool down phases.

Organizational Coping Strategies

Organizational coping strategies are designed by management to eliminate or control

organizational-level stressors in order to prevent or reduce job stress for individual
employees.

Family-Friendly Benefits

To help employees cope with the often conflicting demands of work and family, many
organizations offer what have been termed family-friendly benefits. Generally, these
benefits are specifically designed to help employees balance the demands of work and
family. Typical family-friendly benefits include flexible spending accounts; child care
and elder care referrals, part-time work options, and on-site day care facilities. Both
flexible work schedules and telecommuting are also considered family-friendly benefits
in many cases. Thomas and Ganster (1995), for example, conducted a study of the stress-
related impact of family-friendly benefits among hospital employees. They found that
those who worked in organizations offering family-friendly benefits reported higher
levels of job satisfaction and lower levels of depression and somatic complaints. They
were also found to have lower cholesterol than employees working in organizations that
did not offer such benefits. This study also showed that family-friendly benefits,
particularly flexible schedules, have a positive impact because they enhance employees’
perceptions of control and reduce feelings of work–family conflict.

Health and Fitness Programs

An increasing number of organizations are offering a variety of programs designed to

improve employees’ physical health and fitness. Such programs can range from
something as simple as providing information about health-related topics to extensive
onsite fitness facilities (O’Donnell, 1986). For most organizations, the primary
motivation for offering health and fitness programs is to reduce employees’ healthcare
costs (Falkenberg,1987; Jex, 1991). Indeed, several studies conducted over the years have
shown that health and fitness programs do reduce healthcare costs Another common
reason is that employees who are healthy and physically fit are less likely to be absent
due to illness. As with healthcare costs, there is empirical evidence showing that health
and fitness programs do indeed lead to reductions in employee absenteeism.

Employee assistance programs (EAPs) have also become a very valuable organizational
response to help employees cope with stress. EAPs are currently implemented in over
half of U.S. organizations with 50 or more employees and have been found to
consistently reduce absenteeism, health care costs, and disciplinary action EAPs
typically provide employees with services such as confidential counseling and/or follow-
up on issues of personal or work-related concerns. They also provide family workshops
and consultations (related to marriage, single parenting, working parents), stress
management workshops, relaxation seminars, and other kinds of support.

STRESS IN INDIAN CONTEXT

Stress levels are rising among employed Indians owing to growing uncertainty in jobs in
a highly disruptive environment as well as increasing anxiety in personal lives, studies
have revealed. Increasing stress has, in turn, led to a surge in the number of people who
are suffering from depression and are at high risk of suicide. Employers, therefore, face
an increasing challenge of dealing with workers who are not only personally depressed
but may also adversely impact the productivity of their organisations. Surveys conducted
by Optum , one of the leading providers of employee assistance programmes to Indian
organisations, has shown a significant increase in the number of workers who are
severely depressed or who are vulnerable to taking their lives due to rising stress levels.
Nearly half the employees in India suffer from some kind of stress, according to the
findings of the latest survey by Optum, shared exclusively with ET. The survey was
conducted among 800,000 employees in 70 large companies, each with a minimum
workforce of 4,500. Work, money and family are the most common sources of stress, the
survey found. Other factors include parenting, pregnancy, change, caregiving and social
isolation.

About 89% of the population in India say they are suffering from stress compared to the
global average of 86%. The recently-released findings of the 2018 Cigna 360 Well-Being
Survey - Future Assured, showed that stress levels are higher in Indian compared with
other developed and emerging countries, including the United States, the UK, Germany,
France, China, Brazil and Indonesia.
According to Moneycontrol, the survey further revealed that 95 per cent of Indian
millennials between the age group of 18-34 are stressed compared to the global average
of 86 per cent. Making matters worse, one in eight Indians have serious trouble in dealing
with stress but nearly 75 per cent of the Indian respondents said they don't feel
comfortable talking to a medical professional about their stress. Consultation cost was
cited as one of the biggest barriers to seeking professional help. A 2016 survey of
200,000 professionals employed across 30 Indian firms found that 46 percent reported
suffering extreme stress as a consequence of their work. Pressure related to their jobs had
caused at-risk individuals to contemplate suicide. A recent ASSOCHAM study conducted
on a smaller scale found that professionals reported experiencing workplace fatigue,
sleeping disorders and a generally feeling like they had 'poor health.
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

 Job stress and its impact on employee motivation: a study of a select commercial
bank (Dr. Showkat Khalil Wani , 2013)

The study has been conducted on 400 employees, consisting of 200 officers and 200
clerks, randomly selected from different branches of the sample organization. The study
revealed that clerical grade employees experience more stress than officers and there is
strong relationship between job stress and employee motivation. It was further concluded
that increased level of stress leads to decrease in motivation level of employees. Lesser
scope for personal growth, under utilization of abilities, uncongenial working
environment, ambiguous organizational policies were other findings leading to stress and
lesser motivation of employees.

 Occupational stress and work motivation among telecom employees ( Dr

ChandraKant Jain, 2010)

The present research was planned with the primary objective to assess the relationship
between Work Motivation and Occupational Stress among two different telecom
employees. For this purpose 96 telecom employees from Mysore city were selected using
randomization technique, as respondents. Results of the study showed that work
motivation had a significant relationship with occupational stress. The study further
concluded that excessive job stress produces negative effects for both the employee and
the organization and hampers the growth and well being of the employee.

 The relationship of stress and occupational motivation in managers of social welfare

organization of Tehran city (Saber Khandan Alamdari ,2014)

The current study was accomplished in 2008 – 2009 in order to examine the relation of
occupational stress and managerial motivation among managers of the social welfare
organization. The method of the study is correlative. The studied sample in this study was
181 persons of managers of the social welfare organization. Sampling was done in the
form of random simple sampling. In this research the questionnaires of occupational
stress and managerial motivation were used. In order to solve the question of research,
the collected data were analyzed using the correlative coefficient of Pearson. The
obtained results indicated that there is a meaningful and positive relation between the
occupational stress and the managerial motivation in the meaningfulness level of P < 0.01
and (r= 0.65).

 The impact of motivation on perceived stress: a study among information technology

consultants (Lars Göran Wallgren, 2008)

The aim of the study was to test the relationship between job characteristics (job
demands, job control) and perceived stress (e.g., stressed, pressured, tense) with
“motivators” (e.g., recognition, achievement, the work itself and the possibility for
growth) as the mediating variable. In this cross- sectional study a web-based
questionnaire survey was conducted among information technology (IT) consultants in
Sweden (N=380). The results show that motivators mediate the relationship between job
control and perceived stress. The results point to the importance of motivators among IT
consultants in the framework of job stress and performance. The managers’ impact on the
work characteristics in the work environment is also discussed.

 Investigating the Relationship between Occupational Stress, Motivation and Job

Satisfaction among university teachers ( Uzma Siddique , Yasir Aftab ; 2014)

The objective of the study is to investigate the relationship between occupational stress
motivation and job satisfaction among university teachers.. The research was conducted
among university teachers with reference to Gujarat city. 171 university teachers were
selected as a sample from university of Gujarat Hafiz Hayat Campus. A simple random
sampling technique was used. The Pearson correlation result shows that no significant
relationship exists between occupational stress and job satisfaction of university teachers.
The Pearson correlation results also indicate that there is a positive relationship between
job satisfaction and motivation of university teachers.

 Effects of Job Stress and Motivation on Performance of Employees in Hotel Industry

( Adebimpe Adebola Olaniyi , 2013)

The purpose of this research was to examine the relationship between job stress and
motivation of employees in an hotel industry and how it can have an adverse effect on
their job performance and the business as a whole. Quantitative method was used for the
purpose of this project. The researcher distributed 40 questionnaires to four hotels at
Dublin airport in order to get information and from the information received, the
conclusion was drawn. From the conclusion, we can see that excessive work related
stress adversely affected the performance of employees. It was further concluded that job
stress decreased the motivation of the employees and excessive work related stress was
related to excessive job dissatisfaction.
ABOUT THE ORGANIZATION

HOUSING DEVELOPMENT FINANCE CORPOTATION (HDFC)

History

HDFC Bank limited is an Indian financial services company based in Mumbai,

Maharashtra that was incorporated in August 1994. The bank was promoted by the
Housing Development Finance Corporation, a premier housing finance company (set up
in 1977) of India. It was among the first companies to receive an ‘in principle’ approval
from the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) to set up a bank in the private sector. The Bank
started operations as a scheduled commercial bank in January 1995 under the RBI’s
liberalization policies. In 2000, Times Bank Limited was merged with HDFC Bank Ltd
and this was the first merger of two private banks in India. In 2008, HDFC Bank acquired
Centurion Bank of Punjab taking its total branches to more than 1,000. The amalgamated
bank emerged with a base of about Rs. 1, 22,000 crores and net advances of about Rs.
89,000 crores.

Structure & Organization

The bank has it’s headquarter in Mumbai. The top management of the bank includes the
Chairman, Director of Bank, Managing Director and executives management includes-
Senior General Managers, Company secretary, apart these, finance secretary, Additional
General Managers, General Managers includes in the management of Bank. HDFC Bank
is an Indian financial services company. It is the fifth largest bank in India by assets and
the first largest private sector bank by market capitalization as of 24 February, 2014. As
per the Brand Trust Report 2014, HDFC bank was ranked 32nd among India’s most
trusted brands. The top management of bank consists of Chairman, Vice-chairman,
Directors and General Managers. HDFC is headquartered in Mumbai.

Figure 7: Organization structure chart

Financial Performace :The operating profits of the Bank for 2013-14, was at Rs. 318.07
crores, as compared to Rs. 150.13 crores in 2012-13. According to annual report 2013-14,
the net profit of the Bank was 5,440.24 crores in this financial year, and it was 4,848.34
crores in last financial (2012-13) year.

Business Focus: HDFC Bank deals with three key business segments- Wholesale
Banking, Retail Banking, and Treasury.

Wholesale Banking Services- Including working capital finance, trade services,

transactional services, cash management etc. The bank provides a wide range of
commercial and transactional banking services.

Retail Banking Services- HDFC bank was the first bank in India to launch an
International Debit Card in association with VISA (Visa Electron) and issues the Master
Card Maestro debit card as well.

Treasury- The bank has three main product areas in this business- Foreign Exchange and
Derivatives, Local Currency Money Market & Debt Securities, and Equities.

Figure 8: Logo of HDFC bank

Products & Services

HDFC bank offers the following products:

NRI banking

HDFC offers following products under NRI banking:

 Accounts and Deposits

 Money Transfer

 Investment and Insurance

 Research Reports

 Payment services

SME banking

HDFC offers following products under SME banking:

 Accounts and Deposits

 Business Financing

 Trade Services

 Payments and Collections

 Cards

Services

 Wholesale banking services

 Retail banking services

 Treasury

METHOD

Sample

The sample comprised of 95 individuals working in MNCs/Government organizations

(mean age: 33.55) (Males: 60%; Females: 40%), from Delhi NCR.
Measures used

 The workplace stress scale (The Marlin Company, North Haven, CT & the American
Institute of stress, Yonkers, NY)
 Multidimensional Motivation scale: Developed by Gagné, Forest, Gilbert, Aubé,
Morin, & Malorni (2010) is a 19 item scale to measuring 6 dimensions of motivation
(amotivation, extrinsic regulation- social, extrinsic regulation – material, introjected
regulation, identified regulation, and intrinsic motivation. The scale has been
validated in seven languages and nine countries (Australia, Beligium, Norway,
Switzerland, Indonesia, UK, France). Coefficient alpha across samples was above
0.80 (Gagne et. al, 2014).

Procedure

Data was collected by groups of student researchers who went to their respective
organizations after seeking prior appointment. Details of the organization visited have
been provided in Table 1. Data collection was also done in groups. Each student collected
data from 4 participants. Data of all the student researchers was then combined for
analysis.

DATA ANALYSIS

After scoring each respondent's data on the demographic, stress and motivation variables,
mean score of stress levels and motivation (separate dimensions of motivation) were
calculated. Pearson correlation was computed for stress and motivation of the
employees.

RESULTS

Table 1 presents the descriptive statistics (mean and SD) of all the variables. Pearson's
Correlation was calculated between stress and all the dimensions of motivation and has
been presented in Table no. 2.

INTERPRETATION & DISCUSSION

The aim of the practical was to understand work motivation and its relationship with
stress of employees in an organization. Data was collected form HDFC bank, Palwal
branch. The measures used for data collection was the The workplace stress scale (The
Marlin Company, North Haven, CT & the American Institute of stress, Yonkers, NY) and
the Multidimensional Motivation scale , developed by Gagné, Forest, Gilbert, Aubé,
Morin, & Malorni (2010); which is a 19 item scale to measuring 6 dimensions of
motivation (amotivation, extrinsic regulation- social, extrinsic regulation – material,
introjected regulation, identified regulation, and intrinsic motivation. . Data collection
was also done in groups. Each student collected data from 4 participants. Data of all the
student researchers was then combined for analysis.

Atkinson (1964) defines motivation as the contemporary or immediate influence on

direction, vigour and persistence of action. Motivation can also be defined as the process
that account for an individual’s intensity, direction and persistence of effort towards
attaining a goal. According to Ivancevich and Matterson , stress is the interaction of the
individual with the environment . According to Beehr and newman , job stress is a
condition arising from the interaction of the people and their jobs and characterized by
changes within people that force them to deviate from their normal functioning.

The mean and standard deviation for the dimension of Stress came out to be 17.84 & 5.01
respectively; the dimension of Amotivation obtained a mean and standard deviation of
7.53 and 5.93 respectively; Extrinsic regulation social had a mean and standard deviation
of 10.41 and 4.14 respectively whereas extrinsic regulation material had a mean and
standard deviation 10.79 and 4.82 respectively. The mean and standard deviation for the
dimensions of introjected regulation came out to be 17.28 and 5.78 and for identified
regulation , it came out to be 15.23 and 4.13. For intrinsic motivation, the mean and SD
was 14.22 and 4.40 respectively. A low positive correlation was obtained between
amotivation and stress (+0.17), A low positive significant correlation was obtained
between extrinsic regulation social and stress (+0.27**) and a medium positive
significant correlation was obtained between extrinsic regulation material and stress
(+0.30**). A low negative correlation came out to be between introjected regulation and
stress (-0.04) and a low negative significant correlation came out to be between identified
regulation and stress (-0.22*) and a medium negative significant correlation was obtained
between intrinsic motivation and stress (-0.49**).

A low positive correlation was obtained between amotivation and stress (+0.17). This
shows that an increase in stress in the workplace leads to an increase in Amotivation,
extrinsic regulation social and extrinsic regulation material and vice versa, due to the
positive correlation obtained between these variables and also they are in the same
direction. Amotivation refers to a state of lack of any motivation to engage in an activity
or a task. The individual will display neither intrinsic nor extrinsic based behavior
Behavioral outcomes that relate to the feeling of amotivation lacks competence and
commitment towards participation (Deci & Ryan. 1985). This shows that as there is an
increase in the work stress of the employees, they get disinterested and amotivated to do
their job.
A low positive significant correlation was obtained between extrinsic regulation social
and stress (+0.27**) Extrinsic regulation refers to doing an activity in order to obtain
rewards or avoid punishment. If an individual exhibits a behavior to obtain an externally
provided reward, then her behavior is externally regulated This shows that when there is
an increase in stress , it leads to an increase in extrinsic regulation , both material and
social because there is a positive correlation between the variables and they lie in the
same direction. . When employees of the organization are under stress , they do activities
or tasks only to obtain rewards or due to the fear of punishments. behavior so regulated is
therefore completely non-internalized.

There is a negative correlation obtained between introjected regulation, identified

regulation, intrinsic motivation and stress. A low negative correlation came out to be
between introjected regulation and stress (-0.04) and a low negative significant
correlation came out to be between identified regulation and stress (-0.22*) and a medium
negative significant correlation was obtained between intrinsic motivation and stress (-
0.49**). This means that as the stress level of the employees increase, it leads to a
decrease in these three variables (introjected regulation, identified regulation and intrinsic
motivation). Introjected regulation refers to the regulation of behaviour through self-
worth contingencies such as ego-involvement and guilt. The source of motivation for a
behavior is guilt, worry or shame. Introjected regulation inspires an individual to enact a
behavior not because he wants to, but because he fears not to out of a sense of obligation.
Introjected people engage in a behaviour or commit to an activity out of guilt or
compulsion or to maintain their self-worth. An increase in stress would lead to a decrease
in introjected regulation as there is a negative correlation obtained between stress and
introjected regulation. This shows that stress in the employees reduces ego-involvement
or guilt causing activities. When the employees are under stress their fear of obligation
and insecurity reduces .

Identified regulation refers to doing an activity because one identifies with its value or
meaning and accepts it as one’s own, which means it is autonomously regulated With this
form of motivation, the individual doesn't have to find enjoyment in the behavior, and
there doesn't have to be an immediate reward. The person also isn't motivated by guilt or
shame: She simply recognizes that a behavior is beneficial toward her development and
adopts that behavior as her own. Identified people engage in a behaviour or commit to an
activity based on its perceived meaning or its relation to personal goals. This has found to
have a negative correlation with stress , which shows that an increase in stress leads to a
decrease in people engaging in activities which they perceive to be meaningful or related
to their personal goals. As stress disturbs the homeostasis of a person, the person is then
not able to pay attention to his/her personal goals.
 Intrinsic motivation is defined as doing something for its own sake because it is
interesting and enjoyable . It refers to behavior that is driven by internal rewards. In other
words, the motivation to engage in a behavior arises from within the individual because it
is naturally satisfying to you Workers who are intrinsically motivated show that they have
a lot of fun working, and that they enjoy performing tasks related to their jobs. Intrinsic
motivation is relatively similar to the concept of flow, which is a transient absorption, a
state of fun and intense concentration.. On the other hand Extrinsic motivation occurs
when we are motivated to perform a behavior or engage in an activity to earn a reward or
avoid punishment. In this case, you engage in a behavior not because you enjoy it or
because you find it satisfying, but in order to get something in return or avoid something
unpleasant.

When the stress level in the workplace is high, it leads to a decrease in the intrinsic
motivation of the employees and vice versa. One reason for this is that when stress is
high, the employees are unable to do tasks or activities in an interesting and enjoyable
manner. They feel short of time, are in a hurry and are unable to relax. When employees
feel the adverse effects of stress, they get disinterested in their daily tasks and activities
and tend to do this out of external punishments or rewards.

Thus, when the stress level of the employees are high , it leads to amotivation and
extrinsic regulated behaviours because I directly affects the productivity of the employees
and makes them feel disinterested towards their job. Their mental peace is also hampered
and they start feeling threatened, hence they start doing tasks only to obtain rewards or to
avoid punishments. High stress levels also leads to a decrease in introjected regulation,
identified regulation and intrinsic motivation. Reasons for this could be that stress often
forces an employee to reduce self worth contingencies such as ego-involvement activities
and makes them not think about value-filled and meaningful activities and they have to
sacrifice their personal goals at times due to the burden of their office work. This also
leads to a decrease in their intrinsic motivation and the employees start to see their work
as a burden.

A study done by Dr Showkat Khail Wani (2009) on job stress and its impact on employee
motivation showed that that clerical grade employees experience more stress than officers
and there is strong relationship between job stress and employee motivation. It was
further concluded that increased level of stress leads to decrease in motivation level of
employees. Lesser scope for personal growth, under utilization of abilities, uncongenial
working environment, ambiguous organizational policies were other findings leading to
stress and lesser motivation of employees. Another study Effects of Job Stress and
Motivation on Performance of Employees in Hotel Industry by Adebimpe Adebola
Olaniyi (2013) showed that excessive work related stress adversely affected the
performance of employees. It was further concluded that job stress decreased the
motivation of the employees and excessive work related stress was related to excessive
job dissatisfaction.

Another study, Occupational stress and work motivation among telecom employees by Dr
ChandraKant Jain (2010) showed that work motivation had a significant relationship with
occupational stress. The study further concluded that excessive job stress produces
negative effects for both the employee and the organization and hampers the growth and
well being of the employee. This also affects the productivity of the employee and his
performance on the job.

CONCLUSION

The aim of the practical was to understand work motivation and its relationship with
stress of employees in an organization. Through the results of the study we can conclude
that a moderate correlation exists between motivation and stress.

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