REVISION TOOLKIT – COMPUTER STUDIES 7010/1

$HEPHAT PHIRI
What is Computer?
Computer is a data processing machine (or device) that under control of a system takes input, processes it
and gives output to another machine. Computer come in different shape, sizes and capabilities. We’ll take a
closer look at their types under the heading ‘Types of Computers’.

Computer studies or computer science is a vast field that deals with all devices that contain a
microprocessor and performs some kind of data processing task. It also covers how the computer systems
are created and maintained to keep it working.

Information Technology
Information technology is the study of people, procedures and devices that create, store, manipulate and
distribute information. It mostly deals with the use of devices such as a personal computer and smart
phone. Students of this subject learn to use a variety of application software.

Data
Data is raw facts and figures. It has a type and a value e.g. Salman, 1.62, 32 Km, 05/05/2015 etc. In this
example “Salman” has the type of text or alpha-numeric, 1.62 is a floating-point number (a number with
decimal point), 32 is an integer (whole number without fractional part) and 05/05/2015 is a date.

Why do we need to provide type of data? Why can’t computer ‘guess’ the correct data type? Computers are
excellent data processing machines but we need to tell them the basics. In the example above if the
computer would wrongfully guess the data type of the data item 05/05/2015 as number, it would try to
divide 5/5 and then divide the answer with 2015. That’s absolutely not what we want so we’d better explain
the data type to computer beforehand.

Information
Information is processed or organized data that is understandable by humans. It might need interpretation
or arrangement before it could be human understandable. E.g.
Name Height Distance Date of Hiring

Salman 1.62 M 32 Km 05/05/2015

So in essence humans work with information and computer work with data.

Total Computer System

We need the following three objects to make a computer system work effectively (apart from power). If any
one of these is missing then the whole system would either be useless or doesn’t work at all. If you have
users and software but no hardware is available to run these software on, then the system won’t work.
Similary if you have hardware and user but don’t have software through which you communicate with
hardware then it won’t work. Lastly if you have hardware and software (somehow, because you can’t have
them magically without people) and there are no users of the computer system then it’s a fail!
 Hardware

Software

People

Hardware
Hardware is the physical components of a computer system e.g. Keyboard, monitor etc.

Hardware items can be further classified into the following main categories.

Input Devices

Output Devices

Storage Media

Processing Units

Communication
Devices

Software
Program or software is instructions and data given to computer to make it perform any useful task.

Another more formal definition of software would be; collection of programs and its associated
documentation is called software. For example Microsoft Word, Adobe Photoshop and AutoCAD.
 © Adobe Corporation ©
Free
Shareware Downloads

Why do we use computers?

You must have noticed, since the last decade the use of computer is growing exponentially. So there must
be a reason why people are depending more and more on computers for their data processing needs. Here
are a few reasons why computers are preferred rather than doing the same task manually.

Diligent (work 24/7)

Computers are diligent workers. They don’t take coffee breaks. They don’t get tired rather keep working
continuously.

Store large amount of data in a small space

Computers can store large amount of data in very small space. Take an example of a book with 1,000 pages
of text. It can easily be stored on a floppy disk so imagine how much information can be stored on a hard
disk.

Accurate in complex calculations

Since computers are specialist in data processing, they are very accurate in complex calculations.

Can communicate data at high speed

Computers are very fast in transmitting data between themselves. So it is very helpful for users to store their
data on computer and send it electronically.

Encrypt data while sending to avoid misuse

Electronic documents can be encrypted to avoid being misused by unauthorized users.

They are portable

Now a days computers are so small that they can be carried anywhere. This adds to their usefulness as they
come in handy. Due to their sheer small size they can also be embedded into many different types of
machines.

They are extremely fast in data processing

Not only they are accurate in calculations they are extremely fast in data processing.
Low cost
As more and more computers are being produced their cost of production and consumer price have
dropped significantly. Apart from their initial cost they are relatively cheap to maintain and run.

Their quality / concentration level doesn’t degrade over time

Computers don’t get bored while doing repetitive tasks so their quality of work and their concentration level
doesn’t change. Similarly data once stored on a computer storage doesn’t degrade unlike human memory.

Work in hazardous condition

Computer can be designed to work in condition where there is no air to breathe (space/mines), are
poisonous or fatal for human health (inside a chemical/nuclear plant) or extreme weather conditions (such
as deep sea, north pole, mountain peak).

Unbiased
Since computer don’t have emotions they are unbiased. They cannot favour anyone, cannot be bribed or
become an enemy.

More organized
They way computers store data forces the user to keep it clutter free. This is also evident from the output
they produce.

Work better left on humans than computer

1. Though computers are very good in performing repetitive tasks they cannot be creative.
2. Some extremely complex decision making tasks are better left to humans like performing a surgery
or implementing a business plan.
3. Computers can follow orders but cannot take initiative.
4. If a robot is designed to weld car parts, it cannot be used to do the dishes so it cannot be an expert
at multiple skills
5. Well not favouring slavery, it requires a lot more energy/fuel to work than humans.
6. People and systems become machine dependent so when it goes down the whole system gets
down.
7. Cost of management goes high in terms of training and maintenance of complex systems.
8. Produce heat and carbon pollution so it is not very environment friendly

How Does the Computer Works?

Storage

Input Process Output

Communicate
Computer takes input from the user, processes it and gives output. It can also store data for later use. It can
also be used to send or receive data.

Input Devices
Keyboard
Keyboard is the oldest device that is still widely used in computer systems.

You must have seen the keyboard hundreds of times. Can you label the keys on the picture with the help of
your friends?
 Function Keys

Typewriter like area Navigation Keys Keypad

with a few extra keys

A typical keyboard layout

Keypad
Keypad has is a subset of keyboard. It has limited number of keys for special purpose such as entering only
numerical data or playing games. Input devices exclusively for games are called gamepads, joypads or game
controllers.

Pointing Devices

Mouse
Mouse is the most common input device for selecting option from a Graphical User Interface (GUI). Initially
mouse had only one button where single click showed a pop-up menu and double-click executed the default
command. Modern mouse has two buttons and a scroller. Gaming mouse can have 9 or more buttons!

Trackball
Trackball has a semi-spherical shape. A user can rotate the ball to control the cursor. Two buttons are
provided at the bottom for clicking, right-clicking and double clicking. Some trackballs can also perform click
function from the ball itself.

Joystick
Traditionally used for drawing CAD (Computer Aided Design) maps. Later used for gaming. It is still used to
control robots in industries though.
Game Controllers
Game controllers come in a variety of forms and shapes. Some are specific to a particular type of game such
as car driving games, flight simulators or first person shooter; others are generic like game pads.

Touch Screen
Old touch screens required a stylus to select a menu option or an icon but modern touch screens allow for
human touch. They are rather quick as user doesn’t have to move the cursor around. Touch screens also
allow use of gestures that perform slightly more complex commands such as zooming, resizing and scrolling.
Graphic Tablet
Well it’s not as heavy as old stone tablets and you don’t even have to inscribe using a chisel and hammer. It
is a slate like object on which you can draw or write anything using a stylus. Computer recognizes the hand
written characters and converts them to text. Artists and graphic designers find it way easier than using a
mouse to draw illustrations. Concept of modern tablet PC is based on graphics tablet. The only difference is
that it is operated with a finger rather than a stylus.

Scanning Devices

Optical Mark Reader

Used to read multiple choice questions or specially designed forms. Pretty fast and error free compared with
human checking. Roughly 30 sheets per minute.
Optical Character Reader
It is a photocopier like machine that can scan a page of text and convert it into editable text. The same effect
can be achieved by scanning a page with normal scanner and then converting it with OCR software but it
would take up more time and results might not be as accurate.
Magnetic Ink Character Reader
Used exclusively by banks to identify original cheques from the fakes. It as computer readable codes printed
at the bottom of the cheque leaf. This code print contains magnetic particles that can be detected by MICR.

Microphone
It is used to take voice input. Since human voice is an analogue quantity, it takes analogue input
and then converts it to digital form. Typical uses of microphone are voice chatting, voice mail,
video conferencing, adding vocals and narration.

Card readers and pin pads

Scanners
Scanners come in a variety of different shapes and capabilities. The smallest scanners were hand-held
scanners that are now almost obsolete. Flat-bed scanners are still extensively used but they have limited
scanning capabilities. Multi-function printers have a scanning unit that is much like sheet-fed scanners. Last
but not the least the huge drum scanners are for professional use.

Biometric Devices
Input Devices for the Disabled People
Computers are very accessible device that many people with disabilities or imparity can still use it. People
who are visually challenged can use high contrast screen, text to speech output, braille keyboard/printer,
voice recognition.

For hearing impaired visual clues can be used to guide the user. For physically challenged people, specially
designed keyboard such as Dvorak layout, trackball instead of mouse and even a wind pipe can be used to
give input.
 light pen

Part of Braille keyboard overlay

Sensors
A sensor is an input device that detects/observe changes in physical quantity. E.g. pressure, heat, speed etc.
since all physical quantities are in the form of analogue data an ADC (Analogue-to-Digital Converter) is
needed to convert the data into digital (computer understandable) format.

Pictures of Sensors

Output Devices
We can produce two types of output from the computer system; softcopy or hard copy. Any output that is
printed on a paper is called hard copy and any output that is not or cannot be printed is called softcopy.

Printers
Printers are used to take hard copy output. Printers vary vastly in their size, shape and capabilities. Some
main types of printers are discussed here.

Dot-Matrix
This is the oldest printing technology that survived. The comparison of features is given below:
Picture of dot-matrix printer, printout and sound

Inkjet
This is a non-impact printer that prints by throwing ink droplets (or bubbles) on paper. These bubbles create
pattern on the paper.

LaserJet
LaserJet printers charge printable area of a paper. It then throws powdered or liquid ink on paper. It sticks
only to charged area of the paper. A heating drum makes it permanent.

Plotters
These are huge colour printers that are used to print on very large papers and pan-a-flex.

Monitors
These are output devices used to display data from computer.

CRT’s
These are high resolution high refresh rate monitors used for graphics and gaming. They emit harmful rays.

LCD’s
Fixed resolution and low refresh rate monitors used in laptops.

Processing Units
This is the chip that performs all the data processing. The most common processing unit is a CPU (Central
Processing Unit). Another well-known processing unit is Graphics Processing Unit (GPU) found in all 3D
Graphics Cards.

The power and capabilities of a processing unit can be evaluated on the following criteria:
Criterion Measuring Unit Why it matters
Clock Speed Hz, KHz, MHz, GHz Higher clock speed is better.
The number of bits of instruction, data or address that can be
Word size bits (4,8,16,32,64)
processed at one time.
Cache KB’s or MB’s See details later
Front Side Bus MHz, GHz The speed at which processor can communicate with the RAM
Processor It’s pretty much like running two or more processor at a time
whole number
Count/Cores except they share the communication lines
Cache
Cache is a temporary storage (usually) built inside the processor. Modern processor can process large
number of instructions. When running a specific type of application a few commonly used instructions are
repeated. Instead of fetching the instructions from the RAM every time an instruction is needed, some
instructions are stored in cache. Caching saves the round trip to RAM and fetches the instruction from the
cache. This significantly speeds up the processing and improves performance greatly. As the whole logic is
created and implemented by the processor manufacturer, user has no control over it.
Flowchart of cache hits/misses

Shop analogy diagram

Storage Media
Computer uses two types of memories to store data; internal and external. Internal memory is made up of
ROM (Read Only Memory) and RAM (Random Access Memory). These two are required to make it work.
External memory (auxiliary or backing storage) can be added to extend the capabilities of internal memory.
External memories include HDD (Hard Disk Drive), CD-ROM (Compact Disk Read Only Memory), DVD (Digital
Versatile Disk), Blu-ray Disk or Flash Disk Drive. Internal memory is part of system unit whereas external
memory can be added or removed.

There are two types of memories in terms of how long can they store data;

Volatile memory
This type of memory loses its contents when the power is switched off. For example RAM and processor’s
internal registers collectively called IAS (Immediate Access Store). It contains operating system and all the
running programs as well as user files open at that moment.

Non-volatile memory
This type of memory retains its contents even if the power is switched off. For example ROM contains the
first instructions for the processor to start-up the computer and these never change so ROM is non-volatile.

Primary memory
Primary memory is high speed memory that is directly accessible by the processor. Since it is expensive it is
usually very limited and since it is volatile we need secondary storage to store data permanently.

RAM
RAM is a chip installed on the motherboard inside the system unit. The amount of RAM determines how
many programs can be ‘run’ at one time. RAM is the only memory that processor can use to store data back
and forth. Since the speed of processor is so fast it cannot store data directly on any other external device.
All the data is first copied to RAM and then transferred to other storage media and vice versa. The time delay
you notice while running a program or starting up your computer is actually time required to copy data from
external storage to your computer’s RAM.

ROM
This is also a chip built into motherboard. It contains two critical programs; BIOS (Basic Input Output System)
and Bootstrap Loader. When you start the computer, computer’s internal memory is empty (except for
ROM) so it doesn’t know what to do. ROM provides the initial instructions for the processor to start working.

The first program from the ROM that loads up is called POST (Power-On Self-Test). It checks for all the
required devices if they are connected and are working properly. Any errors at this stage are reported on the
screen or a sequence of beeps is heard.

Later another program starts that is called bootstrap loader. It will search of the presence of operating
system on external storage and then hands over the control to the operating system. If it doesn’t find an
operating system, it reports an error and the computer stops.
Secondary memory
Secondary memory is low speed memory that cannot directly communicate with the processor. It is
inexpensive and slow in speed but is non-volatile. It is also called backing storage and auxiliary storage.

Magnetic Media
It reads and writes data at high speed from metallic or plastic surface.

Hard disk Drive

Very high speed access and vast storage capacity. They are bulky and large. Modern hard disk has tera bytes
of storage capacity and is relatively smaller in size.

Magnetic Tape
Provide serial access to data. Used for complete system backups and restore. In past used to store data for
batch processing.

Magnetic Stripe
Found on magnetic cards. Can be read by card readers, pin pads and ATM’s. Very little data storage with very
little security. Can be duplicated and forged.

Zip Disk
Variant of floppy disk with larger capacity and thicker in size than floppies. Can store up to 1 GB of data.
Used in past to store multimedia files.

Floppy disk
Requires a drive to read/write data. Small and light weight but can only store up to 1.44 MB of data.

Digital Audio Tape (DAT)

Very much like typical audio tapes but look more like cartridge. Have high storage capacity and is used to
store large music files of high quality.

Optical Media
All the optical media use some kind of laser to read the data. The data is stored in spiral tracks that are
divided equally. This division is not based on the length of track rather on the size of data it stores. That’s
why tracks on the inner side are shorter in length compared to the tracks on the outer side. Inner spirals
have high data density which means data is store close to each other and data on the outer track is spread.
In any case the size of the track (in terms of data) is always the same.

Illustration of spiral here

How do Optical media work?

Illustration of laser

CD-ROM
CD’s of up to 700 MB’s can be read but we can’t write on them.

CD-R
Can read CD’s and record on blank writable CD’s. Data once written cannot be changed or re-written.

CD-RW
Same as CDR but it can also write on a special re-writable CD. Re-writable CD’s can be used about 10 times.

DVD-ROM
DVD uses even more precise laser rays to read data thus capable of reading both CD’s and DVD’s. DVD’s have
a typical capacity of 4.7 GB’s.

DVD-R
It can read both CD’s and DVD’s and write DVD’s as well as CD’s.

DVD-RAM
Can read and write DVD’s at a higher speed. Since these DVD’s are re-writable that’s why it’s called
DVDRAM.

Blu-Ray
Blu-rays have huge capacities of 25, 50 and 100 GB. It is compatible with DVD’s but not CD’s. It is only
available as read only.

Other Storage Media

Flash Disk / solid state memory

Very popular light weight relatively low storage capacity of up to 32 GB. Used in flash disks, digital camera
cards, and mobile phones.

Magneto-Optic Disk
Used in music players as a replacement of cassettes and CD/DVD’s. Now obsolete.

Communication Devices
Modem
Short form of ‘Modulation’ and ‘Demodulation’. Modulation means to convert analogue waves into digital
and demodulation is converting digital signals into analogue. A modem is used to connect to the internet
using dial-up connection. Slow in speed and costs of phone call apply. Phone line is busy when modem is in
use.

Router
Used to connect to a wide area network such as the Internet. Can be wired or wireless. Provides very high
speed data transfer digitally. Determines the next best path for a data packet.
 Hub or Switch
Hubs are obsolete due to slower speed and poor security. Switches have replaced hubs. Used to transfer
data from one computer to another. Essential to form a star network.

Motherboard
Used for internal communication of data inside computer system. Transfers data between primary and
secondary storage, graphics card, external cache, network card and sound card etc.

Analogue and Digital Data

Analogue Digital

Continuous Discrete

Infinite unpredictable states Finite predefined states

Less accurate, more chances of reading errors More accurate, less chances of reading errors

Can be measured at destination Can be counted at source

Cine wave Like histogram

A watch A digital watch

Watch, bathroom scales, scales, speed-o-meter,

briefcase lock, tasbeeh,

Bits, Bytes and Binary

Measuring Units
Smallest storage unit is a bit. A bit can be set on or off meaning it has a logical value of 1 or 0. An individual
bit cannot be processed by a computer. A processor needs at least a group of bits to process or modify it.
Typically a group of 8 bits is considered a Byte.

Unit Conversion Table

8 Bits 1 Byte

1024 Bytes 1 Kilo Byte (KB)

1 Mega Byte
1024 KB
(MB)
1024 MB 1 Giga Byte (GB)

1024 GB 1 Tera Byte (TB)

1024 TB 1 Peta Byte (PB)

1024 PB 1 Exa Byte (EB)

Transmission speed is measured in bits per

second.

1 Kilobits per second

1024 bits per second
(Kbps)
1 Megabits per second
1024 Kbps
(Mbps)
1 Gigabits per second
1024 Mbps (Gbps)

A processor completes a cycle in a fraction of a second. To find out how many cycles occur in a processor, we
use the frequency of the quartz crystal that generates pulses. 1 Hertz would mean that a crystal generate a
pulse every second.

1024 Hertz 1 Kilo Hertz (KHz)

1024 KHz 1 Mega Hertz (MHz)

1024 MHz 1 Giga Hertz (GHz)

So a processor with 3.4GHz speed would generate 3.4x1024x1024x1024 pulses in a second!

3,650,722,201.6 A few billion instruction cycle in a second or 219,043,332,096 in a minute

In communication speed is calculated as bits per second bps, whereas for storage media we’d use Bytes.

Types of Computers
Numerous types of computers are categorized and named according to their size, shape or specification.
Here are some of the computers discussed:

Mainframe
They are the most powerful, largest in size and oldest type of computers. The first computers that were
made in 40’s, 50’s and 60’s were all mainframes but modern laptop computer can beat these huge
computers in speed and performance. So where are they now? Specially designed super computers are still
pretty much like an array of mainframes. The speed of modern supercomputers is measured in GigaFLOP
that is Billions of Floating Point Operations per second.
Mini computers
They were introduced in 70’s and didn’t last really long. They were smaller in size (roughly the size of a
washing machine) and had lesser storage and processing capabilities than mainframes. They could cater
50100 terminals attached to it.

Microcomputers (PC)
When the computers smaller than mini’s were invented, scientists called it microcomputers. They obviously
are not micro at all by modern standards. So they were renamed as PC (Personal Computer). Initially they
were considered as toys as they could not match the immense processing and storage capabilities of
mainframes.

Laptop

Tablet PC

Hand-held / Palmtops/ PDA’s

Smart Phones

Embedded computers/microcontroller

Data types
There are two basic data types:-

1. Text
2. Numbers

Numbers are used only when performing arithmetic calculations; otherwise, we would always use text. For
example we don’t perform arithmetic on telephone numbers so phone number field would be text. Numbers
have two basic types:-

• Integers
• Real numbers (Floating point number, decimal number).

Date/time: Some calculations are based on date or time. It is stored in numbers and displayed in text.

Logical/Boolean (special data type): It can store only 1 of 2 possible values.

Field Name Data type Size
Class Text 2
Gender Boolean 1
Sur name Text 20
Registration no. Text 6
Contact no. Text 12
Address Text 50
Adm. Test marks Number 3
DOB Date 8
Amount paid Decimal 8,2

Data Validation
Validation is a set of pre-defined rules, which ensure correct data entry. Computer will check the data for
fitness on the given criteria.

Some of the validation checks are as follows:-

1. Range check
2. Presence check
3. List check
4. Format check
5. Data Type check

Data Verification
Data verification is checking the data against the source to see if it is correct. It is done through proofreading
and double data entry (counter checking).

Software
Total Computer System

Hardware Software People

Application Software System Software

Spread Data Word Compilers/assemb Drivers

sheets bases processing lers

Authoring Desktop Communication

software publishing software

System Operating
utilities system
 Software

Generic Custom Made

software Software

Payroll ERP/CRM

Features of generic software

• They are readily available in the market so one can buy and use right away.
• It is developed usually by large companies and comes with various types of support. E.g.
instruction manual, online help, support forums, telephone and e-mail support etc.
• Developers and users extensively test it so there is less chance of errors and bugs.
• It is more compatible with other products as it uses standard file format.
• It can be customized using macro facility.

Features of custom-made software

• It is designed specifically according to the needs of an organization.

• It takes time to develop the software.
• The user interface will be friendlier as it will have only the required options.

Computer Software Applications

Insert illustration for each

Word Processing Software

This type of application is used to produce common business communication such as letters, applications,
proposals, CVs (Curriculum Vitae), mailing labels, address lists etc.

Features:

1. It allows entering text, symbols and tables in a document.

 2. We can format text in various styles such as bold, Italic, underline, changing font sizes, colours and
font face.
3. We can use mail merge features to include external data.
4. We can import text data in various formats and save it in other formats.
5. We can find and replace text.
6. We can create table of contents, glossary, footnotes, endnotes, references and index.
7. We can use headers and footers to print same text or page number on every page.
8. We can check spellings, grammar, and punctuation and can even use thesaurus and dictionaries.
9. It allows to preview the document before printing (print preview)

Desktop Publishing Software (DTP)

This type of software allows the user to create different types of publications such as brochures, fliers,
pamphlets, posters, banners, books, website etc. DTP has the following Features:

1. It can accept and print on a variety of media of different sizes such as envelops A3 size paper.
2. It can work with multiple layouts of a page in which text and graphics can be linked so that text
would flow from one box to another.
3. We can create text boxes and picture boxes.
4. The text and the photographs can automatically fit according to the size of the box.
5. The text can flow from one box to another if connected together.
6. The files created with this application can be used directly with plotters and printing press.

Important: Software may have features of other software, but they are differently categorized no
matter how similar they are. E.g. modern word processors can be used to create sophisticated print
publications but that doesn’t turn a word processor into DTP software.

Graphics and Illustration package

It allows users to draw freehand and basic shapes such as circles, triangles, stars, arrows etc. E.g., Adobe
Illustrator and MS Paint.

Photo editing software

Most photo editing packages allows for basic photo collection such as red eye removal, adjusting color
panels, fixing light levels, resizing and cropping images.

1. Some sophisticated photo editing software allows layers to be used that can be blended to produce
creative effects.
2. Different filters can be applied such as sepia, black and white, blur, negative etc.
3. Pictures can be cropped, resized and enhanced.
4. Background and other undesirable objects can be removed.
5. Two or more pictures can be combined.
6. Text can be added in various styles to a picture.
7. We can zoom in and zoom out our picture.
8. We can change and correct colours.
 9. We can apply filters (similar to camera lens filter)
10. Photos can be re-touched to improve their quality such as removing smudges, wrinkles, red eye,
spots etc.

Presentation software
These are used to create sales, marketing, project progress and other informative contents. Multimedia
elements can be added to make the presentation more effective and powerful. Presentation can be linear or
non-linear.

1. It allows users to enter text and various other media such as photographs, illustrations, charts or
graphs, animation, videos, music, speech and sound effects etc.
2. We can create multiple slides in one slideshow and display them one after another.
3. We can add transitions between the slides and animation effects on the objects.
4. We can produce presentation for overhead projectors (OHP), transparency slide projector,
multimedia projector and even web-based slideshow (Webcast).
5. We can print slides, slide handouts and presenter’s notes.

Data Logging Software

Collects data from the sensors at the specified intervals set by the user. It can display data in the form of
graph or as numbers. It can also store the data for future reference and analysis.

Features:

1. It can collect data from various sensors at a fixed interval

2. It stores data in a structured format.
3. It can produce live graphs to display to user
4. It will notify the user is case any of the sensors malfunction.

3D Graphic Software
These are used to create 3D sprites that can be used in games. Characters created with this software
can also be used in creating animation. (Features same as of CAD) Bryce, Maya, zBrush, Photoshop
Extended.

Video Editing Software

These are used to create videos with effects and sound synchronization.
Examples of soft wares: IMovie, Windows Movie Maker, Pro Tools, Sony Vegas. Features:
1. It allows mixing of sound and back ground music with the videos.
2. Special effects can be added such as fade in, box in etc.
3. Order, direction and speed of clips can be changed.
4. Videos can be encoded in a variety of formats such as mkv, avi, mov, mp4

Illustration Software:
This category of software allows users to create line diagrams, illustrations, logos and icons etc.
1. We can create free hand drawing and we can also create pre-defined shapes using vector graphics.
2. We can combine separate objects to make one shape.
3. We can use different types of pens/brushes.
 4. We can create paint fills and gradients.
5. It allows users to choose variety of colours for line and fill.
6. It can enlarge pictures without distorting them.
7. Images can be exported in variety of formats for online and print publication.

Animation Software
It allows a user to create simple animation using line art and a time line e.g. Adobe Flash.

1. It allows users to work on a stage view.

2. We can define the back ground and key frames that will be used as reference.
3. Objects can be morphed and motion tween can be applied.
4. Object can be created and manipulated on the fly.

Spread Sheets
It is application software that can process large amount of data and it stores the data in form of
rows, columns and cells. Spread Sheets are most commonly used is accounting statements and
statistical analysis.
A single spread sheet file can have more than one page/sheet in it. A few powerful features of a
spread sheet are as follows (Features):
1. Data can be stored is ascending or descending order.
2. We can create charts and graphs of various types.
3. We can use powerful formulas and functions.
4. We can create financial models and test models with various values. This is called a ‘What-If’
scenario.
5. Cells and ranges can have defined names that can be used as reference in formulas.
6. Data can be imported and exported in various forms.
7. The spread sheet software automatically updates the formulae results and charts as soon as the
values are changed.

Databases
It is an application program that stores data in an organized way. We can retrieve data using queries.
A data base can handle large number of records.

Relational Data Base

This organizes data even more efficiently in to multiple tables that are linked together. This reduces
duplication of data and chances of error.

Terminology of data base

Fields: It is a column is a table that has a predefined data type. It describes any aspect of the subject about
which we want to store data.

E.g. name of a student, model of a car, size of a house, ISBN (international serial book number), price of a
product etc.
Table: It is a collection of records. Every table must have its own primary key. Table can be linked together
using along fields. E.g. of tables: a student’s tables, pay table, a product table and etc.

Record: It is a set of complete information about a subject or topic. It is represented by a row in a table. E.g.
record of a product, a student’s record, a fee’s record etc.
Key Field/Primary Key: It is a field in a table that uniquely identifies a record in a table. A primary key cannot
be repeated/ duplicated and cannot be left empty.

Primary key helps in creating relationships between the tables.

Foreign Key: A primary key of a table that appears in another table is called a foreign key. Foreign key can be
replaced/ duplicated.

Query: It is a question put to database to get the required information/ data.

Networks
A network is a collection of computers that are connected to each other in such a way that they can share
data.

Local Area Network (LAN)

A set of computers connected to share data in a limited area such as a computer lab in a school or net café. It
is usually managed and owned by a single organization.

Wide Area Network (WAN)

A network of computers that covers a large geographical area such as cellular network or the Internet.

Internet vs. Intranet

An intranet is a LAN in a company that can be used to provide limited access to the Internet. Certain filters
are applied to regulate the traffic to the Internet. E.g. some websites which are not appropriate for children
would be blocked in a school intranet.

Intranet
Using internet technologies in a company’s LAN or WAN. A browser is used to access resources. It allows
restricted access to the internet.

For every computer application or system, we should know the following:-

• Input, processing and output.

• Advantages of the system.
• Limitations of the system.
• Hardware and software required.
• The need for recovery in case of system failure.
• User Interface
• The effects of system on users, organization and society.

Internet
It is a wide area network that is made up of many networks and it spans across the globe.
The services available on the Internet:

• VOIP (Voice over Internet Protocol)

• Video conferencing
• Video streaming
• File downloading (FTP)(File Transfer Protocol)
• P-2-P file sharing
• VPN (Virtual Private Network)/VLAN
• WWW (World Wide Web)
• Web-mail/E-mail
• Chatting
• E-commerce
• Internet Banking

Servers
A server is a computer in a network that is responsible for providing one or more services to the network
users. Servers which perform only one service are called dedicated servers and the ones that provide
multiple services are called shared servers. Example of services are; printing, storage, security, scanning etc.

Role of Servers
Networks can be classified into categories with respect to the role of server in the network.

Server-based systems
A single very powerful server is used to do all the processing from security permissions to running programs.
A dumb terminal is attached to input or output data.

Client-Server Systems
Clients have their own processing power but certain services are provided by servers such as data storage.

Peer-to-Peer System
In a peer-to-peer network all computers have almost the same processing power and storage capacity. Some
computers can act like server at any given time.

Types of Servers

Proxy Server
This type of server uses software to request web resources on behalf of multiple users. Before sending a
page to user it keeps a copy of the page in its cache. When other users request the same page it transfers
the page from cache rather than downloading from original site again. This way the browsing speed
improves. Secondly certain sites/resources can be blocked/filtered using proxy servers. Most ISP’s and even
some countries use proxy servers to limit access to the Internet.

Network Server
This server is also known as domain controller. It is responsible for keeping track of all the resources
(hardware/software) available in a network and access rights of the users to these resources. E.g. certain
group of users will have high priority to use a printer and a group of student might be denied access to result
database in school network.

Web Server
This server effectively runs a website. When a page is requested it delivers it to the requesting computer.

Gateway
When two different types of networks are connected together, you need a computer that would perform the
translation task. Such a computer is called a gateway. Let’s say one office uses a mail server and a user wants
to send email to another type of mail server. In this case the request must pass through mail gateway and
translated into understandable format for the next mail server.

Mail Server
This server is used to send and receive emails. Users can download the mails from this server to their
computer. Until the mail is downloaded or deleted by the user it remains on the mail server. Users access
their individual mail accounts using their login names and passwords.

File Server
File server stores user files in central location. It has high access large storage space. A quota can be assigned
to each user and if properly configured it shows up as a network drive of users’ computer. User can not only
store their original files but also use this as a backup. They can also share it with other users if they wish but
normally every user has their own storage space accessed with login and password.

NAS (Network Attached Storage) and Cloud

Print Server
This server is responsible for managing users’ print requests in a queue and prints them in order of priority. It
has its own storage and is attached to a network.

Network Topology

Serial Bus

Star

Ring

Mesh

Hybrid
Tree

Wireless Networks

WLAN
Disadvantages:-

• Slow speed on LAN.

• Not very secure

Signals are encrypted to secure the network (WEP keys).

• It is expensive to establish.

Advantages:-

• Devices can be moved anywhere in the signal range area.

•Any number of devices can be added without extra cost of cables. Any device can be
easily connected. E.g. smart phones.
1. Bluetooth
2. Infrared

Bluetooth:-

• Range is limited.
• Uses EM waves.
• It is established to communicate between home appliances.
• Poor security.
• Is commonly available.
• It is easy to transfer data between devices. E.g. cell phones. Data transmission rate is
slow.

Infrared:-

• Light wave.
• Common device is TV remote control. It is very prone to interference.
• There must be a line of sight for data transmission.
• It can be only used for point to point communication. Data transmission can occur only between
two devices.
• It requires straight path without any hindrance. Slow transmission speed.

Advantage:-

• Because of low range of data transmission, it is very secure.

Wireless Networks
WEP= Wireless encryption protocol
WPA2, PSK

Advantages
1. It is portable

2. It is hassle free

Disadvantages:
1. Poor security

2. Expensive to establish

3. Slow speed of data transmission in LAN

Bluetooth

Features:
1. Its range is limited

2. Uses EM waves

3. It is established to communicate between home appliances

Disadvantages:
1. Because it is a wireless, security is vulnerable

2. Data transmission rate is slow

Advantages:
1. Commonly available

2. Easy to transfer data between devices e.g. cell phones

Infrared

Features:
1. It uses light waves

2. It is available in common devices e.g. TV remote control

3. There must be a line of sight for data transmission

Disadvantages:
1. Can only be used for point-to-point communication

2. It requires straight path without hindrance

3. Slow data transmission speed

Advantages:
1. Because of low range of data transmission, it is very secure

Applications of Computer
Steps of ATM processing:-

• Card is read and validated.

• PIN code is asked and verified from the issuer’s bank.
• A menu with options is displayed.
• User makes selection and enters amount.
• Availability of funds is confirmed.
• Card is ejected. Cash is dispensed. Receipt is printed and amount is deducted at the same time.

Video Conferencing
Advantages:

1. It will save travelling cost.

2. It saves boarding, lodging and conference room cost.
3. It saves time that might be spent in travelling.

Disadvantages:

1. It is vulnerable to technical faults.

2. There may be a difference in time zones.

Requirements
Hardware: Webcam, modem or router, speakers, large screen.

Services: High speed internet

Software: Communication software, compression software

Supermarket systems
1. The purpose and outcome of this system is to efficiently manage the sales and stocks of super
market. The customers don’t have to wait in long queues.
2. The customers will receive an electronic bill with details and individual items. The calculations will be
very accurate.
3. The shopkeeper can keep track of his/her stocks and even gets notified when the stock level is low.
4. Shopkeeper can serve more customers in a day. Thus increasing their sales and profit.

Devices used in supermarket

Bar code reader

Point of Sales terminal (POS)

Pin pad/card reader

Other common devices

E-commerce
Providing and receiving goods and services through the Internet is called e-commerce. E.g. auction sites,
online shopping, online banking etc.

Online Banking
Providing traditional banking services online is called online banking. It includes services such as account
creation, EFT (electronic funds transfer), cash withdrawal, loan processing and account management.

Advantages: Customer’s point of view

• Customers do not have to wait in long queues.

• Customers can use bank service 24/7.
• Customers do not have to travel to bank branch.
• Less physical movement of money means more security.

Advantages: Bank’s point of view

• Banks do not have to open branches in remote areas.

• Banks can maintain reduced staff for customer service.
• Banks can quickly settle their accounts with other banks.
• Less physical movement of money means more security and fewer expenses.

Disadvantages: Customer’s point of view

• No personalized services can be availed. For e.g. filling up a form, deciding account type.
• Customers have to be computer-literate to utilize most of the services. There are higher
chances of losing critical data.

Disadvantages: Bank’s point of view

• Certain services are still not available through online banking. For e.g. cash deposit.

Virtual-reality systems
It is when the computer system simulates real life situation in such a way that human senses are deceived.

Advantages:

• It can be used to train pilots, fire fighters, astronauts and soldiers.

• It is not as costly as the original equipment. There is no hazard of life.

Simulation:

Simulation is to mimic real-life situation that could not be observed otherwise. For e.g. the growth of cancer
cells and the simulation of a car crash.
Database Software
A database system stores data in an organized way. Data can be searched through queries.

Table (file):

It is a set of associative data i.e. logically separated from other data e.g. student’s table.

Record (row):

A complete set of information about one subject is called a record e.g. record of a patient.

Column (field):

A field that represents some aspect of a subject e.g. names of employees.

Relationship:

The link between two or more tables is called relationship. It is based on primary keys and forward key. It has
the following types:-

• One to one relationship

• One to many
• Many to many

Primary key or key field:

It is a field in a table that uniquely identifies individual records. A primary key must be unique (cannot be
duplicated) and cannot be left empty.

Spreadsheets
Spreadsheet is software that is commonly used for calculations, data analysis, data summary and basic
statistical analysis.

List of applications:-
• Communication systems
• E-mail
• Video conferencing
• Digital telephone systems
• Library systems
• Office automation
• Multimedia (CBT/CBL)
• E-commerce
• Online information system retrieval
• Wireless technology
• Dial-up versus broadband
• Virtual reality

Internet
Internet: It is a wide area network that is made up of many networks and it spans across the globe.

Website

Features:
1. A site map is provided to view a structure and lay out of the site
2. Search feature is provided to search with in the website
3. A login and sign up button/ box to identify repeating/ repeat visitors
4. A “contact us” page to show physical address and other contact information.
5. Advertisements and special offers
6. A shopping cart/ basket and a check out page where visitors can view their cart and provide credit
card information.
7. Useful and related links to other websites.
8. Feedback form.

Construction/ development of websites

9. Website: It is a set of related web pages that contain information on a particular topic.
10. A Webpage is a simple text file that contains hyper links to other pages and multimedia elements.
The language used to create web pages is called HTML (hyper-text mark-up language).
Nowadays HTML version 5 is being used. The organization/ consortium responsible for making and
standardizing this language is called W3C (worldwide web consortium).

Features of a webpage:
1. A web page is divided into two sections <head> and <body>.
2. The <head> section contains basic information about the webpage such as character encoding
(language), author, title of the page and key words in the page.
Some Sample tags found in a Head Section:
<meta author= “name of author”>
<title>IGSCE ICT</title>
<meta keyword= “education”>

<Body> section contains the actual contents of the page to be displayed.

Features:
1. It can display text, pictures and other multimedia elements such as sound, music, videos and
animation.
2. For text we use <P> that represents a paragraph.
3. Headings in a document would be written as <h1><h2> until <h6>.
4. Bulleted lists are created and represented with <ul>. This stands for unsorted lists.
5. Numbered lists are represented as <ol>. OL means ordered lists.
6. Pictures are included using <img>. This is abbreviation of image.
7. Videos and sounds as well as animations are included in a page using <object>.
8. Links to other web pages with in the site or with in the page and to other websites can be created
with <href>. HREF stands for hyper-text reference.
Search Engine
It is a website/ remote data base application/ web application that hold addresses of various
websites that can be searched through a key word.

Features:
1. Some sites are not included in the search engine regardless how good or relevant they are to your
search.
2. Some people falsely portray their website to be relevant while it is not.
3. Some sites are listed as sponsored that might be relevant but not exactly what you looking for.
4. Search engine might misunderstand some confusing words.
5. There might be a large number of sites listed without any authenticity.
6. There might be too many results to practically visit them.

Refining searches in a search engine

• We can use multiple keywords to refine our searches. E.g. airplane model.
• We can refine search by forcing search engine to include a keyword by adding ‘+’ sign. E.g. + financial
model.
• We can exclude certain results by stopping the search engine from searching certain keywords. E.g.
‘+ airplane + model-fashion.’
• We can use logical operators AND, OR, NOT to refine our searches.
• We can search for exact phrase by enclosing it in double quotes. E.g. “airplane model.”

Computer crimes
1. Hacking: Hacking is to gain illegal access to computer resources. It is illegal even to view data that
you are not authorized.
2. Phone phreaking: It is to use mobile phones or landlines to listen to conversations, use someone’s
credit balance or faking caller identity etc.
3. Phishing: To make a fake webpage in order to collect user data.
4. Pharming: Making fake websites to collect data from large number of users.
5. Online scams: scams are all such offers that are fake and only intended to rip you off of your money.
6. Spam: Spam is an unsolicited message sent over a network to the user s without their consent.
7. Viruses: Virus is a malicious computer program that duplicates itself without user’s knowledge. It can
harm a computer in many ways.
8. Spyware: Spyware is software that resides in user’s computer without their knowledge. It collects
user’s data and sends to unknown server.
9. Phantom withdrawal: Phantom withdrawal is modifying ATM card then giving instruction to release
all the money held within. To avoid this situation, ATMs are situated in busy market places. A
security camera is installed and a guard is placed outside the ATM. A minimum account of cash is
maintained and ATMs are located close to the actual bank branch.
10. Software piracy: It is making illegal copies of software without the permission of Copyright holder.
Violating Terms of Service contract is also a crime.
11. Cookies: Cookies are small text files stored on client computers by the web server. Cookies cannot
contain viruses as they are not executable files but they can be used to hijack a session or retrieve
passwords.
 Protection from spam
• Spam-filtering and anti-spam software.
• Modern web-mail systems use automatic spam filtering.
• Do not open e-mails from unknown senders.
• If you identify a spam message, report it to relevant authorities.
• Do not click anywhere within the message and don’t even reply to it.

Prevention (Network Security)

Physical Security:
• The physical location of the server is not disclosed and only authorized personnel are allowed.
• Systems units are locked with a padlock to avoid vandalism.
• System units can also be locked in cabinets.
• No data capture or storage device is allowed in computer labs.

Expert Systems
Expert system mimics the knowledge of an expert in any particular field e.g. a car engine diagnosis system.

Steps in creating an expert system

1. Information in collected from a panel of experts.
2. This information is entered into the knowledge base. (It is self-learning)
3. An inference engine is created and logical rules are defined.
4. A user interface is created.
5. Expert system is tested extensively.

Features
1. Series of questions.
2. Backtracking-go to previous question and change the answer.
3. Justification with answer.

Examples
1. Mineral prospecting system
2. Chess playing system
3. Medical diagnosis system
4. Financial investment adviser
5. Different types of decision making systems

User Interface
Sample pictures of different interfaces

User interface is a method to communicate with the computer system. It is used to enter data and give
instructions to computer system. E.g. menu-based system, form-based system, graphical user interface
(GUI), Command line interface (CLI), Natural language Interface.
  Menu driven system: In this system, user is provided with a series of options to choose from.
User is limited to the options provided by the system. It is secure because user cannot issue
command at his will. It is easy to use even for non-computer literate users. For example ATM
and information kiosk.

Disadvantage: It does not display errors explicitly.

 Form based interface: In this interface, the user is provided with an online form that looks
similar to printed form. This is mostly used for entry purpose. It may have limited buttons to
navigate and save records.
 Graphical user interface: It makes use of WIMP (windows icons menus and pointer). It is an
easy to use interface, where the output is displayed graphically. User interacts with the
system with the help of cursor or pointer that is usually controlled with a mouse. User can
open multiple windows and switch between them. Commands are not typed rather it is
selected from a choice of menu options.
 Command Line Interface: in this interface, a prompt is displayed where user can enter
commands with various options. These options are called switches. Commands are usually
very powerful but require the users to remember them exactly. All the routers and
sometimes networks are managed through CLI. E.g.
DIR/OD/P/AH,IPCONFIGDIR*.mp3/b/s>>mylist.m3u.

Elements of good site design

Contents
Original contents

Updated links

Usability
Site map simple view

Search function

Visual design
Consistent colour scheme

Quality graphics/white space

Accessibility
From various devices/software

Impairment

Web 2.0 standards

Web 2.0 compliant sites will have at least two of these features in common:
 1. User contributed data
2. High level of interactivity
3. Rapidly updated data

Wiki
Wiki is a site that contains user contributed articles on various topics. It can be very specialized and specific
to one topic or general. The validity of information on wikis is doubtful as articles are written by anonymous
users. The information can be searched through keywords.

Blogs

Social networking

Media sharing

Podcast

Tagging

Bit streaming

Monitoring and Control

Communication

Email vs. Fax vs. Letter Post

Email Fax Letter post
Multimedia attachments can be sent Only black & white printable media Any object can be sent like video tape,
could be sent DVD, gifts etc.

Takes very little time (a few seconds) Takes a bit of time (a few minutes) Local mail takes a day or two and
ordinary mail can take up to weeks!

Unlikely to get misplaced Can get misplaced

Inexpensive all you have to pay is for Quite expensive as you have to pay for Still quite expensive if you send mail
a PC and internet charges. fax machine and long distance call abroad
charges

Messages can be encrypted making Communication can be hijacked or Messages can be leaked out or copied
highest level of security copied easily

Send the same message to multiple Broadcast fax service can be used but no Manually send letters to multiple
recipients even mail merge mail merge recipients

`Don’t have to leave home to send it Don’t have to leave home to send it Must go to post office or letter box to
send it
Viruses can infect your computer No chance of viruses No chance of viruses
system

You get plenty of spam from all over Due to cost you almost never get a You can get spam from local venders
the world spam message

Less accessible, user must have a PC, User must have fax machine Virtually everyone in this world is
internet connection and an email accessible through letter post
address

The user might not check his/her Can be used to send urgent messages No sense of urgency

account regularly

Messages are safe in the mail server for Messages cannot be stored Messages will be stored in the
specific time mailbox until retrieved.

Domestic /Home Appliances

Home appliances

Digital Camera

Input devices
Light level sensor

Motion sensor

Buttons/Touch screen

Output
Flash light

LCD screen

Poloride printer

Processing
When the camera’s light sensor detects low-light level, it will turn on the flash automatically. This avoids a
common problem in photography i.e. over exposure, under exposure (Dark photographs)

Different settings can be adjusted using buttons to take photograph after a few seconds.

Motion detectives can figure out a shaking hand and can delay photograph for a friction of second to avoid
blurry picture. Similarly, some sensors can detect objects in a frame and focus automatically.
Microwave Oven

Input devices:
• Key pad/touch pad
• Thermal sensor
• Pressure sensor
• Metal detector
• Barcode reader

Output devices:
• Buzzer
• LCD screen

Processing:
When the user inputs a time to heat up the food, the microwave controller decrements the time until it
reaches zero. Then the microwave stops and the buzzer rings to notify the user.

Some microwaves can detect metallic objects in the chamber and would not work until the object is
removed from the chamber. Moreover, some microwaves can sense the weight placed on the tray. If it goes
beyond the limit of the microwave, then it won’t start until the weight is reduced.

Central heating and conditioning system

These machines contain a micro-controller that receives input from thermal sensor to detect the
temperature. A temperature is set by the user and the system tries to maintain it. The controller compares
the temperature reading with the pre-set temperature. If the temperature reading is higher than the pre-set
one, then it will turn on the condenser and fan to reduce the temperature. If the temperature is lower than
the pre-set temperature, then it turns on the heater. It goes to standby mode and remains in this state as
long as the temperature reading is equal to the pre-set value.

This system uses a feedback loop.

Feedback system: A system in which the output affects the future or next input.

Washing Machine

Input devices
• Water level sensor
• Pressure sensor
• Density sensor

Output devices
• Buzzer
• Stepping motor
Processing
When we place clothes and water in the machine, it detects if the tank can bear the weight of the clothes
through the pressure sensor. It will also notify the user if the water level is higher than the capacity.
Afterwards, the controller starts the stepping motor to wash clothes. When the washing is done, it will beep
to notify the user that the washing is done. Some machines can be set to a specific timer and type of cloth so
that the motor would adjust rotations per minute according to it.

Digital Camera
Input devices light level sensor, motion sensor and navigation buttons/touch screen.

Output devices Flashlight, LCD screen, Poloride printer

Processing when the cameras light sensor detects low light level, it will turn on the flash automatically.
This avoids a common in photography that is over exposure or under exposure (dark photographs).
Different settings can be adjusted using buttons or touch screen e.g. camera can be programmed to take
photographs after a few seconds.

Motion detectors can determine a shaking hand and can delay photographs for a friction of a second to
avoid blurry picture. Similarly some sensors can detect objects in a frame and focus automatically.

Microwave Owen
Input devices keypad/touch screen, thermal sensor, pressure sensor, metal detector, barcode reader.

Output devices Buzzer, LCD screen

Processing when the user inputs a time to heat up the food, the microwave controller will decrement the
time until it reaches zero then the microwave and buzzer rings to notify the user.

Some microwaves can detect metallic objects in the chamber and would not work until the object is
removed from the chamber. Moreover some microwaves can sense the weight placed on their trey. If it goes
beyond the limit/capacity of the microwave then it won’t start until the weight is reduced.

Central Heating and Conditioning System:

These machines contain a micro controller that receives input from thermal sensor to detect the
temperature. A temperature is set by user and the system tries to maintain it. The controller compares the
temperature reading with the pre-set temperature. If the temperature read is higher than the pre-set
temperature, then it turns on the condenser and fan to reduce the temperature. If the temperature is lower
than the pre-set temperature, then it turns on the heater. It goes to standby mode and remains in this state
as long as the temperature reading is equal to the pre-set value. This system uses a feedback loop.

Feedback system a system in which the output affects the future or next input.

Washing machine:
Input devices water level sensor, pressure sensor, density sensor

Output devices buzzer, stepping motor

Processing when we place clothes and water in the machine, the machine detects if the tank can bear the
weight of the clothes through pressure sensor. It will also notify the user if the water level is higher than the
capacity. Afterwards the controller starts the stepping motor to wash the clothes. When the washing is done
it will beep to notify the user that the process is complete or washing is done. Some machines can be set to a
specific timer and type of cloth so that the motor would adjust RPM’s according to it.

Global Positioning System

GPS is a global service that can report the position of an object anywhere in the world. The position is
reported of xyz axis that is represented in the form of latitude, longitude and altitude.

Ships Navigation System: Ships use GPS service to find out their current location. This way they don’t lose
their path and go astray. Ships continuously receive their location information so that they can follow a
route.

GIS (Geographical Information System)

GIS is a database that makes use of spatial data. It is a combination of database and map data.
(Geographical information system) it is a database that makes use of spatial data. It is a combination of
database and map data.

Drawbacks:

1. If the map data is not available, then the system is ineffective.

2. If the map is not updated then it might have wrong information about the path

GPS-Navigation Systems
GPS (global positioning system) it is a global or international service that can report the position of an
object anywhere in the world. The position is reported in the form of XYZ axis that is represented in the form
of latitude, longitude and altitude.

1. Ship navigation system: Ships use GPS service to find out their current location. This way they don’t
lose their path and go astray. Ships continuously receive their location information so that they can
follow their route.

Drawbacks of navigation system

1. If the map data is not available, then the system is ineffective.
2. If the map is not updated then it might have wrong information about the path.
3. Signal interference can also make the system fail.

CCTV Camera Control

Surveillance cameras can detect abnormal activities and follow and zoom in using actuators.

CCTV close-circuit television. It is called close-circuit because its transmission is not broadcasted.

Surveillance cameras can detect abnormal activity and follow and zoom in using actuators.

Industrial Robots
Effects on quality control
After the introduction of robots, the quality control has achieved high level e.g. the exact amount of the raw
material can be calculated.

Design can be materialized using CAD/CAM and robots.

Objects produced with the help of robots have the same quality.

The quality checked through computers is very accurate and a product can be tested at initial stages of
manufacturing

1. After introduction of robots the quality control has achieved high levels e.g. the exact amount of raw
material can be calculated.
2. Design can be materialised using CAD/CAM and robots.
3. Objects produced with the help of robots have the same quality.
4. The quality checked through computers is very accurate and product can be tested at initial stages of
manufacturing.

Effects on environment
 Produces pollution
 Less wastage of raw material due to inaccuracy and quality control
 Large amount of good quality products are available
 Products would cost less to consumers as well as manufacturers.

Workforce diversity
Opportunity for more employment in various fields.

A lot of old skills have become totally obsolete e.g. developing photographs. This is called deskilling.

Now people have to upgrade their previous skills to newer ones e.g. composing music. This concept is called
re-skilling.

It might have caused unemployment for low-skilled workers.

Now people with disabilities can also compete and become part of the workforce.

1. Opportunity for more employment in various fields

2. A lot of old skills have become totally obsolete (deskilling) e.g. developing photographs
3. Now people have to upgrade their previous skills to newer ones. This concept is called reskilling, e.g.
composing music
4. It might have caused unemployment for low skilled workers.
5. Now people with disabilities can also compete and become part of the workforce.

Computer based learning (CBL)

It is studying and learning using computer based material.
Advantages
1- Students can learn at their own pace.

2- It can make use of multimedia elements that can make it more attractive.

3- Students can learn at the convenience of their homes or anywhere else where they can access study
material.

Disadvantages
1- There is no or limited interaction.

2- Computer cannot modify the course of action based on students’ feedback.

Students have to be self-motivated and follow the time plan by themselves.

Applications in music
Computers are extensively used in music industry e.g. music composition, editing, mixing, sound
normalization, digitizing of music etc.

MIDI (Musical instruments digital interface)

MIDI is a file type that stores music instructions in the form of notes. The file size is very small.

Features
1. MIDI file format is compact and only stores instructions to play notes on specific device.
2. Since it is a binary file format, it can be edited using computer software.
3. The quality of music produced by MIDI is dependent on hardware being used i.e. capabilities of
soundcard or electronic keyboard.
4. MIDI cannot store vocals.

MIDI port is usually found on high end sound cards. In the past, it was used to plug in joysticks. But now it is
exclusively used to attach musical instruments to the computer e.g. electric guitar, electronic keyboard.

Computers Graphics and animation

• Cartoons
• special effects
• Voice over
• Super-imposing

CAD/CAM Application software

CAD (computer aided designer) is a programme that is used to create 3-D object. There are some specialized
CAD programmes for specific industries e.g. circuit designing, building designing, etc.

CAD: Computer Aided Design

CAM: Computer Aided Manufacturing

CAD
CAD is a program that is used to create 3-D objects. There are some specialized CAD programs for specific
industries e.g. circuit designing, building designing, etc.

Typical features of CAD:

• Ability to create 3-D objects using the measurements given.
• Zooming in and out to see the details or the overall views.
• You can view the objects in a wireframe or as rendered final product.
• It contains a built in library of commonly used objects so that we don’t have to create the design
from scratch.
• We can apply different materials and colours to see which is the most suitable.
• 1 Ability to create 3-D objects using the measurements given.
• 2 Zooming in and out to see the details or the overall views.
• 3 You can view the objects in wireframe or as rendered final product
• 4 It contains a built in library of commonly used objects so that we don’t have to create the design
from scratch
• 5 We can apply different materials and colours to see which is the most suitable

CAM (Computer Aided Manufacturing)

Computers can be used to manufacture the moulds for different objects that were designed using CAD. This
process is called CAM.

Computers can be used to manufacture the moulds for different objects that were designed using CAD. This
process is called CAM.

Simulation
It is a computer generated situation to study a real life phenomenon. It is used in the following areas:

• If the real life event takes too long to properly observe the changes occurring.
• If the event is too quick or too small to be observed by humans.
• If it is practically impossible to generate such situation in real-life.
• If the situation is dangerous or hazardous to human life.
• It is a computer generated situation to study a real phenomenon. It is used in the following cases:
• If the real life event takes too long to properly observe the changes occurring. If the event is
too quick or too small to be observed by humans.
• If it is practically impossible to generate such situation in real life
• If the situation is dangerous or hazardous to human life

Model
It is a computer generated object to study the behaviour of simulation e.g. we would create a car model to
see how it would affect the driver in case of a car crash. Similarly a financial model in a Spreadsheet can be
used to determine the future trends.

It is a computer generated object to study the behaviour of simulation e.g. we would create a car model to
see how it would affect the driver in case of a car crash. Similarly a financial model is a spread sheet can be
used to determine the future trends
Weather Forecasting System (Curriculum Content 1.1.4):
Input

Thermistor/Thermal Sensor/heat sensor: It collects heat data at specific intervals to find out the temperature
throughout the day.

Light level sensor: It detects the level of light during different times of the day to see if it is cloudy or sunny.

Humidity sensor: It detects the amount of humidity in the air that helps determine the probability of rain.

Wind pressure sensor: It detects the speed and direction of wind. It helps determine the air pressure in
different zones that helps predicting in blizzards and wind storms.

Processing the data collected from the sensor in is displayed in real time as well as stored permanently. At
the end of the day the data is analysed and compared with historical data to make predictions.

Traffic control system

Data from traffic signals/crossing will be collected through infrared or pressure sensors. The sensors will
count the number of vehicles on each side and transmit this data to central server. The data will be
transferred either by fibre optic cable or wirelessly through satellites. The central server will set the signal to
green where there is more traffic otherwise the signals will turn red and green at pre-set interval. If a
pedestrian presses the button, it will be given preference to cross the road.

The data in control room will be logged and will be analysed to determine the flow of traffic. On some busy
crossings, there might be LEDs that might be used to divert the traffic from busy junctions. In case the sensor
`would malfunction, the signals will revert to default system. One problem that might occur is that if heavy
load of traffic is detected on all sides, then, the green interval might be too short to be reasonable.

System software
The programs that are used to run, manage and maintain the computer hardware are called system software
e.g. disk defragmenter and device drivers. It does not provide direct benefit to the user.

Device Drivers
It is an essential piece of software required to make a hardware equipment work. Most operating systems
already have device drivers for thousands of common devices.

System utilities/Utility programs

It is a small piece of software that performs one system maintenance task. Some utilities are already
provided with operating system and even available as suite of applications. E.g. Disc defragmenter, antivirus,
registry cleaner, file manager, disk format utility.

Application software: It solves everyday problems (particularly business tasks). Users can get direct benefit
from these software e.g. word processing and web browsers.

Operating System
Features of operating system:

1) It boots thee computer and provides user interface.

 2) It manages memory i.e. RAM and hard disk storage.
3) It controls and coordinates input/output devices.
4) It provides error messages and resource/event logs.
5) It provides security through login passwords and restricted access.
6) It contains many useful utilities to maintain and keep computer hardware healthy.

Translators
1- Assembler translates assembly language programs into binary code.

2- Interpreter translates and executes on line of high level language code. An interpreter must be loaded into
memory before running the program. If there is any error in any line of code (statement), then the
program stops and interpreter lets the programmer change or correct the mistake.

3- Compiler is a software that converts a high level language program into machine code in one go. The high
level language program code is called source code and the binary code generated by compiler is called
object code.

Programming Languages
Computer understands two types of programming languages:
1- Low Level languages: Machine/binary language and assembly language are considered as
low level languages. Computers only understand binary language. All the programs must be
converted into binary language in order to execute.
2- High Level languages: These languages are closer to human languages (English). It must be
translated into machine code to run.

Algorithms
Algorithm is a solution to a problem in finite number of steps. Using algorithms we can solve common
business and real world problems using pseudo code or program flow charts. Pseudo code is a standard
English-like notation used to write computer programs.

Sequence

Variable and constants

Building Expression

Entering Data

Selection

Single line IF

IF … THEN … ELSE … END IF

Nested IF

Switch Statement
Repetition

FOR … NEXT Loop

DO WHILE … END WHILE

REPEATE … UNTIL

Modules

System Analysis and Design (SAD)

System: System is a collection of objects or components that work together to achieve a single task. E.g.:
ecosystems, solar system, sound system, school system, etc. In computing we only consider man-made data
processing systems.

Why do systems die?

1. If there is a major flaw in the system that makes it obsolete or unusable.
2. The user requirements change.
3. Any connected or dependant system changes.

System development life cycle (SDLC):

Fact finding or initial studies:
Interviews
Observations
Document browsing
Questionnaires
Analysis:
Description of solutions and problems
Drafting requirement specification
Design:
Designing input and output screens
Designing data dictionaries and queries
Drawing flowcharts and FDs
Producing action plan
Producing algorithms
Develop
Testing:
Making test strategy and test plan
Using suitable test data
Implementation
Evaluation and feedback
Document:
2 types of documentations.
Investigation Methods/Fact finding methods:

Interviews
Interviews are interactive question answer sessions conducted orally.

Features of interviews:
• Conducted face to face that why the body language of the interviewee can be assessed.
• Interviewee may forget some critical factual information.
• We can change the course of discussion based on interviewee’s responses.
• We have to setup a meeting time before we could interview someone.
• We can conduct an interview even if the interviewee is illiterate.

Questionnaires
Questionnaires are a forum containing questions that are answered by the users. Questionnaires are used to
collect information from a large number of people. It can contain close ended and open ended questions.

Features of questionnaires:
• Extremely useful in performing statistical analysis.
• It might take a long time to distribute and collect questionnaires.
• People might skip or choose not to answer any critical question or important question.
• Questionnaires must be carefully planned and designed to avoid ambiguity and confirm to users
literacy level.
• People might be careless or in hurry while filling the forum and can even be dishonest.
• Questionnaires can be presented as documented evidence.

Observations
System analyst may observe the working of an organisation by him. A typical day’s work of an organisation
can give an insight into the problem. Observations can be formal or informal.

Features of observations:
• The subjects may behave unnaturally, i.e., they might get nervous or pretend to work better.
• Observations might take a lot of time and would be tiring for the analyst.
• The observation of the analyst could be biased or incorrect.

Document browsing
document browsing means checking the existing system’s documents to understand the working.

Features of document browsing:

• After getting the permission analyst can examine documents independently.
• It might take a lot of time to sift through the information to get the required one.
• We might still need employees help in order to understand or interpret the information.
• The documents give exact information, facts and figures that cannot be denied or challenged.
Analysis
Requirement specification: this is a virtual document in SAD. It contains objectives of the systems in business
and technical terms. It also contains software and hardware requirements. This document is signed by both
parties (client and analyst). This document goes a long way in SDLC, E.g.: the software testing an evaluation
is based on requirement specification (RS).

Design
Data dictionary: this document contains details of all the data files. It contains field names, data types, sizes
and a reason for storing a particular data item. It also specifies primary keys and foreign keys.

Output report: In design face the analyst must also design an output report. The first question is that
whether the report is softcopy or a hardcopy. Secondly the layout of the report is determined. The layout
will be whether columnar/tabular, justified or stepped. The orientation can be portrait or landscape.

Development
In this phase the software is developed using a programming language. Sometime some parts of software
are tested and design documents might get changed too.

Testing

Test strategy
Software cannot be tested from every aspect that’s why in test strategy we determine what part of the
software will be tested after that a test plan is devised.

Test plan:
in test plan the detail of testing is specified it includes the components being tested, the data that would be
provided, type of test, expected outcome and the results.

There are 3 common types of tests:

1) Normal testing
2) Extreme testing
3) Abnormal testing

Normal testing:
Normal data is provided to see if the system accepts it and produces appropriate results. E.g.: $4.99 is
normal data for the price field.

Extreme testing:
Data that is on the verge of being rejected is provided to the system. System must accept and process
extreme data. E.g.: 0 and 100 are extreme data for a percentage field.

Abnormal testing:
Data that falls outside the normal range is called abnormal data that must be rejected by the system. E.g.: -1
and 101 are abnormal data for percentage field.
Implementation
In this phase we decide how the system would be implemented; what method would be used and the user
will be trained?

Methods:

Direct implementation
In this method old system is replaced by the new one overnight.

Features of direct implementation:

• In some situations only direct implementation is viable, like air traffic control system and ATM.
• Users might not get enough time to get familiar with the new system.
• Organisations can reap the benefits of new system right away.
• In case of a system failure there is no backup.

Parallel implementation
In this method both systems (old and new) run simultaneously for some time until the new system is proven
effective.

Features:
• It requires twice as much resource to run both systems.
• In case the new system collapses we have back up of data and a fall back option.
• It gives ample time to the employees to become familiar with the system.

Phased implementation
In this method one part or phase of an organisation is converted to the new system and once it is fully
operational the next department adopts the new system. Once eventually when all the phases are converted
to the new system then all the components is connected together.

Features:
• It takes a lot of time to fully implement the new system.
• It might be a complex task to interlink all the subsystems.

Pilot implementation: in this method the whole project or system is implemented on a small scale if the pilot
project proves successful then the whole organization adopts the new system.

Evaluation and feedback:

After the system is implemented it is evaluated by the developer and users. Evaluation is based on the
requirement specification drafted earlier. Developers match the performance and features of the new
system with the initial specification. Then developers can suggest future enhancements. Users can give
valuable feedback to the developers that can help them in future projects.

Documentation:
All the documents produced throughout the system life cycle which includes all the planning documents,
work logs and reports are collectively called documentations. There are two major types of documentations
namely:
 1) Technical documentation 2)
User documentation.

Technical documentations
Is made up of flowcharts, algorithms and other design documents. They are in technical language and are
meant for system developers and technical support staff.

User documentations
Is made up of user manual, quick start guide, installation guide, troubleshooting guide, reference card, online
help, FAQs, wikis, support forums, email chart, and telephone customer support. User
documentations is in non-technical language and easy to understand. It might have screen shots to explain
different tasks.

Flowcharts

Logic Gates
Logic gates are components that have a pre-defined output (finite state) based on a given input. A circuit
made up of many logic gates can be built to perform operations such as simple arithmetic to complex
process control.

A microchip (Integrated Circuit) designer would study a real world problem, create a function equation, draw
a logic diagram, verify output using truth table and then build the circuit.

A circuit designer might use any of the gates available along with other components. There are about 7 gates
that can be used as a building block for a complex circuit. We will study the following 5 gates:

1. AND
2. OR
3. NOT
4. NAND
5. NOR

Modes of Processing
There are two modes of processing:

Batch processing:
In batch processing input is collected and validated before processing. All the data is processed in one go
without human intervention. If there is an error in a batch, the whole batch must be repeated. Minor errors
are reported in the end.

E.g. salary slips, utility bills, fee slips and stock report etc.

Real-time processing:
In this process there is no significant delay between input and processing. The response to user input is
immediately produced. E.g. computer game or air traffic control system.
Example for both

ATM (first real-time while transaction) + batch when full day reports are printed.

Supermarket: Real-time processing when making sale and batch when full day report is reported.

Multi-access system:
It is a system that is designed in such a way that more than one user could use its resources at the same
time. E.g. if a user is changing a file, it will become Read-Only or locked for other users, ATMs connected to a
server.

Transaction process system:

A transaction is defined as a set of multiple actions that are performed as a unit. If, even one action in a
transaction fails, the whole transaction is rolled back. A transaction is successful if all the commands
complete successfully. E.g. A withdrawal cash from ATM.

Multi-tasking system:
Multi-tasking is the capability of a system to run more than one task at one time by providing a time slice.
The users get the impression that the tasks are running concurrently.

Process-control systems:
These are fault-tolerant systems that not only display the status, but also store it for future reference.

Network systems:
They are meant to keep track resources and provide access in multi-user and multi-access environment. It
provides higher level of security through login/passwords and encryptions.

Data Protection Act

It is the law that protects the privacy of the data subjects.

The salient features of this law are as following:-

2) Data must be collected lawfully.

3) Adequate measures must be taken to protect data from unauthorized access and other data threats.
4) Data must be processed lawfully and should not be shared with third party without the consent of
data subjects.
5) Data subjects must be allowed to view, edit and delete data about them.

Exceptions of Data Protection Act

• It does not apply on personal databases or contact list.
• Medical and criminal records are not shared with the data subjects.
• Some organizations have special rights to withhold information of data subjects. E.g. Car registration
office, Passport office and Revenue office.

Weather Forecasting Systems

Input:
 1) Thermistor, Thermal sensor and Heat sensors are the same things.

Thermal sensor collects heat data at specific intervals to find out the temperature throughout the day.

2) Light level sensor

It detects the level of light during different times of the day to see if it is cloudy or sunny.

3) Humidity sensor

It detects the amount of humidity in the air that helps determine the probability of rain.
4) Wind Pressure sensor

It detects speed and direction of the wind. It helps determine the air pressure in different zones which helps
predicting in blizzard and wind storms.

Processing:
The data collected from the sensors is displayed in real-time as well as stored permanently. At the end of the
day, the data is analysed and compared with historical data to make predictions.

Glossary
Macros

Macro is a feature of application software that allows user to customize the application and automate
routine tasks. E.g. a macro can be created to produce a chart in Spreadsheet software and display in
presentation software. Similarly a macro can be created to convert data from one format to another.

Encryption

Encryption is a method to encode sensitive data in such a way that it becomes un-understandable by
anyone. This data can only be decrypted using appropriate key. This is usually helpful in data transmission.

Backup

It is another copy of original data that is kept safely away from the original data. It is used in case if
the original data is lost or damaged. Actuator

Actuator is an output device that produces physical movement e.g. a robotic arm or a stepping motor.

Handshaking

Buffer

Interrupt

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