Desuperheaters

Used to reduce the temperature of superheated steam to a pre-determined set point within
10 degree Celsius of the saturation point of the steam.

Common usage: Heat transfer in process plant.

Attemporators

Used to reduce the temperature of the superheated steam to a pre-determined set point –
where the steam is still superheated.

Common usage: Protection of downstream devices, such as turbines, from being

subjected to excessive temperatures.

Spray Water Control Stations

A pneumatically operated control valve linked to an automatic control drive regulates the
flow of spray water supplied to each super heater desuperheater. A manually operated
isolation valve is located downstream of each control valve to permit isolation when
required. The isolating valve should be used only in an emergency, or when the automatic
control valves may require maintenance. Blow off valves downstream of the control
valve are used to relieve system pressure and drain the control valve piping for
maintenance.

A pneumatically operated block valve is installed in the supply line to the super heater
desuperheater control station as an additional shutoff valve. This block valve must be
interlocked to close when the super heater desuperheater control valves are closed. The
spray water control valves must be interlocked to close upon a turbine trip. Closing the
block valve will prevent water from entering the super heater elements if a super heater
spray water control valve should leak.

Spray water for the super heater desuperheater is taken from the boiler feed pump
discharge.

Spray water for the reheater desuperheater is taken from the boiler feed pump but from a
point of lower pressure than the super heater desuperheater.
Steam trap

The duty of a steam trap is to discharge condensate, air and other incondensable gases
from a steam system while not permitting the escape of live steam

No steam system is complete without that crucial component “the steam trap”. This is the
most important link in the condensate loop because it connects steam usage with
condensate return.

A steam trap quite literally ‘purges’ condensate. (As well as air and other incondensable
gases) out of the system, allowing steam to reach its destination in as dry a state /
condition as possible to perform its tack efficiently and economically.

There are three types of steam trap

1. Thermostatic
2. Mechanical
3. Thermodynamic

Flash Tank

When hot condensate or boiler water, under pressure, is released to a lower pressure,
part of it is re-evaporated, becoming what is known as flash steam. The heat content
of flash is identical to that of live steam at the same pressure, although this valuable
heat is wasted when allowed to escape through the vent in the receiver. With proper
sizing and installation of a flash recovery system. The latent heat content of flash
steam may be used for space heating: heating or preheating water, oil and other
liquids; and low-pressure process heating.

Scrubbers

Air scrubbers, wet scrubbers and gas scrubbers are air pollution control devices that use a
high-energy liquid spray to remove aerosol and gaseous pollutants from an air stream.
The gases are removed either by absorption or chemical reaction. In addition to fume and
gas abatement, scrubbers may be used for process air cleansing and dust collection.

Blow down

Boiler feed water often contains some degree of impurities, such as suspended and
dissolved solids. The impurities can remain and accumulate inside the boiler as the boiler
operation continuous. The increasing concentration of dissolved solids may lead to
carryover of boiler water into the steam, causing damage to piping, steam traps and even
process equipment. The increasing concentration of suspended solids can form sludge,
which impairs boiler efficiency and heat transfer capability.

To avoid boiler problems, water must be periodically discharged or “blow down” from
the boiler to control the concentration of suspended and total dissolved solids in the boiler

Blow down can be use in drum type boiler units as well as once through boiler units
befitted with separators and operated at a sub critical pressure.

There are two types of blow down

1. Continuous blow down

2. Intermittent blow down

Continuous blow down

Continuous blow down is often done continuously to reduce the level of dissolved solids
in the boiler

Intermittent blow down

Intermittent blow down is performed periodically to remove sludge from the boiler.

Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR)

The purpose of the SCR de-Nox process is to remove (nitrogen oxide) Nox (NO and
NO2) from the flue gas stream by converting the Nox to gaseous nitrogen (N2) and water
vapor (H2O) using anhydrous ammonia (NH3) as the reactant. Selective catalytic
reduction works much like a catalytic converter on a car. Flue gas containing nitrogen
oxide emissions from the combustion process is mixed with anhydrous ammonia. The
mixed gases travel through a series of catalyst layers, which cause the nitrogen oxide to
react with the ammonia. The reaction converts the nitrogen oxide to pure nitrogen and
water vapor.

Pressure Gauge

Pressure gauge are connected to the steam space of the boiler and usually have a ring type
siphon tube which fills with condensed steam and protects the dial mechanism from high
temperatures.
Auto Recirculation Valve (ARV)

Automatic recirculation valves protect centrifugal pumps from damages that may occur
during low-flow operations. Minimum flow protection is accomplished with an
automatic, modulating bypass that assures smooth pump operation between the minimum
and maximum flow point on the pump curve.
ARV reduces power consumption of boiler feed water pumps.

Electromatric Relief Valve (ERV)

The electromatic relief valve located on the super heater outlet lead downstream from the
spring type safety valves. This relief valve is not included in the total relieving capacity
of the safety valves because it can be isolated from the boiler. It is used to save wear and
tear on the code safety valves. Should the electromatic relief valve start to leak, it can be
shut off from the boiler pressure and repaired. Should the code safety valve leak, they
cannot be repaired without taking the boiler off of the line and totally off of pressure.
Electromatics open first to warn the operator and save wear and tear on the spring safety
valves.

General

Boiler classification according to end use, boilers can be classified into two categories

Utility boilers
Industrial boilers

The utility boilers are large capacity steam generators used purely for the electrical power
generation.

The industrial boilers are mainly for use in the process industries.

Thermal Treatments

When welding some base materials and for some service conditions, preheating and/or
post-weld heat treatment may be a requirement. These types of thermal treatments are
generally required in order to ensure suitable weld integrity and will typically prevent or
remove undesirable characteristics in the completed weld.

Post-weld heat treatment is most generally used for stress relief. The purpose of stress
relieving is to remove any internal or residual stresses that may be present from the
welding operation. Stress relief after welding may be necessary in order to reduce the risk
of brittle fracture, to avoid subsequent distortion on machining, or to eradicate the risk of
stress corrosion.

PWHT requirement for carbon steel as per IBR is 19mm thick and above

Preheating is the application of heat to the base metal before it is weld. This process helps
to reduce cracking, hardness, distortion and stresses. Preheating is most often required on
large, thick plates, when the plate is very cold, on days when the temperature is very cold,
when small diameter electrodes are used, on high-carbon or manganese steels, on
complex shapes, or with fast welding speeds.

Preheating should be used if the base metal to be welded is very cold. It may also be used
to reduce distortion on thick sections and to reduce hardness which may result in weld
failure, preheating the metal will slow the weld cooling rate, which results in a more
ductile weld.

Dosing unit

There are two types of dosing units

1. L.P Dosing
2. H.P Dosing

LP Dosing is used to scavenge the last trace of dissolved oxygen in feed water and to
increase the PH of feed water. Generally hydrazine (N2H4) and ammonia (NH4) is used.

HP Dosing is used to take care of the ingress of hardness salts and to increase the PH of
boiler water. Generally trisodium phosphate (Na3PO4) is used.

Steam Blowing

The purpose of steam blowing is to remove the scales, lose materials, iron cuttings that
might be entrapped in the boiler super heaters, reheaters and its related piping during
manufacturing, storage and erection. The aim of internal cleaning by steam blowing is to
reach as quickly as possible the demanded steam purity.
Acid Cleaning

Chemical cleaning is an important option in the overall strategy for maintaining the
integrity of equipment in the face of corrosion and fouling. The steam/water circuits of
modern high-pressure boilers must be operated under extremely clean conditions if
adverse consequences are to be avoided.

A variety of contaminants, either in the working fluid or in the form of deposits on the
metal surfaces may give rise to a number of undesirable phenomena. Contaminants may
cause corrosion by direct attack on the surfaces, or indirectly by impeding the growth of
protective oxides. In addition, dissolved material in boiler feed water may lead to deposit
formation and corrosion and hence to impaired heat transfer.

Furthermore, the products of corrosion in the feed system transported into the boiler can
accumulate on the waterside of surfaces and form concentrations, which lead to rapid on-
load corrosion and possibly to overheating failures.

Alkali Boil Out

Before a new boiler is put into service, the internal surface of the steam generating
section should be cleaned to remove oil, grease and protective coatings and to remove
mill scale of loose or rust.

Chemical cleaning is the application of pure chemicals, mixtures, formulations and

proprietary products to a substrate to remove some form of surface contamination. This
includes degreasing, removal of scale and deposits, paint stripping and the removal of
natural or environmentally created oxide films e.g. rust. Chemical cleaning is primarily
carried out in order to:

To achieve an improvement in thermal efficiency across a heat transfer surface.

Save fuel.
Removal of obstructions to a flow regime
Suppression of corrosion reactions
The decontamination of plant to make it safe for maintenance
As a pre-treatment prior to another process being applied
Hygiene and health implications
Removal of contamination in a process stream
As a pre-commissioning requirement to avoid problems on start-up
Avoid costly engineering works such as retubing.
To avoid forced long shutdowns.

Alkali Boil out can be taken up after completion of Hydraulic Test

Steam Condenser

It is a heat exchanger wherein steam is condensed either in direct contact with cooling
water or indirect contact with cooling water through a heat transfer medium separating
them.

That is, steam condenser is either a direct contact or indirect contact heat exchanger.

Two main types

1. Jet Condenser (direct contact heat exchanger)
2. Surface Condenser (indirect contact heat exchanger)

NDT- Non Destructive Testing

Non-destructive testing – NDT- use test methods to examine an object, material or system
without impairing its future usefulness. Non-destructive testing is often required to verify
the quality of a product or a system. Commonly used techniques are

1. AET – Acoustic Emission Testing

2. ART – Acoustic Resonance Testing
3. ET – Electromagnetic Testing
4. IRT – Infrared Testing
5. LT – Leak Testing
6. MT - Magnetic particle Testing
7. PT – Dye Penetrant Testing
8. RT - Radiographic Testing
9. UT – Ultrasonic Testing
10. VT – Visual Testing (VI – Visual Inspection)

PT – Dye Penetrant Testing

The dye penetrant testing can be used to locate discontinuities on material surfaces. A
highly penetrating dye on the surface will enter discontinuities after a sufficient
penetration time, and after removing the excess dye with a developing agent, the defects
on the surface will be visible.

RT – Radiographic Testing

Radiographic testing can be used to detect internal defects in castings, welds or forgings
by exposure the construction to x-ray or gamma ray radiation. Defects are detected by
differences in radiation absorption in the material as seen on a shadow graph displayed on
photographic film or a fluorescent screen.
UT – Ultrasonic Testing

Ultrasonic testing uses high frequency sound energy to conduct examinations and make
measurements. Ultrasonic inspection can be used for flaw detection / evaluation,
dimensional measurements, materials characterization and more.

Erosion

Erosion is a physical phenomenon which describes the wearing of surface material by

mechanical processes such as friction, impact etc.

Corrosion

Corrosion is a chemical phenomenon; corrosion is the destruction of materials-metals,

non-metals and refractories under the action of aggressive surrounding media (e.g. steam,
water and furnace gas) as a result of chemical and or electrochemical processes taking
place on the surface of the materials.

Maximum Metal Working Temperature

1. Economizer - outlet temp. + 11 degree Celsius

2. Drums, Bed coils, water wall & evaporators – Saturation temp. + 28 degree
Celsius
3. Down comers & Risers – Saturation temp.
4. Bed super heater coils – Outlet temp. + 50 degree Celsius
5. Convection super heater - Outlet temp. + 39 degree Celsius

Economizer

The function of the economizer, regardless of location, is to preheat the boiler feed water
before it is introduced into the steam drum by recovering some of the heat of the flue
gases leaving the boiler. The economizer is comprised of two separate sections; a primary
duct economizer and a back pass economizer section.

The duct economizer section, located in the flue gas duct between the SCR flue gas
discharge duct and the ljungstrom (tri-sector) air preheater gas inlet.

The back pass economizer section, located below the rear horizontal super heater
assemblies in the lower section of the boiler back pass.
Steam Coil Air Heater

The function of the steam coiler air heater is to preheat the incoming secondary air to the
ljungstrom (tri-sector) air preheater to prevent cold end corrosion. Cold end corrosion can
occur in an air heater when the average cold end temperature drops below the dew point.

While the steam coil air heater may be operated at all times, they are most needed when
the ambient air temperatures are abnormally cold.

Steam coil air heater located between each F.D Fan discharge duct and the ljungstrom
(tri-sector) air heaters.

Ljungstrom Air Heater

The function of the ljungstrom air heater is to transfer waste heat energy from the boiler
flue gas to the primary and secondary, thus increasing the overall boiler efficiency.

The reduction of flue gas outlet temperature can contribute as much as 1% of efficiency
improvement for each 40 F of gas temperature reduction. The heat added to the incoming
primary and secondary air contributes to more stable and complete fuel firing.

Thousand of heat transfer elements are arranged within sector-shaped compartments of

the air heater rotor. The housing surrounding the rotor is provided with duct connections
at both ends and is sealed by radial and circumferential sealing members forming
separate passages for air and flue gas. As the rotor slowly revolves, the mass of elements
travels through the gas and air passages. Heat is absorbed by the elements passing
through the hot gas stream: heat is released when these same surfaces are carried through
the air stream.

Reheater

The function of the reheater is receives steam back from the turbine after it has given up
some of its heat energy in the high-pressure section of the turbine. The reheater raises the
temperature of this steam, usually to its original value, for further expansions in the
turbine. The purpose of this reheating is to add energy to the partially used steam.

The steam line carrying the steam from the turbine to the reheater is “cold reheat line”
The steam line carrying the reheated steam from the reheater to the turbine is “hot reheat
steam line”.
The hot reheat steam is at lower pressure compared to the cold reheat steam.
Inside Steam drum tube projection that a tube may have if it is to be flared.

Per code: 1/8” minimum, ¾” maximum.

Pneumatic Test

Pneumatic testing may be made in lieu of hydrostatic testing; but at reduced pressure
when
Equipment cannot be safely filled with water
Cannot be readily dried where testing liquid cannot be tolerated.
Pneumatic test at 1.1 x design pressure, MAWP.

Hydrostatic Test

After installation of all pressure parts, section-1 of the ASME boiler and pressure vessels
code requires that a boiler shall be subjected to a hydrostatic pressure test. This will be
conducted at a test pressure of 1.5 times the maximum allowable working pressure to be
stamped on the boiler.

Circulation Ratio

Circulation ratio is defined as the weight of water entering a circuit (such as the down
comers) divided by the weight of steam in the water / steam mixture leaving the circuits.

1. Low load circulation ratio

2. High load circulation ratio

Heat Transfer Modes

1. Conduction
2. Radiation
3. Convection

Conduction – Heat is passed through a solid object when quickly moving molecules
in the hot portion collide with and give up some energy to slower molecules in the
cooler portion.
 Radiation – Electromagnetic waves from a heat-producing source travel as light does
from the sun, and strike a surface, giving up energy to the molecules in the surface.
Burning fuels give off radiant energy.

Convection – Heated fluid or vapor is moved to a cooler region by circulation

resulting from density difference between the hot and cold areas within the fluid or
vapor.

Types of reducer

1. Concentric reducer: Pump Discharge, vertical & horizontal line etc.

2. Eccentric reducer: Pump Suction to avoid cavitations, to maintain elevation
(BOP) in rack

Eccentric Reducer: Air pockets may form if concentric reducer if used at pump suction,
which results in cavitations, and cause damage to pump. To avoid this problem, eccentric
reducer with flat side up (FSU) is used in pump section.

Circulation

1. Natural or Thermal Circulation

2. Controlled or Forced Circulation
3. Combined Circulation

Conduction – Heat is passed through a solid object when quickly moving molecules
in the hot portion collide with and give up some energy to slower molecules in the
cooler portion.

Ducts

Ducts are defined as airtight conduits that convey air or flue-gas under positive or
negative pressure. They may or may not be exposed to high temperatures. Ducts may be
circular or rectangular in cross section, or sometimes they may be very unusual in shape
as they transition into a piece of major equipment, such as a fan, precipitator or scrubber.

Usually there are two types of ductwork systems, which could exist, in a conventional
power plant or industrial boiler. The systems are called pressurized and balanced draft.

Pressurized System
Pressurized System, also called a forced draft system, has forced draft (FD) fans
upstream of the boiler, which force air through the entire combustion system and
eventually forces the resulting flue-gas out of the atmosphere through the stack.
Sometimes primary air fans are also in the system. Pressurized system results in positive
pressure in all of the ducts.

Balanced Draft System

Balanced drafts System, a combination of FD and ID fans are used. The FD fans are
located upstream of the boiler and the ID fans are located between the boiler and the
stack. , PA fans may also be present in a balanced draft system. A balanced draft system
results in positive pressure in the air gas ducts leading to the boiler and negative pressure
in the flue gas ducts between the boiler outlet and the ID fan inlet. The ductwork from the
ID fan outlet to the stack is usually under a relatively small positive pressure.

Bypass Duct

Bypass ducts, in any ductwork system there also may be various bypass ducts. Bypass
ducts are used when the operators of the installation wish to, or must, shut off a major
piece of equipment, such as an air preheater or a flue gas desulfurization scrubber, on one
or both sides of the unit. Bypass ducts are also used for reheat or tempering. In all of
these cases, the operator is required to open and close various dampers to send the air or
flue gas through the bypass duct.

Hot Side Duct

Ducts or flues that convey the flue-gas from the boiler outlet or the economizer to the air
preheater inlet are typically called “hot side” ducts, just as precipitators that are located
between the boiler outlet and the air preheater inlet are called “hot side” precipitators.
This definition arose because these ducts are on the hot side of the air preheater. The flue-
gas temperatures in hot side ducts are typically between 450 F and 900 F (230 C and 480
C).

Cold Side Duct

Ducts or flues that convey the flue-gas from the air preheater outlet through various
pieces of major equipment to the stack or chimney are typically called “cold side” ducts,
just as precipitators that are located downstream of the air preheater inlet are called “cold
side” precipitators. These flue-gas ducts are on the relative cold side of the air preheater.
The flue-gas temperatures in cold side ducts are typically between 250 F and 425 F (120
C and 220 C).

The allowable velocity of flue gas duct = 14 to 16 m/s

The allowable velocity of air duct = 10 to 12 m/s

Steam Drum

The function of the steam drum and internals is to separate the water mixture from the
steam generated in the furnace walls and to reduce the dissolved solids content of the
steam to below the prescribed limit and distribute the incoming feed water towards the
down comers that send water to the furnace lower headers for steam generating.

Vortex Breaker

To prevent vortexes in the down comer nozzles vortex breakers have to be applied to
ensure a proper water circulation.

Drum L-Seams & C-Seams

Plate thick 14mm and below – Single “V” butt weld.

Plate thick 16mm and above – Double “V” butt weld.

Type of Dished end

1. Semi Ellipsoidal
2. Hemisphere

Type of drum

1. Single Thick drum

2. Bi thick drum

Drum Internals

The function of the drum internals is to separate the water mixture from the steam. The
following mechanical separators are inside the drum for separation of steam and water
mixture.
 1. Baffle plates
2. Primary Separator
3. Secondary Separator
4. Dryer

The following items are the auxiliary drum internals.

1. Feed Water Line

2. Blow Down Line
3. Chemical Dosing Feed Line

Baffle Plates

Baffle plates are generally used to change or reverse the steam flow direction, thus
assisting gravity separation, and act as impact plates that cause water to drain off.

Primary Separator

At high pressures,

Secondary Separator

Screens made of wire mesh act as secondary separators where the individual wires attract
and intercept the fine droplets; just as fabric filters attract dust from gases. The
accumulating water drops then fall by gravity back to the drum water.

Dryer

Screens made of wire mesh act as secondary separators where the individual wires attract
and intercept the fine droplets; just as fabric filters attract dust from gases. The
accumulating water drops then fall by gravity back to the drum water.

Feed Water Line

Feed water line is submerged in the drum water but must be arranged so as to avoid
discharge of cold feed water against the bare drum shell, as temperature variations can
cause severe thermal stress in the thick drum shell. The inflow of cold water may
suddenly condense the steam and create a vacuum.
For equal water composition the BFW has to be distributed in the drum. Therefore a
distribution pipe has to be placed so that the holes in the distribution pipe are located
below NLL. The sum of the holes area should be at least 2 times of the inner cross section
area of the pipe. The holes should be located opposite the steam drum shell.

Blow Down Line

Blow down line periodically or continuously remove a portion of water from the boiler.
Sufficient high-solids boiler water is removed and replaced by low concentration feed
water to maintain a desired concentration in the boiler water. These lines are located to
minimize the occlusion of feed water and chemical feed, and are designed to prevent
entrainment of steam.

To collect the water with the highest content of dissolved solids a collector pipe has to be
placed approx. 100 mm below LL level. The holes in the collector pipe should be located
opposite the BFW pipe and the sum of the holes area should be approx. 4 times of the
inner cross section area of the pipe.

Chemical Feed Line

To control scale, sludge and corrosion chemical feed line introduce chemicals in a
manner, which insures rapid mixing with feed water. The chemicals are generally added
in a concentrated form, and it is necessary to flush the lines periodically with clean water
to prevent plugging due to reaction and deposition.

The chemical dosing distribution pipe should be located near the BFW distribution pipe.
The material should be of stainless steel quality. The holes in the distribution pipe should
be located horizontal and the sum of the holes area should be at approx. 4 times of the
inner cross section area of the pipe.

Super Heater

The function of the super heater is to raise the boiler steam temperature above the
saturated temperature level. As steam enters the super heater in an essentially dry
condition, further absorption of heat sensibly increases the steam temperature.

Expansions Loops

To avoid thermal strain due to differential expansion between equipment piping and the
boiler.
Critical pressure of steam

It is 218 atm of 225 kgf/cm2. at which the volume of steam is equal to the volume of
water.

Water Hammer

Rapidly closing or opening valves may cause pressure transients in pipelines known as
water hammer.

A water hammer is a pressure change caused by a variation of flow rate in a pipe or tube.
Water hammers are created by suddenly starts or stops of liquid flows. Since water flows
are restricted inside pipes, shock waves of incompressible water will travel back down
the pipes deflecting everything on their paths.

NPS AND DN

It is common to identify pipes by inches using NPS or “ Nominal Pipe Size”. The metric
equivalent is called DN or “Diameter Nominal”. The metric designations conform to
international standards organizations (ISO) usage and apply to all plumbing, natural gas,
heating oil and miscellaneous piping used in buildings. The use of NPS does not conform
to American Standard pipe designations where the term NPS means “National Pipe
Thread Straight”

Boiler Efficiency

Boiler efficiency related to the boilers energy output to the boilers energy input can be
express as:

Boiler efficiency (%) = heat output (exported by the fluid water and steam) / heat input
(provided by the fuel)

Insulation

To avoid heat loss and reduced efficiency pipe work in heating systems should always be
insulated. Very hot systems, like hot water and steam systems should also be insulated to
avoid potential personal injuries.
Gas Distribution Baffle

Baffles are used to prevent gas laning and erosion of horizontal tube surface in the back
pass of utility units. There are two areas of concern: the spaces between the back pass
front and rear walls and the horizontal surfaces, and the spaces between the back pass
side walls and the horizontal surfaces.

Diffuser

A diffuser is intended to slow a flow and convert kinetic energy into pressure:

A device fitted over an underwater breathing set’s blowhole to break up the resulting
bubbles and proper mixing.