Tlo 1 Introduction PDF

CE 424: SANITARY ENGINEERING 3
TLO-1:INTRODUCTION MEETINGS: 4
1.0 INTRODUCTION
With the definition of civil engineering as a basis, sanitary engineering may

be defined as the art and science of applying the forces of nature in the
planning and construction of works pertaining to public or individual health.
To put it in other words, the purpose of all works of sanitary engineering is
the promotion of healthful conditions, the avoidance of disease caused by
outside influences which may be brought under control of mankind, and the
increase of the duration of life.
The sanitary engineer is a specialist in hydraulic engineering in the

application of water supply and drainage as means to secure the well-being
of the community as respects its public health.
The field expands from that of the wise precautions respecting the piping of
the individual house, where it touches the craftsmanship of the plumber, up
to the broadest problems of sewage disposal and utilization, and the
healthful supply of potable water for cities, free from bacterial or inorganic
pollution at its source or in transit.
The co-workers of the sanitary engineer are the bacteriologists and the
physician. Such men might e grouped with the civil engineers.
Heating and ventilating engineers make a specialty of the sanitary

requirements of enclosed building structures as respects their fresh and
tempered air supply; they are really sanitary engineers, having, however, an
outlook and a relation to mechanical engineering int he appliances of their
function rather than toward civil engineering.
1.1. ACTUAL PRACTICE OF THE SANITARY ENGINEER
A sanitary engineer having a private practice is often called upon to act as

consulting or advisory engineer for municipal works; in other cases he work
is more in the nature of private architectural engineering and domestic work,
such as heating and ventilating of buildings, plumbing and drainage, water
supply, sewerage and sewage disposal.
1.1.1. WATER SUPPLY OF CITIES AND OR DWELLINGS
A problem which belongs both to the sanitary and the hydraulic engineer is
the provision of a bountiful supply of pure and wholesome water for cities,
towns, and buildings.
A project for water works requires investigations as to the quantity needed;

as to quality and available sources of supply; as to the pressure required and
the division into pressure districts; as to the means for conducting the water
from its source to the places of consumption and the systems of pipe
Understand the applications of sanitary engineering and other related sanitary sciences to the control of man’s environment.
distribution; as to the methods of storing the water, its protection against
contamination, and, finally as to the means of purification.
1.1.2. SEWERAGE
The water supplied to a city from its water works must be removed after use.
To accomplish this is one, though not the only, the object of a sewer system.
Town sewerage, in the wider meaning of the term, signifies the removal, by
underground conduits or sewers, of the sewage of a city, which may include
a portion or all of the following liquid wastes:
A. House wastes, including excreta and urine
B. Stable wastes
C. Manufacturing wastes, manufacturing wastes from industries using in
their processes large volumes of water
D. Waste from water motors and hydraulic lifts
E. Subsoil water
F. Surface or storm water falling on roofs, yards, areas, courts, paved
streets and unpaved spaces.
1.2. SANITATION
[Wikipedia] Sanitation generally refers to the provision of facilities and

services for the safe disposal of human urine and feces. The word
“sanitation” also refers to the maintenance of hygienic conditions, through
services such as garbage collection and wastewater disposal.
Sanitation includes all four of these engineering infrastructure items:
 Excreta management systems

 Wastewater management systems (included are wastewater treatment
plants)
 Solid waste management systems
 Drainage systems for rainwater, also called stormwater drainage
1.2.1. DISEASES CAUSED BY LACK OF SANITATION
Relevant diseases and conditions caused by lack of sanitation and hygiene

include:
 Waterborne diseases, which contaminate drinking water

 Diseases transmitted by fecal-oral route
 Stunted growth
 Malnutrition
1.2.2. PATHOGENS
A pathogen or infectious agent is a biological agent that causes disease or
illness to its host. The human body contains many natural defenses against
some of common pathogens in the form of the human immune system and
by some "helpful" bacteria present in the human body's normal flora.
1.2.3. TRANSMISSIBLE DISEASE
A disease in which the pathogen can be passed from one host to another.
Diseases can be transmitted through:
 Direct contact. Through blood of other body fluids
 Indirect contact. Through contaminated surfaces or food, from animals,
or from the air
1.2.4. DEFENSE MECHANISMS
1. External defense (First line of defense).

a) Skin
b) Mucus
c) Tears
d) Gatric stomach acid
2. Internal Defense (2nd line of defense)
a) Phaocytic cells
b) Inflammatory response
c) Antimicrobial proteins such as antibodies
3. Immune Defense
1.2.5. IMMUNITY
Immunity is a state of resistance of an organism to invading biotic or abiotic

pathogens and their harmful effects that prevents the development of
infection and maintains organism's integrity by counteracting, neutralizing,
and clearing pathogens.
1.2.6. TYPES OF IMMUNITY
1. Active Immunity
a) Defense against a pathogen by antibody production in the body
b) This is gained after an infection by a pathogen, or by vaccination
2. Passive Immunity
a) Short-term defense against a pathogen by antibodies acquired
from another individual, e.g. mother to infant
b) No memory cells produced
c) Important for new-borns to get all antibodies from the mother
1.2.7. VACCINATION
Injection of a killed microbe in order to stimulate the immune system

against the microbe, thereby preventing disease. Vaccinations,
or immunizations, work by stimulating the immune system, the natural
disease-fighting system of the body. The healthy immune system is able to
recognize invading bacteria and viruses and produce substances (antibodies)
to destroy or disable them. Immunizations prepare the immune system to
ward off a disease.
The process of vaccination is as follows:
1. Harmless pathogen given which has antigens

2. Antigens trigger an immune response by lymphocytes which produce
antibodies
3. Memory cells are produced that give long-term immunity
1.3. RURAL WATER SUPPLY
Basically, all sources of freshwater originate from rainfall, which is slightly

acidic due to dissolution of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. In the form of
surface run-off, it will gather considerable amounts of organic and mineral
matters, soil particles, microorganisms, etc. When the surface run-off
infiltrates into subsoil it forms groundwater. As the groundwater level
increases and rises above surface level due to varying land formations, it
oozes out as springs. Perennial springs are the fountainheads of surface
water bodies such as streams, rivers and lakes. The source of water has a
major effect on water system design and hence costs. Water from different
sources varies in quality and hence requires varying degrees of treatment.
The process of choosing the most suitable source for water supply largely
depends on the local conditions. A source of water supply can be identified
at any of the above stages of water cycle, provided it can supply in sufficient
quantities for most periods of the time in a year. Thus, water supply for rural
communities can be organized with use of rainwater, groundwater, and,
spring and surface water.
Where water from polluted sources is carried over long distances and used
directly, any simple improvement in service and water quality could be
expected to have a large beneficial impact on health. That is to say that
what is needed is an effective short-term alternative to the ideal situation.
Such an alternative to achieve an overall low-cost water supply scheme
consists of:
 An appropriate water source

 An appropriate water extraction method from the source
 Low-cost water treatment systems, wherever required
 An appropriate water distribution system
1.4. RURAL EXCRETA DISPOSAL
Excreta disposal is undoubtedly one of the key elements of any emergency

sanitation programme. Containment and safe disposal of human excreta is
the primary barrier to transmission of excreta-related disease. Implementing
agencies often focus solely on the quantity of toilets in emergency situations;
however, and pay scant attention to their quality and usage.
1.4.1. SOURCES OF DISEASE
Inadequate and unsafe disposal of human feces can lead to:

a. The contamination of ground and water sources
b. Can provide breeding sites for flies and mosquitoes which carry infection
c. Feces may attract domestic animals and vermin
d. Creates an unpleasant environment in terms of odor and sight
1.4.2. TRANSMISSION OF DISEASE
1.4.3. SELECTION CRITERIA FOR EXCRETA DISPOSAL
In selecting appropriate excreta disposal interventions there are may criteria

that must be considered. These include:
a. Socio-political factors
b. Soco-cultural factors
c. Available space
d. Ground conditions
e. Water availability
f. Anl cleansing material
g. Menstruation
h. User-friendliness (for children, etc)
i. Time constraints
j. Design life
k. Mandate of agency
l. Financial constraints
m. Availability of local materials
n. Transpotation means
o. Human resources
p. Operation and maintenance
1.4.4. METHODS OF EXCRETA DISPOSAL: LONGE TERM
a. OPEN DEFECATION
In some emergency situations I may be perfectly acceptable for the affected

population to practice open defecation.
Advantages: There is no cost, and no construction activities are required.

Constraints: Practice is unsuitable where people are living in overcrowded
conditions; large space is needed; and this is only acceptable if the
population is already accustomed to such practice.
b. SIMPLE PIT LATRINES
Pit latrines are by far the most common technology choice adopted in
emergency scenarios. This is because they are simple. Quick to construct
and generally inexpensive.
The pit should be 2m or more in depth and covered by a latrine slab. The
slab should be firmly supported on all sides and raised above the
surrounding ground level to prevent surface water entering the pit. If the
soil is unstable, the pit should be lined to prevent collapse. A squat or
drophole is provided in the slab which allows excreta to fall directly into the
pit. This can be covered with a removable lid to minimize flies and odor.
Advantages: They are cheap; quick to construct; operate without water; and
easily understood.
Constraints. ____________________________________________________
c. DEEP TRENCH LATRINES
If communal latrines are to be constructed, a common option is the

construction of deep trench latrines. These operate on exactly the Same
principle as the simple pit latrine but involve the sitting of several cubicles
above a single trench. Care should be taken to not put too many latrines
side by side. The recommended maximum length o trench is 6m, providing
six cubicles.
Trenches should be about 0.80m wide and at least the top 0.50m of the pit
should be lined. Wooden platforms can be used above the trench and
covered with plastic sheeting and soil. Simple wooden footrests may b used
beside each drophole in the immediate stage, to be replaced with plastic or
concrete latrine slabs later.
Advantages. The same advantages as simple pit latrine.

Constraints. ____________________________________________________
d. VIP LATRINES
The Ventilated Improved Pit (VIP) latrine is an improved pit latrine designed
to minimize odor and flies. A vent pipe is incorporated into the design to
remove odorous gases from the pit. This should ideally be situated outside
the latrine interior, should extend at leas 50cm above the latrine
superstructure, and should be painted black to increase solar heating of the
air in the vent pipe, causing it to rise. Air should be able t flow freely through
the squat hole and vent pipe, there fore no drophole cover is required.
Advantages: Odor and flies are reduced, and a good quality long-term
soluton.
Constraints: VIPS are difficult and xpensive to construct properly
Design and operation are often not flly understood
Construction may take time
Dark interior may deter young children from using the latrine
Design does not deter mosquitoes
There is an increased odor outside
e. POUR-FLUSH LATRINES
Pour-flush latrines rely on water t act as a hygienic seal and to help remove
excreta to a wet or dry disposal system. The most simple pour-flush latrines
use a latrine pan incorporating a shallow U-bend which retains the water.
After defecation, a few liters of water must be poured, or thrown, into the
bowl in order to flush the excreta into the pit or sewerage system below.
Advantages: There is lack of odor, ideal where water is used for anal
cleansing, and they are easy to clean.
Constrants: An increased quantity of water required
Solid anal cleasing materials may cause blockages
They are more expensive than simple pit larines
f. OVER-HUNG LATRINES
An over-hung latrine consists of a superstructure and floor built over water.
A squat hole in the floor allows excreta to fall directly, or via a chute, into
the water below. Over-hung latrines are rarely appropriate and should only
be considered if other options are not possible, such as in areas prone to
continued flooding. The receiving water must be sufficiently deep
throughout the year, preferably should be saline to prevent human
consumption, and should be flowing away from settlements.
Advantages: May be the only option in flooded areas.

Constraints: ____________________________________________________
g. BOREHOLE LATRINES
A borehole drilled by machine or

hand-powered auger can be used as a
latrine. This has a typical diameter of
400mm ad a depth of 4 to 8m. At
least the top 0.5m should be lined
although it is rarely necessary or
appropriate to line the entire depth.
Borehole latrines are most

appropriate in situations where
boring/drilling equipment is readily
available, where a large number of
latrines must be constructed rapidly,
and where pits re difficult to excavate,
either due to ground conditions o lack
of a suitable labor force.
Advantages: The borehole can be

excavated quickly if boring equipment
is available.
Suitable in hard ground
conditions (where there are no large
stones or rocks)
Appropriate where only a small
workforce is available.
Constraints: Drilling equipment is required
There is a greater risk of groundwater pollution
Life span is short
Sides are liable to be fouled, attracting flies; and there is a
high likelihood of blockages
h. SEWERAGE SYSTEMS
In sites with existing sewerage systems it is logical to make use of this by

constructing toilet blocks directly over or slightly offset from sewers. Checks
should be made to ensure tat the system is functioning properly and is able
to cope with the increased load. An adequate quantity of water (20-40 liters
per user per day) is also required for flushing.
Advantages: An existing disposal system is already in place

System is relatively quick to implement
Constraints: Expansion possibilities may be limited
May cause problems due to overloading of system or after
the population has moved on
An adequate water supply required for flushing
Freezing may cause blockages
1.4.5. STRATEGIES FOR DIFFICULT CONDITIONS
In some
situations it
may be
impossible to
use traditional
infiltration
techniques
(such as simple
pit latrines) for
excreta disposal.
This is likely to
be the case:
 Where the water table is very close to the ground surface, limiting
excavation
 Where groundwater sources are likely to be contaminated easily
 Where there is hard rock close to the surface, making excavation very
difficult
 Where the ground is so soft that pit walls collapse before an adequate
depth can be reached; and
 In flood-affected areas
Generally, the base of the pit must be at least 1.5m above the wet season
water table to prevent contamination, but in some geological conditions his
may be insufficient. If there is a conflict between latrine provision an water
supply it is usually easier and cheaper to develop another water source than
provide alternative excreta disposal facilities,
a. RAISED PIT LATRINES
Where groundwater table is within a few meters of ground level, or

excavation of the ground is extremely difficult, hen a raised pit latrine may
be a viable solution. This can be in the form of a simple pit latrine of a VIP
latrine in which the pit is built upwards above the ground level. This
increases cost and construction time considerably an family members may
be unable to construct this type of latrine by themselves, but it is a relatively
simple measure to minimize groundwater pollution.
b. TWIN PIT LATRINES
Here it is no feasible to dig a deep pit it may be easier and cheaper o dig two
shallow pits side by side. This principle can be applied to simple pit latrines,
IP latrines or pour-flush latrines. The superstructure should be built over bot
pit, each of which has its own drophole. One pit is then used until it is full, at
which point it is sealed and the second pit is used. If the contents of the first
pit re left to stand for at least two years, virtually all of the pathogenic
organisms will have died and the waste will be relatively safe to handle.
Unlike a composting latrine, the pit contents are not a good fertilizer,
although they may help to improve the quality of the soil to which they are
added.
c. SAND-ENVELOPED PIT LATRINES
Where there is a high risk of groundwater contamination, and it is important

to prevent this, a sand envelop can be constructed around a lined latrine pit
to reduce pollution. This envelope is usually about 0.50m thick and acts as a
filter to minimize the transmission of disease-casing micro-organisms. It
should not be assumed that this will stop contamination completely. Where
the risk of pollution of nearby groundwater sources is especially high, and
there is no viable alternative, it may be appropriate to construct
sand-enveloped raised pi latrines.
d. SEALED PITS/TANKS
Groundwater contamination can also be prevented if the disposal pit or tank

is fully lined and sealed, so that the contents are unable t infiltrate into the
surrounding ground. The construction of fully lined pits is expensive and
time-consuming, however, and is likely to be impractical where family
latrines re desired. The second disadvantage is that such pits will need to be
emptied relatively regularly, since no infiltration is able to occur.
e. ANAEROBIC COMPOSTING LATRINES
Anaerobic composting latrines use a dry disposal system in which urine and
feces are managed separately. The deposited fecal matter is dried by
exposure to heat or the sun ad the addition of lime, ash, sawdust or earth,
which controls the moisture content. Vegetable or other organic waste can
also be added to control the chemical balance. The latrine contents are then
isolated from human contact for a specified period to reduce the presence
of pathogens and make the waste safe for handling. This period should be at
least ten months and some practitioners recommend longer periods of two
years or more. The longer the waste is stored the more pathogens will be
destroyed. The waste may then be re-used as fertilizer or as fuel.
f. AEROBIC COMPOSTING LATRINES
Aerobic composting latrines use a similar method to the anaerobic

composting latrine and the intended outcome is the same - to reduce
excreta to a safe re-usable state. The main difference is that urine does not
need to be separated from fecal matter. New wastes must be separated
from old, however, and air must be able to circulate freely. In a composting
latrine, bacteria, worms, or other organisms are used to break down organic
matter to produce compost. This encouraged through the addition organic
refuse, such as vegetable waste, to the toilet chamber. The final compost
produced can then be sued as fertilizer for agricultural purposes.
g. SEPTIC TANKS
A septIc tank is designed t collect and treat toilet wastewater and other grey
water. Its use is likely to be appropriate where the volume of wastewatr
produced is too large for disposal in pit latrines, and water-borne sewerage
is uneconomic or unaffordable. Septic tanks are therefore particularly suited
to systems involving high wateruse, especially where water is used for anal
cleansing.
The treatment process in a septic tank occurs in four stages:
Settlement: Heavy solids settle to the base of the tank to form a sludge wich
must occasionally be removed; about 80% of the suspended solids can be
separated from the liquid in a well-designed tank.
Flotation: Grease and oil float to the surface to form a layer of scum; over
time this scum layer becomes thick and the surface may be hard.
Sludge digestion and consolidation: The sludge at the bottom of the tank is
compressed by the weight of new material settling on top, increasing its
density; and organic matter in the sludge and scum layers is broken down by
bacteria which convert it to liquid and gas.
Stabilisation: The liquid in the tank undergoes some natural purification but
the process is not complete; the final effluent is anaerobic and will contain
pathogenic organisms such as roundworm and hookworm eggs.
h. AQUA PRIVIES
An aqua privy is simply a latrine constructed directly above a septic tank.

Aqua privies are appropriate where pit latrines are socially or technically
unacceptable but the volume of sullage is small. Th amount of water
required for flushing is much smaller than fr a septic tank because of the
location of the tank. The water-seal pan and extension of the drop pipe
75mm below the water surface helps to exclude odors from the
superstructure. The tank of the aqua privy must be watertight t maintain a
constant liquid level in the tank. The outlet pipe should extend at least
50mm below the water surface to provide an odor seal.
i. SEWERAGE SYSTEMS
Sewerage systems are not common in emergency situations, although they

may be used where the affected population remains or relocates in an urban
area. Most sewerage systems need at least 20-40 liters of water per user per
day to be flushed into the system. In addition, pumped sewerage systems
and sewage treatment works may require a back-up power supply to keep
the system running. This may be a major undertaking.
1.5. REFUSE DISPOSAL
Solid waste refers to all non-liquid wastes. In general this does not include
excreta, although sometimes nappies and the feces of young children may
be mixed with solid waste. Solid waste can create significant health
problems and a very unpleasant living environment if not disposed of safely
and appropriately. If not correctly disposed of, waste may provide breeding
sites for insect-vectors, pests, snakes and vermin that increase the likelihood
of disease transmission. It may also pollute water sources and the
environment.
1.5.1. SOURCES OF SOLID WASTE
In most emergency situations the main sources of solid wastes are:

 Medical centers
 Food stores
 Feeding centers
 Food distribution points
 Slaughter areas
 Warehouses
 Agency premises
 Markets
 Domestic areas
1.5.2. TYPE AND QUANTITY OF WASTE
The type and quantity of waste generated in emergency situations varies

greatly. The main factors affecting these are:
 The geographical region (developed or less-developed country or

region)
 Socio-cultural practices and material levels among affected population
 Seasonal variations (affecting types of food available)
 The stage of emergency (Volume and composition of waste may
change over time)
 The packaging of food rations
Different categories of solid waste include:
Organic waste: Waste from preparation of food, market places, etc.

Combustibles: Paper, wood, dried leaves, packaging for relief items,
etc. (high organic and ow moisture content)
Non-combustibles: Metal, tin cans, bottles, stones, etc.
Ashes/dust: Residue from fires used for cooking
Bulky waste: Tree branches, tyres, etc.
Dead animals: Carcasses of domestic animals and livestock
Hazardous waste: Oil, battery acid, medical waste
Construction waste: Roofing, rubble, broken concrete, etc.
1.5.3. KEY COMPONENTS OF SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
A. GENERATION
Generation of solid waste is the stage at which materials become valueless

to the owner an since they have no use for them and require them no longer,
they wish to get rid of them. Items which may be valueless to one individual
may not necessarily be valueless to another.
B. STORAGE
Storage is a system for keeping materials after they have been discarded an
prior to collection and final disposal. Where on-site disposal systems are
implemented, such as where people discard items directly into family pits,
storage may not be necessary. In emergency situations, specially in the early
stages, it is likely that the affected population will discard domestic waste in
poorly defined heaps close to dwelling areas. If this I the case, improved
disposal or storage facilities should be provided fairly quickly and these
should be located where people are able to use them easily. Improved
storage facilities include:
 Small containers: household containers, plastic bins, etc.
 Large containers: communal bins, oil drums, etc
 Shallow pits
 Communal depots: walled or fenced-in areas
C. COLLECTION
Collection simply refers to how waste is collected fr transportation to the

final disposal site. Any collection system should be carefully planned to
ensure that storage facilities do not become overloaded. Collection intervals
and volumes of collected waste must be estimated carefully.
C. TRANSPORTATION
This is the stage when solid waste is transported to the final disposal site.
There are various modes of transport which may be adopted and the chosen
method depends upon local availability and the volume of waste to be
transported. Types of transportation can be divided into three categories:
 Human-powered: Open hand-cart, hand-cart with bins, wheelbarrow,
tricycle
 Animal-powered: Donkey-drawn cart
 Motorized: Tractor and trailer, standard truck, tipper-truck
D. DISPOSAL
The final stage of solid waste management is safe disposal where associated
risks are minimized. There are four main methods for the disposal of solid
waste:
 Land application: burial or landfilling
 Composting
 Burning or incineration
 Recycling (resource recovery)
1.5.4. METHODS OF SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL AND MANAGEMENT
A. OPEN BURNING
Not an ideal method in the present day context.
B. DUMPING INTO SEA
 Possible only in coastal cities

 Refuse shall be taken in barges sufficiently fa away from the coast
(15-30km) and dumped there
 Very costly
 Not environmentally friendly
C. SANITARY LANDFILLING OF SOLID WASTES
 Simple, cheap, and effective

 A deep trench (3 to 5m) is excavated
 Refuse is laid in layers
 Layers are compacted with some mechanical equipment and covered
with earth, leveled, and compacted
 With time, the fill would settle
 Micro-oganisms act on the organic matter and degrade them
 Decomposition is similar to that in composting
 Facultive bacteria hydrolyze complex organic matter into simpler water
soluble organics
 These diffuse through the soil where fungi and other bacteria convert
them to carbon dioxide and water under aerobic conditions
 Aerobic methanogenic bacteria utilize the methane generated and the
rest diffuses into the atmosphere
 Too much refuse shall not be buried - fire hazard
 Moist content - no less than 60% for good biodegradation
 Refuse depth more than 3m - danger of combustion due to
compression of bottom layers - hence should be avoided
 Refuse depth is generally limited to 2m
 Temperature in the initial stages of decomposition - as high as 70oC
then drops
 Reclaimed areas my be used for other uses
D. ENGINEERED LANDFILLS OF SOLID WASTES
 Bottom of the trench is lines with impervious material to prevent the

leachate from contaminating groundwater
 A well designed ad laid out leachate collection mechanisms is to be
provided
 Leachate so collected is treated and then disposed off
Table 1 [The Constructor] A Typical Sanitary Landfill for Solid Waste
Table 2[The Constructor] Components of a Typical Landfill
E. INCINERATION OF SOLID WASTE
 A method suited for combustible refuse

 Refuse is burnt
 Suited in crowded cities where sites for land filling are not available
 High construction and operation costs
 Sometimes used to reduce the volume of solid wastes for land filling
 Primary chamber - designed to facilitate rapid desiccation of moist
refuse and complete combustion of refuse and volatile gases
 A ledge or drying hearth is provided for this purpose
 Secondary chamber - between the primary chamber and the stack
temperatures above 700oC
 All unburnt and semi-burnt material are completely burnt here
F. COMPOSTING
 Similar to sanitary landfilling

 Yields a stable end product - good soil conditioner and may be used as
a base for fertilizers
 Popular in developing countries
 Decomposable organic matter is separated and composted
Methods:
1. Open window composting:
a) Refuse is placed in piles, about 1.5m high and 2.5m wide at about
60% moisture content
b) Heat build up in the refuse piles due to biological activity -
temperature rises to about 70oC
c) Pile is turned up for coolling and aeration to avoid anaerobic
conditions
d) Moisture content is adjusted to about 60%
e) Piled again - temperature rises to about 70oC
f) The above operations are repeated
g) After a few days (7 to 10weeks) temperature drops to
atmospheric temperature - indication of stabilization of compost
2. Mechanical composting:
a) Process of stabilization is expedited by mechanical devices of
turning the compost
b) Compost is stabilized in about 1 to 2 weeks
c) To enrich compost - night soild, cow dung, etc. Are added to the
refuse
d) Usually done in compost pits
e) Arrangements for draining of excess moisture are provided at the
base of the pit
f) At the bottom of the pit, a layer of ash, ground limestone, or
loamy soil is placed - to neutralize acidity in the compost material
and providing an alkaline medium for microorganisms
g) The pit is filled by alternate layers of refuse (laid in layers of depth
30 - 40cm) and night soil or cow dung (laid over it in a thin layer)
h) Material is turned every 5 days or so
i) After 30 days, it is ready for use
G. VERMICOMPOSTING
 Ideal for biodegradable wastes from kitchens, hotels, etc.

 At household level, a vessel or tray more than 45cm deep, and 1 x
0.60m may be sufficient
 A hole shall be provided at one end in the bottom for draining the
leachate out into a tray or vessel
 Lay a 1” thick layer of baby metal or gravel at the bottom of the tray
 Above that, lay an old gunny bag or a piece of thick cloth, a layer of
coconut husk upside down over it and above that a 2” thick layer of dry
leaves and dry cow dung (powdered)
 Lay the biodegradable waste over it
 Introduce good quality earthworms into it (10grams for 0.60 x 0.45 x
0.45m box)
 If the waste is dry, sprinkle water over it daily
 Rainwater should not fall into the tray or vessel or box
 Keep it closed
 If the box is kept under bright sun earthorms will go down and compost
can be taken from the top
 Compost can be dried and stored
 Continue putting waste into the box
 Add little cow dung at intervals
 Do not use vermiwash directly. Dilute in the ratio 1:10 before use
H. DISPOSAL BY PLOUGHING INTO FIELDS
 Not very commonly used

 Not environment friendly in general
I. DISPOSAL BY HOG FEEDING
 Not common
 Refuse is ground well in grinders and then fed into sewers
 Disposal of garbage into sewers
J. SALVAGING
 Materials like paper, metal, glass, rags, certain types of plastic etc. Can
be salvaged, recycled, and reused
K. FERMENTATION OR BIOLOGICAL DIGESTION
 Biodegradable waste - convert to compost

 Recycle whatever is possible
 Hazardous wastes = dispose it by suitable methods
 Landfill or incinerate the rest
1.6. RODENT MANAGEMENT
Rats and mice are not only a nuisance but can also cause property damage
and transmit diseases. You’ll know they’ve arrived if you see rodent
droppings near a food source or shredded fabric or paper.
1.6.1. COMMON SOURCES OF FOOD AND WATER
1. Food in unsealed containers such as bags of chips, rice, cereal, crackers,

flour, and other non-perishables.
2. Pet food and water left out overnight or in a bag rather than in a secure
container.
3. Fruits or vegetables in open bowls left outside of refrigerator.
4. Leaky pipes or faucets throughout the house.
5. Open trash and compost containers.
1.6.2. COMMON RODENT ACCESS POINTS
1. Holes near cabinets, closets or doors leading to outside or crawl spaces.

2. Holes around sink or appliance pipes.
3. Cracked foundations in the basement or unscreened ventilation holes in
the attic, especially in older structures.
4. Holes around windows or doors.
5. Missing screens in vents or crawl spaces under buildings.
1.6.3. RODENTS AND DISEASE
Rats and mice are most destructive animals. They are responsible for the
transmission of such diseases as:
1. Salmonellosis – It is a food poisoning disease that causes diarrhea and

dysentery. The disease is spread in several ways, one being the feces of
rats containing the infective bacteria.
2. Leptospirosis – (Hemorrhagic jaundice) – This disease is transmitted to
man by contaminated water supplies with infected urine of rodents.
Direct contact with the infected rodents can also produce the disease.
The spirochetes may enter through mucous membranes, cuts, and
abrasions of the skin.
3. Murine typhus fever – It is transmitted from rat, the reservoir of the
disease, to man by the rat flea. The rickettsial organisms that cause
murine typhus fever enter the human blood stream when feces of
infected fleas are rubbed or scratched into the flea bite wound or broken
skin.
4. Plague (Black death) – This is the disease which once killed millions of
people in Europe, Asia, and Africa. It is transmitted from rodent to rodent
and from rodent to man. The disease is usually fatal to the rat, the flea
and man.
5. Trichinosis – The rat serves as a reservoir of the disease. Man gets the
disease indirectly by eating raw pig that, in turn, have eaten infected
carcasses of rats.
6. Rickettsial pox – The infection is transmitted from the house mouse to
man by the bite of the mite, which the house mouse harbors. The
rickettsial pox is a mild non-fatal diseas, which resembles chickenpox.
7. Rat bites – Rats have a painful bite. It leaves an ugly scar when it heals.
Secondary infections are also common after a rat bite. People may
develop rate bite fever. Death due to rate bites occurs very rarely.
8. Economic damage – Since rats and mice live everywhere and eat every
thing their destructiveness is unlimited.
- Merchandize in stores and in transits is destroyed by rates and mice
- Seeds and stored food are heavily destroyed.
- Furniture, clothing, they will even try to gnaw stones and iron.
1.6.4. RODENT CONTROL
Controlling rat population is preferable than killing individual rats in a house.

The key for a successful rodent control program in a community is to control
the rodent population. At any given time each village, farm or mill has a
certain capacity to support rats. This capacity is related to the availability of
food, harborage, living space and other vital rodent requirements.
1.6.5. LIMITING FACTORS FOR RODENT POPULATION
The factors that regulate the balance between reproduction, morbidity and
movement of rodents are:
 Physical environment
 Predation
 Competition
The physical environment is comprised of three main elements, which are:

 Food and water
 Harborage
 Climate
Improperly handled foods, garbage, and field crops are often major sources
of rodent food.
1.6.6. CONTROL METHODS
1. RODENT TRAPPING
Traps have a definite place in rodent control activities. Traps are useful in
connection with the following key points.
 To kill the rats where the use of poisoned baits is too dangerous for use
in common.
 To avoid dead rat order
 To eliminate bait shy rats
 When live rats are needed for the recovery of ectoparasites or other
research or survey needs, like bloods for use in rodent disease studies
Use of traps:
1. Snap traps (Killer traps) – an attractive bait should be placed on it.

2. Cage traps (holder types)
Remember these points when you use traps:

 Use traps in rat runways, burrows, etc.
 Fasten traps
 Block runways with boards, boxes, or other objects after traps are
set
 Set two traps at each end of runway
 Camouflage traps with dust, paper, board etc.
 Rats are suspicious, use as many traps as possible
Remember the following rules for effective rodent control:

 To prevent mass movement and spread of rodents, killing must be
done before sanitation campaign
 To reduce rodent expatriates, which are the reservoirs of plague,
murine typhus, etc., killing must be done after dusting with 10%
DDT or other insecticide
 Killing must be done during and after or together with rat
proofing work
3. RAT PROOFING
Rat proofing is applied to structures and is designed to prevent rats from

doing economic damage and disease transmission. Rats enter buildings
through drainpipes, doors, windows, roofs, and foundations. Therefore,
such places should be screened for built properly to avoid rats.
4. STARVING OF RODENTS
This is the best method of controlling rodents. If you starve rats by

eliminating all food material through basic sanitation, then they will soon
vanish, or migrate away. Mobilize the community for basic sanitation
movement so that rodents are deprived of food and shelter.
5. KILLING OF RODENTS
 Use stick to kill rodents

 Fill their harborage and suffocate them
 Flood their holes
 Burn fire on their harborage or holes
 Use rodenticides to kill them
There are two kinds of poisons or rodenticides currently in use.
1. Single dose or knock down poisons
These are the poisons that can kill rats through a single feeding. Examples
include: ANTU, Red squill, Strychnine, Sodium flouroaccetate (1080), Zinc
phosphide and Arsenic trioxide (white arsenic)
2. Anticoagulans (Multiple dose poisons)
These poisons need to be repeatedly given to be effective. This is

considered as a good safety factor for children who might have one
contact. Anticoagulants kill the rat by causing internal hemorrhage.
Examples are warfarine, pival and fumarine.
1.7. MOSQUITO MANAGEMENT
Mosquitoes can be a real nuisance anywhere in the world, leaving itchy

bites on uncovered skin and waking you up from your sleep with their
high pitched buzz. But besides being a total annoyance, mosquitoes are
also the number 1 killer in the world, causing more human fatalities than
sharks. They may look harmless, but the numbers of dengue and malaria
cases over the years have proven that mosquitoes are more deadly than
they look.
1.7.1. MOSQUITO RELATED DISEASES
1. Malaria – This is a fatal disease that is caused when an infected

female Anopheles mosquito lands and bites anyone. Once it does, it
transmits a parasite named Plasmodium Falciparum to its victim. The
parasite develops for around 10 to 18 days in the mosquito’s body,
and can be passed on to other mosquitoes while feeding. These
parasites act by getting into your system, then attacking your liver.
They will then start reproducing at a very rapid rate and will then
attack your red blood cells, disrupting its flow throughout your body.
These actions will cause you to develop chills, flu-like symptoms, and
severe headaches. Severe infections can cause kidney failure, which
can lead to death. Medication like Quinine helps cure patients by
attacking the parasites present in the blood stream.
2. Dengue Fever – Still common even today, dengue is a deadly
disease that can be found throughout the Earth’s tropical belt.
The fever can last up to a week, and can be followed by bruising and
bleeding. The fatality rate of Dengue fever, according to the CDC, is
around 5 percent. Around 100 million people every year are infected
with the disease, and while the fatality rate is low worldwide, not
treating it immediately can be fatal. There is no specific cure for
Dengue, although doctors and medical professionals recommend
hospitalization, drinking fluids regularly, and acetaminophen.
3. West Nile Virus – Like the dengue virus, the West Nile virus is
also common in tropical countries. The virus is transmitted when a
mosquito bites an infected bird which may then come in contact with
a human being. It is highly contagious, being able to spread via bodily
fluids such as saliva, phlegm, and even breast milk. Symptoms include
stiff neck, headaches, high fever, and swollen lymph nodes. Mild
infections shouldn’t be too worrying, though sufferers should take
care not to let it fester for too long as it could get worse. Extreme
cases bring about symptoms like convulsions, coma, and can lead to
death. The virus can also cause permanent neurological damage to a
person. People, who get infected with West Nile Virus, are known to
develop a natural immunity to the disease.
4. Yellow Fever – This is also caused by Aedes mosquitoes, typically areas
in Africa and South America. The problem with this disease is that it
has an incubation period of about a week and you’ll only notice you
have it once it matures. The symptoms include nausea, fever, and
headaches. Unfortunately, there is no cure for it, although one can be
vaccinated. If this disease blossoms fully and symptoms persist it
could lead to more serious effects, which could possibly lead to death,
so you have to be careful.
5. Zika Virus – One of the most recent strains of viruses that can be
contracted from mosquitoes, the Zika virus is another major health
threat, especially to newborns. The Zika Virus causes a condition called
microcephaly, which causes newborn babies to be born with smaller
heads, along with developmental problems. The virus is commonly
transmitted by the Aedes aegypti mosquito, and can also be also
spread sexually. Currently, there is no vaccine for the Zika virus, and
the best way to protect yourselves is by regularly using mosquito
repellent.
6. Chikungunya – This is another fever causing virus that can be
contracted from the Aedes Aegypti and the Aedes albopictus
mosquitoes. The incubation period of Chikungunya fever is around 3
to 7 days, and the symptoms include nausea, vomiting, sudden fever,
joint pain with possible swelling, headache, chills, rashes, and lower
back pain. Like the Zika virus, there is no vaccine that has been
developed for Chikungunya. It is advisable to regularly drink fluids, get
rest, and take medication such as paracetamol, ibuprofen, and
naproxen.
1.8. FLY MANAGEMENT
Of the thousands of species of flies, only a few are common pests in and
around the home. Some of the more common nuisance flies are the
house fly (Musca domestica), the face fly (Musca autumnalis) , the stable
fly (Stomoxys calcitrans) , the little house fly (Fannia canicularis) , and
several species of blow flies (especially in the genus Lucilia). These pests
breed in animal wastes and decaying organic material, including animal
carrion and food waste from which they can pick up bacteria and viruses
that may cause human disease.
1.8.1. TYPES AND DAMAGE
A. HOUSE FLY
The house fly (Musca
domestica) is a
cosmopolitan companion of
humans and domestic
animals. House flies are
generally found in greatest
numbers during the hotter
summer months. House
flies are less than 3⁄8 inch in
length and have four dark
stripes down the back of
their thorax. House flies have sponging mouthparts and eat solid food
by first liquefying it with their saliva. House flies can also regurgitate onto
a solid food to assist with the liquefying process.
Damage: Because they have sponging mouthparts, house flies cannot bite;
however, they may play an important role in disease transmission to
humans and animals. House flies can carry a number of disease agents
which they pick up while feeding on animal feces, animal body secretions, or
kitchen waste and which they can deposit onto human foods following
contact with or feeding on these human foods. House flies are known to
carry bacteria and viruses that cause conditions such as diarrhea, cholera,
food poisoning, yaws, dysentery, and eye infections. House flies can also
cause nuisance to homeowners by their persistent attempts to land on
human foods or even humans themselves (they will readily feed on animal
sweat and other body secretions). House flies also leave dark fecal and
regurgitation spots on wall surfaces where they rest, and with a preference
for resting on light colored surfaces, these spots can be quite noticeable
when fly numbers are high.
B. LITTLE HOUSE FLY
Little house fly (Fannia canicularis)

is not tolerant of high daytime
temperatures and is, therefore,
generally most numerous during
the cooler spring and fall months
in California. As temperatures rise
in summer, populations
of Fannia diminish unless
developmental sites are
protected from temperature
extremes.
Damage: Little house flies are

more reluctant to enter homes
than are house flies; instead, they tend to congregate in outdoor areas such
as patios, entryways, and garages. As temperatures decline, they seek cover
in buildings or protective vegetation. They seldom land on human foods and
are not considered a significant carrier of human disease agents. However,
their habit of hovering at human face height makes them annoying, though
they move readily out of the way when approached.
C. CANYON FLY
Canyon flies (Fannia benjamini complex) are

an emerging urban pest in California. These
are native flies that have existed in western
North America for a very long time. There are
seven related fly species within this complex,
which collectively are called "canyon flies"
due to their geographic association with
natural canyons, particularly those within
coastal and inland mountain ranges where
oak trees dominate the landscape.
Damage: Canyon flies feed on the body

secretions of animals, such as tears, mucus,
sweat, and blood from open wounds. Their
persistent attempts to land upon the face and body of the host can result in
considerable nuisance to humans. While they cannot bite or make a wound
to feed upon blood, they do have small prestomal teeth on their mouthparts
which they can use to scrape at mucous membranes around the eyes of
animals to encourage production of tears or other eye secretions. These flies
have been associated with the transmission of an eye worm to cattle.
D. FACE FLY
Face flies (Musca autumnalis)

are a problem particularly in
rural areas of northern and
coastal California where
pastured cattle are present.
The hotter, drier weather in
inland Southern California and
the southern San Joaquin
Valley is not conducive to their
development. Face flies require fresh cattle manure for development. The
female face fly looks virtually identical to the house fly but male face flies
have a distinctive orange-yellow colored abdomen. Like the house fly, it also
has sponging mouthparts and cannot bite. However, face fly behavior is
distinctive because they are specifically attracted to the eyes, nose, and
mouth of cattle and horses.
Damage: Face flies feed on the eye and nose secretions of cattle and
horses in the summer months. Their habit of feeding around the eyes makes
them capable of transmitting pinkeye to livestock, and the face fly is a much
more successful pinkeye vector than the closely related house fly. In late fall,
large numbers of face flies may enter buildings or similar structures to
hibernate through the winter months. On warm days, hibernating flies can
become active resulting in nuisance to homeowners. When active, face flies
are attracted to light, so they are frequently found flying inside homes near
windows.
E. STABLE FLY
The stable fly (Stomoxys

calcitrans), sometimes called
the "biting fly," is a common fly
that attacks people living in
neighborhoods where livestock
(e.g., horses, cattle) or livestock
facilities are present.
Stable flies typically appear in
mid-late spring, become severe
in early summer, and decrease
in numbers throughout the
remaining summer months when daytime temperatures are high. These flies
are similar in appearance to house flies, except that stable flies have a
bayonet-like mouthpart (proboscis) protruding from the front of the head;
and they lack the four dark stripes on the thorax that are indicative of house
flies.
Damage: Both sexes of stable flies feed about once per day on the blood of
animals (and sometimes people) and are known to give a painful bite.
Although they are blood feeders and capable of transmitting some viruses,
stable flies are not known to be significant carriers of disease agents in the
United States. Stable flies prefer to feed on the legs and lower body of cattle,
horses, and other large animals (including humans). On dogs or similar sized
animals, stable flies typically feed around the periphery of the ears earning
them another common name "dog flies." Undisturbed, a stable fly can
fully engorge with blood in less than 5 minutes. Fully fed stable flies will
move to a nearby resting site (e.g., a wall or fence) while the blood meal is
digested.
F. BLOW FLIES
Blow flies are a group of fly species

with similar life histories and
behaviors. Adult flies in this group
can be readily differentiated from
other flies discussed in this
publication by their coloration,
which is a shiny, metallic green or
blue often mixed with some copper
color. The term "blow fly" comes
from the association of many of
these fly species with carrion (dead
animals) on which some species
will deposit their eggs; however, in the urban environment the most
common developmental site for these flies is in human food waste, though
accumulations of pet waste may also produce these flies.
Damage: Like house flies, blow flies have sponging mouthparts and do not
bite or feed on blood. They are, however, strongly attracted to human foods
and garbage, making cooking outdoors difficult where they are present. As
with house flies, they may be involved in the transmission of disease agents
acquired from garbage or animal feces and subsequently deposited onto
human foods.
1.9. PESTICIDES
Pesticides are substances, which kill pests. They are divided into groups as
follows according to target organism.
1. Insecticides are pesticides which kill insects

2. Herbicides kill weeds
3. Rodenticides kill rats and mice
4. Nematicides kill nematods, and so forth.
Within each of these groups there may be further subdivisions based on

such characteristics as route of intake of the poison or physiological effects
on the target organism.
1.10. INSECTICIDES
According to the mode of attack insecticides can be grouped into:

1. Stomach poisons – which can kill the insect when taken through the
mouth
2. Contact poisons – which kill the insect by penetrating the body wall, and
3. Fumigants – which enter the body of the insect through the breathing
pores
Representative types of insecticides include:
1. Inorganic insecticides – Lead arsenate, Paris green, compounds of

copper, Zinc, mercury, chlorine and sulfur. They act as stomach poisons.
2. Botanicals – Plant extracts such as pyrethrums. They act as contact
poisons
3. Chlorinated hydrocarbons – This group includes DDT and its derivatives
like chlordane, heptachlor, lindane, BHE, etc. These groups of insecticides
act primarily on the central nervous system. Members of this group are
broad-spectrum insecticides. A broad-spectrum insecticide is able to kill a
wide range of insects. Another peculiar characteristic of this group of
insecticides especially DDT is that they are persistent in the environment. A
persistent insecticide is able to stay in the environment for a long period of
time without being broken down. Hence they can effectively kill the insect
for a long time, but at the same time, they have an adverse effect because
they can damage other fauna and flora when they accumulate in the
environment.
4. Organophosphates – These are the most toxic group of insecticides,
which once were manufactured to serve as nerve gases during the 2nd
world war. Examples are parathion and phosdrine. The least toxic in this
group is Malathion. They act as contact poisons.
5. Carbamates – Are contact poisons. This group of insecticides is widely
used in public health and agriculture because they act as rapid knock down
poisons to insects and have less toxicity to mammals. Example is Savin,
which is widely used as a garden dust and for mosquito control.

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CE 424: SANITARY ENGINEERING 3

With the definition of civil engineering as a basis, sanitary engineering may

The sanitary engineer is a specialist in hydraulic engineering in the

Heating and ventilating engineers make a specialty of the sanitary

1.1. ACTUAL PRACTICE OF THE SANITARY ENGINEER

A sanitary engineer having a private practice is often called upon to act as

1.1.1. WATER SUPPLY OF CITIES AND OR DWELLINGS

A project for water works requires investigations as to the quantity needed;

[Wikipedia] Sanitation generally refers to the provision of facilities and

Sanitation includes all four of these engineering infrastructure items:

 Excreta management systems

1.2.1. DISEASES CAUSED BY LACK OF SANITATION

Relevant diseases and conditions caused by lack of sanitation and hygiene

 Waterborne diseases, which contaminate drinking water

1.2.3. TRANSMISSIBLE DISEASE

1.2.4. DEFENSE MECHANISMS

1. External defense (First line of defense).

Immunity is a state of resistance of an organism to invading biotic or abiotic

1.2.6. TYPES OF IMMUNITY

Injection of a killed microbe in order to stimulate the immune system

The process of vaccination is as follows:

1. Harmless pathogen given which has antigens

1.3. RURAL WATER SUPPLY

Basically, all sources of freshwater originate from rainfall, which is slightly

 An appropriate water source

1.4. RURAL EXCRETA DISPOSAL

Excreta disposal is undoubtedly one of the key elements of any emergency

1.4.1. SOURCES OF DISEASE

Inadequate and unsafe disposal of human feces can lead to:

1.4.2. TRANSMISSION OF DISEASE

1.4.3. SELECTION CRITERIA FOR EXCRETA DISPOSAL

In selecting appropriate excreta disposal interventions there are may criteria

1.4.4. METHODS OF EXCRETA DISPOSAL: LONGE TERM

In some emergency situations I may be perfectly acceptable for the affected

Advantages: There is no cost, and no construction activities are required.

b. SIMPLE PIT LATRINES

c. DEEP TRENCH LATRINES

If communal latrines are to be constructed, a common option is the

Advantages. The same advantages as simple pit latrine.

Advantages: May be the only option in flooded areas.

A borehole drilled by machine or

Borehole latrines are most

Advantages: The borehole can be

In sites with existing sewerage systems it is logical to make use of this by

Advantages: An existing disposal system is already in place

1.4.5. STRATEGIES FOR DIFFICULT CONDITIONS

a. RAISED PIT LATRINES

Where groundwater table is within a few meters of ground level, or

b. TWIN PIT LATRINES

c. SAND-ENVELOPED PIT LATRINES

Where there is a high risk of groundwater contamination, and it is important

Groundwater contamination can also be prevented if the disposal pit or tank

e. ANAEROBIC COMPOSTING LATRINES

f. AEROBIC COMPOSTING LATRINES

Aerobic composting latrines use a similar method to the anaerobic

The treatment process in a septic tank occurs in four stages:

An aqua privy is simply a latrine constructed directly above a septic tank.

Sewerage systems are not common in emergency situations, although they

1.5. REFUSE DISPOSAL

1.5.1. SOURCES OF SOLID WASTE

In most emergency situations the main sources of solid wastes are:

1.5.2. TYPE AND QUANTITY OF WASTE

The type and quantity of waste generated in emergency situations varies