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Learning Objectives:
This chapter describes the different types of transmitters used in radar sets. Upon completion of this chapter
you will be able to:
• Describe the evolution of radar
• Basic principle of operation of radar
• Basic Radar parameters & its measurement.
• Derivation of Radar equation.
• Radar Frequency bands.
1
2 Basics Part-I
• 1936: The development of the Klystron by the technicians, George F. Metcalf and William C.
Hahn, both from General Electric took place. This was an important component in radar units as an
amplifier or an oscillator tube.
• 1939: Two engineers from the University in Birmingham, John Turton Randall und Henry Albert
Howard Boot built a small but powerful radar using a Multicavity-Magnetron. The B–17 airplanes
were fitted with this radar. They could find and thus combat the German submarines in the night
and in fog.
• 1940: Different radar equipments were developed in the USA, Russia, Germany, France and Japan.
• 1945: Driven by general war events and the development of the Air Force to a major branch of
service, the radar technology underwent a strong development boost during the World War II, and
radar were used during the Cold War in large numbers along the inner German border.
Following these major achievements in the field of radars, the radar technology has boomed up since.
The following section illustrates the basic principles of radar.
1.3
1.3 BASIC PRINCIPLE
BASIC PRINCIPLE OF
OF RADAR
RADAR OPERATION
OPERATION
The basic
The basic principle
principle of
of operation
operation of
of primary
primary radar
radar is
is simple
simple toto understand.
understand. However,
However, the
the theory
theory can
can be
be
quite complex.
quite complex. AnAn understanding
understanding ofof the
the theory
theory is
is essential
essential in
in order
order to
to be
be able
able to
to specify
specify and
and operate
operate primary
primary
radar systems
radar systems correctly.
correctly. The
The implementation
implementation andand operation
operation of of primary
primary radar
radar systems
systems involve
involve aa wide
wide range
range
of disciplines
of disciplines such
such as
as building
building works,
works, heavy
heavy mechanical
mechanical and and electrical
electrical engineering,
engineering, high
high power
power microwave
microwave
engineering and
engineering and advanced
advanced high
high speed
speed signal
signal and
and data
data processing
processing techniques.
techniques. Also
Also some
some laws
laws of
of nature
nature have
have aa
greater importance here.
greater importance here.
Fig. 1.2:
Fig. 1.2: Radar Principle: The measuring of a round trip time of a microwave pulse
Radar Principle: The measuring of a round trip time of a microwave pulse
measurement of
Radar measurement of range,
range, or
or distance,
distance, isis made
made possible
possible because
because of
of the
the properties
properties ofof radiated
radiated elec-
elec-
energy. Some
tromagnetic energy. Some of of them
them areare as
as follows:
follows:
Reflection of
• Reflection of electromagnetic
electromagnetic waves: The
waves: The electromagnetic
electromagnetic waves waves are
are reflected
reflected ifif they
they meet
meet an an
electrically leading
electrically leading surface.
surface. If If these
these reflected
reflected waves
waves are are received
received again
again atat the
the place
place of
of their
their origin,
origin,
then there
then there is
is an
an obstacle
obstacle inin the
the propagation
propagation direction.
direction.
Electromagnetic energy
• Electromagnetic energy travels
travels through
through airair at
at a constant
a constant speed,
speed, at
at approximately
approximately the the speed
speed of of
light, viz.
light, viz. 300,000
300,000 kilometers
kilometers per per second.
second. This
This constant
constant speed
speed allows
allows the
the determination
determination of of the dis-
the dis-
tance between the
tance between the reflecting
reflecting objects
objects (airplanes,
(airplanes, ships
ships oror cars)
cars) and
and the
the radar
radar site
site by
by measuring
measuring the the
running
running time
time ofof the
the transmitted
transmitted pulses.
pulses.
• The energy normally travels through space in a straight line, and varies only slightly because of
The energy normally travels through space in a straight line, and varies only slightly because of
atmospheric
atmospheric and and weather
weather conditions.
conditions. By By using
using special
special radar
radar antennas,
antennas, this
this energy
energy can
can bebe focused
focused
into aa desired
desired direction.
direction. Thus
Thus thethe direction
direction (in azimuth and elevation) of
(in azimuth and elevation) of the the reflecting
reflecting objects
objects can
can
be measured.
measured.
These principles
principles can
can basically
basically be be implemented
implemented in in aa radar
radar system
system and
and allow
allow the
the determination
determination of of the
the
distance, the direction
direction and
and the
the height
height ofof the
the reflecting
reflecting object.
object.
(The effects
effects which
which atmosphere
atmosphere and and weather
weather have
have onon the
the transmitted
transmitted energy
energy will
willbebetemporarily
temporarilyignored,
ignored,
for this discussion
discussion onon determining
determining rangerange and
and direction).
direction).
1.4
1.4 PRINCIPLE OF
OF MEASUREMENT
MEASUREMENT:
1.4.1
1.4.1 Range Measurement
Measuremen
The distance is determined
determined from
from the
the running
running time
time of
of the
the high-frequency
high-frequency transmitted
transmitted signal
signal and
and the
the propaga-
propaga-
tion speed
tion speed (c00). The
The actual
actual range
range of
of aa target
target from
from the
the radar
radar is
is known
known as slant
as slant range.
range. Slant
Slant range
range isis the
the line
line of
of
4 Basics Part-I
sight distance between the radar and the object illuminated. Ground range is the horizontal distance between the
emitter and its target and its calculation requires knowledge of the target’s elevation. Since the waves travel to
a target and back, the round trip time is dividing by two in order to obtain the time the wave took to reach the
target. Therefore the following formula arises for the slant range:
R = (c0*t)/2
where c0 = speed of light=3.108 m/s;
t = measured running time [s];
R = slant range antenna – aim [m]
The distances are expressed in kilometers or nautical miles (1 NM = 1.852 km).
Derivation of the equation: Range is the distance from the radar site to the target measured along the
line of sight.
v = s/t
where v = velocity of propagation;
s = distance;
t = time taken to cover the distance
thus c0 = 2R/t
The factor of two in the equation comes from the observation that the radar pulse must travel to the
target and back before detection, or twice the range.
R = c0*t/2 (in meters)
where c0= 3·108 m/s, is the speed of light at which all electromagnetic waves propagate.
If the respective running time t is known, then the distance R between a target and the radar can be
calculated by using this equation.
where
The c0 iswidth
pulse the speed
(PW)(PRTof light
in these− PWwith
) in [3·10
equationsμs] m/s.
8
indicates that the complete echo impulse must be received.The
The pulse
pulse repetition timewidthRmax(P=Wof) in
(PRT) these is
a radar equations
important inindicates
[km] that the complete
when determining echo impulse
the maximum must be target
range because received.The
...(ii)
return-
6.66 μs
pulse repetition time (PRT) of a
times that exceed the PRT of the radar is important
system appear when determining
at incorrect the maximum
locations (ranges) onrange
the because targetReturns
radar screen. return-
appear where c0 is the speed of light
arewith 3·108 m/s.
times that exceed the PRT of the radar system appear at incorrect locations (ranges) on the radar screen. Returns
that at these incorrect ranges referred as ambiguous returns or second-sweep echoes.
By The
that appear at pulseincorrect
these
employing width (PWranges
staggered ) in theseareequations
PRT, targetindicates
referred
the asambiguousthat the
ambiguous complete
returns
return or echo
isn’t impulse must
second-sweep
represented be received.The
echoes.
any more by small arc.
pulse repetition time (PRT) of a radar is important when determining the maximum range because
By employing
This movement staggered
or instability of thePRT, the target
ambiguous returnambiguous return typically
is represented isn’t represented
as a collection oftarget
any more by return-
points small arc.
in certain
times that exceed the PRT of the radar system appear at incorrect locations (ranges) on the radar screen. Returns
This movement
equipment or instability of the ambiguous return is represented typically as a
because of the change in reception times from impulse to impulse. With this distinction, a computercollection of points in certain
that appear at these incorrect ranges are referred as ambiguous returns or second-sweep echoes.
equipmentsignal
controlled because of the staggered
processing
By employing
change inPRT,
reception
can calculate times
thetarget
the actual from impulse
distance.
ambiguous
to impulse. With this distinction, a computer
return isn’t represented any more by small arc.
controlled signal processing can calculate the actual distance.
This movement or instability of the ambiguous return is represented typically as a collection of points in certain
equipment because of the change in reception times from impulse to impulse. With this distinction, a computer
controlled signal processing can calculate the actual distance.
Fig. 1.6: The ambiguous target does not have a stable position on the screen at staggered PRT.
1.6: The ambiguous target does not have a stable position on the screen at staggered PRT.
Fig. 1.6: The ambiguous target does not have a stable position on the screen at staggered PRT.
1.4.4 Minimal
1.4.4 Measuring
Minimal MeasuringRange
Range
Fig.
Fig.1.8:
1.8: The
The Radars “blindrange”
Radars “blind range”
Fig. 1.8: The Radars “blind range”
Rmin
Monostatic pulse radar uses the same antenna for transmitting and receiving. During the transmit-
ting time, the radar cannot receive any pulses. The radar receiver is switched off using an electronic switch,
called duplexer. The minimal measuring range Rmin (“blind range”) is the minimum distance which the tar-
get must be away from the radar to be detected. Herein it is necessary that the transmitting pulse leaves the
antenna completely and the radar unit switches on the receiver. The transmitting time τ and the recovery
Basics Part-I 7 time
trecovery should be as short aspulse
Monostatic possible, if targets
radar uses areantenna
the same to be detected in theand
for transmitting local area. During the transmit-
receiving.
ting time, the radar cannot receive any pulses. The radar receiver is switched off using an electronic switch,
c0 ⋅ (τ + measuring
called duplexer. The minimal
t re cov ery ) range Rmin (“blind range”) is the minimum distance which the tar-
Rmin =
get must be away from the radar 2 to be detected. Herein it is necessary that the transmitting pulse leaves the
antenna completely and the radar unit switches on the receiver. The transmitting time τ and the recovery time
Targets at a range equivalent to the pulse width from the radar are not detected. A typical value
trecovery should be as short as possible, if targets are to be detected in the local area.
of 1 μs
pulse width of a short range radar corresponds to a minimum range of about 150 m, which is generally accept-
c0 ⋅ (t + t re cov ery )
able. However, radars
R with min
longer
= pulse width suffer a relatively large minimum range, notably pulse compres-
2
sion radars, which can use pulse lengths of the order of tens or even hundreds of microseconds. Targets at ranges
Targets at a range equivalent to the pulse width from the radar are not detected. A typical value of 1 µs
closer thanpulse
thiswidth
minimum arerange
of a short saidradar
to be eclipsed.to a minimum range of about 150 m, which is generally accept-
corresponds
able. However, radars with longer pulse width suffer a relatively large minimum range, notably pulse compres-
sion radars, which can use pulse lengths of the order of tens or even hundreds of microseconds. Targets at ranges
closer than this minimum are said to be eclipsed.
Fig.Fig.
1.9:1.9:
DeDefinition
nition ofofelevation
elevationangle ε
angle ε
Altitude- or height-finding search radars use a very narrow beam in the vertical plane. The beam is mechanically
Altitude- or
or height- nding
electronically search
scanned radars use
in elevation a verytargets.
to pinpoint narrow beam in theradar
Height-finding vertical
systems plane. The
that also beam isbear-
determine mechanically
or electronically
ing mustscanned in elevation
have a narrow beam in theto horizontal
pinpoint plane
targets. Height-
in addition nding
to the one inradar systems
the vertical that also determine bear-
plane.
ing must have a narrow beamangle
The elevation in the horizontal
is the planetheinhorizontal
angle between additionplane
to the
andonethe in
linethe
of vertical plane.in the
sight, measured
vertical plane. The Greek letter Epsilon (ε) describes the elevation angle. The elevation
The elevation angle is the angle between the horizontal plane and the line of sight, measured angle is positive above in the
the horizon (0° elevation angle), and negative below the horizon.
vertical plane. The Greek letter Epsilon (ε) describes the elevation angle. The elevation angle is positive above
the horizon (0° elevation angle), and negative below the horizon.
1.4.6 Range Resolution
1.5.1
Pulse Repetition Frequency:
Pulse Repetition Frequency (PRF)
Ppeak P τ
Ppeak T
T τ
Fig. 1.18: Duty cycle, peak- and average power
The energy content of a continuous-wave radar transmission may be easily figured because the trans-
mitter operates continuously. However, pulsed radar transmitters are switched on and off to provide range tim-
ing information with each pulse. The amount of energy in this waveform is important because maximum range
is directly related to the transmitter output power. The more energy the radar system transmits, the greater the
target detection range will be. The energy content of the pulse is equal to the peak (maximum) power level of
the pulse multiplied by the pulse width. However, meters used to measure power in a radar system do so over a
period of time that is longer than the pulse width. For this reason, pulse-repetition time is included in the power
calculations for transmitters. Power measured over such a period of time is referred to as average power.
P/Pi = P(average)/P(peak) = pulse width(τ)/PRT(T) = Duty cycle
Peak power must be calculated more often than average power. This is because most measurement
instruments measure average power directly. Transposing the upper equation gives us a common way for calcu-
lating peak power/average power.
Because of the storage of the energy in the modulator of a radar’s transmitter, the power supply must
make plant for the transmitter available a little more than the average power only.
Duty cycle: The product of pulse width (pw) and pulse-repetition frequency (PRF) in the above for-
mula is called the duty cycle of a radar system. Duty cycle is the fraction of time that a system is in an “active”
state. In particular, it is used in the following contexts: Duty cycle is the proportion of time during which a
component, device, or system is operated. Suppose a transmitter operates for 1 microsecond, and is shut off
for 99 microseconds, then is run for 1 microsecond again, and so on. The transmitter runs for one out of 100
microseconds, or 1/100 of the time, and its duty cycle is therefore 1/100, or 1 percent. The duty cycle is used to
calculate both the peak power and average power of a radar system.
1.6.1 Derivation
If the power of the radar transmission is denoted by Pt and if an omnidirectional antenna is used, that is, one
which radiates uniformly in all directions, the power density (power per unit area) at a distance R from the radar
is equal to the transmitter power divided by the surface are 4πR2 of an imaginary sphere of radius R, or
Power density from omni directional antenna = Pt / 4πR2 (1.1)
Radars usually employ directive antennas instead of omnidirectional antenna, to channel most of the
radiated power Pt , into some particular direction. The gain Gt of an antenna is a measure of the increased power
radiated in the direction of the target as compared with the power that would have been radiated from an iso-
tropic antenna.
The power density at the target from an antenna with a transmitting gain Gt is
Power density from directive antenna = PtGt /4πR2
The target intercepts a portion of the radiated power and reradiates it in the direction of the radar
Power reradiated in target direction = PtGtσ /4πR2
The parameter σ is the radar cross section of the target and has the dimensions of area. It is a character-
istics of the target and is a measure of its size as seen by the radar. The power density in the echo signal at the
radar receiving antenna is then
Power density of echo signal at radar = (PtGtσ / (4πR2)2)
The radar antenna captures a portion of the echo power. If the effective capture area of the receiving
antenna is Ae, the echo power Pr received at the radar is
Pr = PtGt Ae σ /(4πR2)2
This is the fundamental form of the radar equation. Note that the important antenna parameters are the
transmitting gain and the receiving area.
Antenna theory gives the relationship between antenna gain and effective are as
Gt = 4πAt /λ2 Gr = 4πAr /λ2
Where the subscripts r and t refer to the receiving and transmitting antennas, respectively. If a common
antenna is used for both transmission and reception (as usually the case), the reciprocity theorem of antenna
theory states that Gt = Gr =G and At = Ar = Ae. Using these relationships, eq becomes
Pr = Pt Ae2 σ/4πR4 λ2
or Pr = Pt G2 λ2 σ / (4π)3 R4
The maximum radar range Rmax is the distance beyond which that the target can no longer be detected.
It occurs when the received echo signal Pr just equals the minimum detectable signal Smin. Therefore
Rmax = [Pt G2 λ 2 σ / (4π)3 Smin] 1/4
An application of this radar equation is to easily visualize how the performances of radar influence the
range.
All considerations, when calculating the radar equation, were made assuming that the electromagnetic
waves propagate under ideal conditions without any disturbing influences. In practice, a number of losses should
be considered since they reduce the effectiveness of the radar considerably.
The radar equation is thus extended by including the loss factor L.
This factor L includes the following losses:
Internal attenuation factors of the radar on the transmitting and receiving paths
Fluctuation losses during reflection
Atmospheric losses during propagation of the electromagnetic waves to and from the target
Basics Part-I 15
High frequency components, such as waveguides, filters and also a radome, generate internal losses. For
a given radar this loss is relatively constant and also easily measured. Atmospheric attenuation and reflections
at the Earth’s surface are permanent influences.
Learning Objectives:
This chapter describes radar basics laying emphasis on more important features of radars. Upon completion
this chapter, you will be able to:
• Understand clarification of radars & device radar equation based on this clarification.
• Understand Radar cross section & Various parameters leading to its fluctuation.
• Understand Radar Clutter and its various types
• Terminologies relating to radar detection & tracking
• Understand ECM & ECCM features is radar.
21
22 Basics Part-II
There are emerging requirements to deploy surveillance radars of medium range class in hilly
and mountainous regions. These radars will be unattended or minimally attended types.
There are radars fitted on UAVs or light helicopters to perform maritime surveillance. These
radars can detect and track sea surface targets such as ships, boats etc., They can also detect
periscopes of submarines. Since radars are on elevated platform they can detect targets up to
around 70-80 NMs.
Surveillance Radars are now a days mounted onto balloons. These radars mounted under the
gondola of a stationary balloon can provide surveillance up to 300-400kms. Since the balloons
are located around 15000 ft altitude, the radars on these platforms can detect targets at low and
ultra-low levels such as cruise missiles.
The long range categories with ranges>200kms are static in operation and are relocatable.
radars capable of detecting aircrafts go up to 400 kms of range where the ones engaged in air
breathing targets including ballistic missiles will have ranges up to around 1000kms or so.
• Tracking radars: These are radars which can carry out limited search over azimuth and eleva-
tion and track the targets with high precision. They can be dedicated to specific targets by lock-
ing on to them Thus the Single target Tracking can provide frequent updates so that the radar
can provide accurate real-time information of the selected targets for fir control operations.
These radars which can be static or ship borne are also called as Fire Control Radars (FCRs).
Design of FCRs is closely linked with the type of weapon system used. Tracking radars gener-
ally get target cue information form a surveillance radar or surveillance network containing
target range azimuth and sometimes elevation.
• Multifunction Radars: The radars can carry out simultaneously search as well as tracking on
selected targets. Phase array radars with electronic beam switching capability are used for this
application. The frequency of operation is carefully chosen to provide the required accuracy
and the power-aperture is chosen for achieving the required range and accuracy. Multifunction
radars can operate in short, medium and long ranges.
• Imaging radars: Radars mounted on aerial platforms can provide photographic like images
using synthetic aperture principle. Such radars are also called as Synthetic Aperture Radars
(SARs). SARs operate on stationary objects. On the contrary when the sea surface targets
undergo pitch and roll movements the radars can provide images. These radars are called as
Inverse Synthetic Aperture Radars (ISARs). ISARs are mounted on elevated platforms such as
helicopters are aircrafts. Now a days ground based radars perform excellent range resolution on
targets and thus carry out a range profiling on targets with resolutions up to a foot. This mode
is called as range profiling and can be part of ISARs. ISAR technique is very effective on sea
surface targets in image formation in single and 2-dimensions. ISAR generate better 2D image
when the sea state is 3 or more.
• Bi-static Radars/Multi-static Radars: Bi-static radar is the one in which the transmitter and re-
ceiver are deployed at two separate locations; either or both of these locations can be changing with
time. These sites are separated by a baseline whose length is usually comparable with the ranges of
the targets of interest. Generally bi-static radars will have single or multiple transmitters and receiv-
ers at multiple locations. Receivers can sometimes use ambient illuminations such as FM transmis-
sions or non-co-operative transmitters. Such radars using non-cooperative transmitters with only
set of receivers are called as Passive Radars.
• Multiple Input Multiple Output (MIMO) Radars: This is the most generalized configurations
where there are multiple transmitters and multiple radar receivers. These can be co-located where
each transmitter can emit different waveforms. Or the transmitters and receivers can be spatially
distributed.
3. RADAR TARGETS
When cumulative probability of detection over scans separated by ts > tc is to be determined, the suc-
cessive trials at intervals ts are independent. In sequentially sampled measurement processes, the best perfor-
mance is obtained if the target remains constant during the measurement ( tc >> to) when to is the observation
time.
Fluctuation rate of target is the rate at which the RCS lobes pass across the line of sight of the radar.
The spectrum of the received signal for a target with scatterers uniformly distributed will be
2ωa Lx
fma =
λ
Correlation frequency: Targets that extend for a distance Lr along the radar line of sight have an RCS
that varies with radar frequency. Correlation frequency fc of the target will be
c
fc = .
2L
This is the frequency shift that causes the two way path between the nearest and the farthest scattering
elements to change by λ/2 thus decorrelating the echo.
De-correlation by Frequency Diversity or Frequency Agility: De-correlation of echo signal can be
obtained either by frequency diversity or frequency agility. When aiming for higher probabilities of detection
( i.e Pd > 0.8) there is considerable improvement in the fluctuation loss for Swerling case1. Frequency agility
with wide band transmitter can improve the Pd for ATC applications. However frequency diversity is resorted
to for Doppler processing as pulse to pulse frequency agility cannot be attempted for MTI.
Target Glint: Glint is defined as:
The inherent random component of error in measurement of position and/or Doppler frequency of a
complex target due to interference of the reflections from different elements of the target.
Although the interference between signal components which leads to glint also causes amplitude fluc-
tuations and related to scintillation errors in some tracking systems, the two effects are quite different. The
scintillation error results from the sequential sampling processes used in some measurement systems, and must
be considered as a separate component.
Target Recognition:
Non-Cooperative Target Recognition: This is the scheme where in target recognition information is
obtained without any cooperation of the target itself. Target recognition process consists of the following steps:
• Extracting features from backscattered electromagnetic waves from the known target
• Establishing the database of these features for the known target
• Extracting features of the unknown target with a real-time signal processor
Basics Part-II 27
• Comparing these features with that in the database and making decisions. The most difficult part
is the first one.
Difference between the incident wave and the backscatter wave depends on the following target
features:
• Shape of the target
• Aspect of the target
• Movement of the target, including the movement of the moving parts of the target
• Material of the target, including conductivity, dielectric constant, permeability and even semi-
conductor nonlinearity in the junction of metal parts. All these factors will cause the backscatter
wave to differ from the incident wave in strength, polarization, and fluctuation with time, etc.,
Target feature extraction techniques:
• One dimensional imaging with high range resolution radar: Radar with high range resolution
can resolve different scattering centers and provide the radial profile (the in dimensional image) of
the target. The radial profile can provide the measure of the radial length of the target. Such radial
profiles can provide basic classification of aircrafts and ships.
• Two dimensional Radar imaging of targets: Two dimensional images of target in range and
cross range can be obtained by Synthetic Aperture Radar(SAR) and Inverse Synthetic Aperture
Radar(ISAR) SAR can image stationary objects In ISAR every part of the moving part can have
different relative velocity with respect to the radar. By resolving the Doppler frequency various
parts of the moving object can be imaged in cross range. By combining with finer range resolution
the 2D image can be formed. In ISAR the target’s motion is used to form the image. Images formed
on ships by ISAR are very effective in target classification.
• Radar cross-section modulations: Here radar echoes fr4om moving parts within the target such
as propellers, rotating blades of a rotary wing helicopter, tank treads, rotating antennas, wing beat
of birds etc. Helicopter blades can provide flashes which can help classification. The jet engine
modulation by the rotating compressor can be used for classification.
4. RADAR CLUTTER
Cutter is the unwanted echoes from the natural environment. Clutter includes echoes from land, sea, weather
(particularly rain), birds and insects.
Echoes from land or sea are examples of surface clutter. Echoes from rain and chaff are examples of
volume clutter.
Clutter cross-section per unit area, σ0 is given by
σc
σ0 =
Ac
Similarly volume clutter per unit volume will be
σc
η =
Vc
η is also called as the reflectivity.
Surface clutter: With θB being the 3 dB beam width, and with t as the transmitted pulse width,
Clutter surface cell area will be = RθB(ct/2)secΨ where Ψ is the grazing angle.
0
PGA
t e σ q B (c/2)sec ψ
Surface clutter power per cell will be =
(4π) 2 R 3
The clutter power varies with range as R3.
And the signal to clutter power will be
σt
S/C = 0
σ Rq B (c/2)sec ψ
where σ0 is the radar cross-section of the clutter per unit area and σt is the radar cross-section.
Maximum detection range in the presence of surface clutter at low grazing angles, Rmax will be
28 Basics Part-II
σt
Rmax = 0
( S /C ) min σ q B (c/2)sec ψ
Where θB is the two azimuth beam width and is smaller than the one way beam width by √2. Therefore
the σ0 will be reduced by 1.5 db if oneway beam width is used.
Ψ is the grazing angle defined with respect to the tangent of the surface.
And
It is seen that when clutter is dominating, the max. range does not depend on the transmitted power.
The only requirement will be that the clutter power at radar receiver should be large compared to the receiver
noise. It can be seen under clutter limited max range cases, the Rmax is independent of the transmitted power and
gain of the antenna.
Unlike noise the clutter power returned from successive pulses especially stationary objects will be cor-
related and hence the integration gain on account of addition of pulses will not be effective. However at X-band
the sea clutter de-correlation time is about several milliseconds. Therefore the gain on account of integration
of pulses for stationary clutter should not be considered.
Land Clutter:
At low grazing angles: Significant clutter returns at low angles come from spatially localized or dis-
crete vertical features such as trees, tree lines, buildings, fences, or high points of the terrain. Cell to cell fluc-
tuations decrease with increasing angle. At lower angles clutter is no longer spiky. Variation on polarization or
weather is not much. Echoes at distant mountains are high at VHF than with microwave.
At medium grazing angles: land clutter is described by the parameter
σ0
γ =
sin ψ
The parameter γ is said to be independent of the grazing angle Ψ.
Land clutter at high grazing angles: At high grazing angles, antenna gain can influence. σ0 clutter
will be
8 8G
σ0 = = ≈G
q2B π2
At normal incidence σ0 will be higher than unity.
The surface clutter power C at higher grazing angles will be
πPt Ae σ0
C =
128 R 2 sin ψ
Sea Clutter: Sea clutter depends on the pointing direction of the radar antenna relative to the direction
of the wind. At low grazing angles backscattering from the sea is quite low when the wind speed is < 5 knots.
It increases rapidly with increasing wind up to 20 knots and increases more slowly at higher wind speeds. Sea
clutter is largest when the radar looks into the wind (upwind), smallest when looking with the wind (down-
wind), and intermediate when looking perpendicular to the wind (crosswind). There might be as much as 5 to
10 db variation in σ0 as the antenna rotates 3600 in azimuth. Backscatter is more sensitive to wind direction at
the higher frequencies than at lower frequencies. Horizontal polarization is more sensitive to wind direction
than vertical polarization.
Sea spikes: When sea clutter is viewed by a high resolution radar especially at high frequencies
(X-band) sea clutter is spiky. These are sporadic and have durations of seconds. They are non-stationary in time,
spatially non-homogenous and have pdf which is non-Rayleigh. The sea spikes can be mistaken as targets.
Statistical model of surface clutter: When large number of independent scatterers within the clutter
surface area then the σ0 is assumed to have Rayleigh probability distribution. When the resolution cell size is
smaller log-normal distribution is use. But Weibull distribution with two parameter is more suited to land, sea
and weather clutter modeling.
K-distribution for sea clutter: This has two components; one is fast varying with correlation time
on the order of 5 to 10 ms. This can be decorrelated by pulse to pulse agility.
Weather clutter: With the rainfall there will be backscattering from the rain drops. The received power
out of rain will be
Basics Part-II 29
1.6
2.4 PTr
P =
t
2 2
× 10−8 where r is rainfall in mm/hr.
Rλ
Detection of targets in clutter: Following are the major techniques available for detection of targets
in clutter:
• The Doppler frequency shift in MTI and pulse Doppler is a powerful method for separating moving
targets from stationary clutter.
• High resolution in range and/or angle reduces the amount of clutter with which the target must
compete, thus increasing the signal to noise ratio.
• Lower radar frequencies produce smaller echo power.
• Use of polarization discrimination can increase the target-to-clutter ratio from some types of clut-
ter, such as rain.
• Clutter echo decorrelation by observing the target and clutter at different times or with different
frequencies has some limited potential for allowing improved detectability.
• There are also techniques that help to avoid saturation of the receiver due to large clutter echoes.
These can be important to good radar performance even though do not increase the target-to-clutter
ratio.
• Use of Microwave Sensitivity Time Control (MSTC) can help to prevent the clutter echoes saturat-
ing the receiver.
k qB
σ =
k s {B ( S / N ) ( f p /βn )}
Where k = 1 for a monopulse radar
ks = slope of the angle-error signal at bore sight.
B = bandwidth
t = transmitted pulse width
S/N = signal to noise ratio per pulse width
fp is the pulse repetition frequency
and βn is the servo bandwidth and fp/2βn is the number of pulses integrated.
Learning Objectives:
This chapter describes the Range calculation of Radar sets. Upon completion on of this chapter you will be
able to:
• Describe Radar frequency selection, PRF selection, Pulse Width selection for radar range calculation.
• Describe the Radar Range resolution, Pulse compression technique and cone of silence, effect of S/R
on Radar range calculation.
• Understand Radar Range equation in respect of radar parameters.
Range and RCS requirements indicate that Radar is to use for long range surveillance and detection of fighter
class of aircraft and bigger cross- sectional aircraft in planned.
Radar Frequency selection: Radar Systems works in a wide band of transmitted frequencies. The
higher the frequency of a radar system, the more it is affected by weather conditions such as rain or clouds.
Radar sets need a considerably higher transmitting power than in lower frequency ranges to achieve a good
maximum range. S band radars operate on a wavelength of 8-15 cm and a frequency of 2-4 GHz. Because of
the wavelength and frequency, S band radars are not easily attenuated. This makes them useful for far range
detection.
33
34 System Calculations
By choosing S-Band we can get advantage of relatively lower antenna size and standard High Power
Transmitter for radar.
PRF Selection: In order to build up a noticeable echo, most radar systems emit pulses continuously and
the repetition rate of these pulses is determined by the role of the system. An echo from a target is integrated
within the signal processor for making detection easier. The higher the PRF that is used, then the more the target
is painted. However with the higher PRF the range that the radar can “see” is reduced. Radar designers try to use
the highest PRF possible corresponding with the other factors that constrain it, as described below.
There are two other aspects related to PRF that the designer must consider very carefully; the beam
width characteristics of the antenna, and the required periodicity with which the radar must sweep the field of
view or RPM of Antenna. Radar with a 0.9° horizontal beam width that sweeps the entire 360° horizon every
4 seconds with a PRF of 800 Hz (fp) will radiate 8 pulses over each 0.9 degree arc. If the receiver needs at least
16 reflected pulses of similar amplitudes to achieve an acceptable probability of detection (90%), then there are
three choices for the designer: double the PRF, halve the sweep speed, or double the beam width.
We have chosen half the sweep speed to meet our requirement. We have to integrate at least 16 pulses
to meet our requirement of 150km of range for target of 2 m2 as we will see in Radar Equation further.
qb 0.9
nb = = × fp = × 800 16
qs 360
7.5 ×
60
So we have selected PRF is 800Hz.
Blind speeds is a serious limitation of pulse doppler radars, causes some desired moving targets to be
cancelled along with the undesired clutter at zero frequency. To avoid blind speed PRF staggered is required. To
avoid blind speed at higher side, we will two PRF 1000 and 800
In our case first blind speed (km/h) for
PRF 1000Hz = 0.97 * λ(m) * fp (Hz) * 1.85
= 0.97 * 0.1 * 1000 * 1.85 = 179.45 km/h
In our case first blind speed (km/h) for
PRF 900Hz = 0.97 * λ(m) * fp (Hz) * 1.85
= 0.97 * 0.1 * 800 * 1.85 = 143.56 km/h
New blind speed will be LCM of 179 and 143 is very high speed (approx. 25579km/h).
Using PRF staggering avoids ambiguous target range.
Pulse width Selection: Wider pulses improve the radar’s ability to detect weak target signals at long
ranges but it may leads to higher transmitter duty cycle and minimum radar range.
The radar system’s pulse width, minimum detectable signal (MDS), receiver bandwidth and range
resolution are all related.
Changing the radar transmitter’s pulse width changes the radar’s sensitivity and range resolution. Un-
fortunately, those changes oppose each other. Wider pulses effectively increase the radar’s sensitivity, and in-
crease the radar’s ability to see al longer ranges. Narrower pulses improve the radar’s range resolution. The end
result is that, in a given condition, there is one optimum pulse width that will produce the best result.
Fig. 2.1
System Calculations 35
We will select pulse width 24µs so that we can achieve minimum range less than 4 km as per specifica-
tion requirement also to achieve lower duty cycle of transmitter.
C × Pulse width 3x 108 × 24 x 10−6
Minimum radar range: = = 3600 m = 3.6km
2 2
And maximum range resolution also will be 3.6km (very high). To achieve range resolution in order of
150m, transmitted pulse width must be around 200ns.
Range resolution: is directly related to transmitted pulse width. Pulse width must be shorter than the
propagation time from target 1 to target 2 and back.
2(R2 – R1) = C*t => t = 2(R2 – R1)/C
ΔR (Range gate or range bin) = (C*τ) /2
We take ΔR = 30m.
Pulse width = 2*ΔR/C
= 2* 30 /3 x 108 sec
= 200ns
Fig. 2.2
Actual range resolution is 3 to 4 times of ΔR to avoid unwanted target splitting. If we want range resolu-
tion approximately 150m then ΔR should be around 30meter.
But with 200ns we hardly get 50 km range for 2 RCS target. So we need to increase pulse width. So, to
take advantage of both long and short pulse we use pulse compression technique in processing.
Why Pulse Compression technique: High Range resolution may be obtained with short pulse but
there are limitations of short pulse width.
High Peak power is required for Large Pulse energy.
Handling of Large pulse Energy (Higher Peak Power) is complex and costly especially at higher fre-
quencies.
A long Pulse can have same bandwidth as short pulse if it modulated in frequency and phase.
Pulse compression, using frequency or phase modulation, allows radar to simultaneously achieve en-
ergy of a long pulse and the resolution of short pulse.
We use Linear Frequency Modulation (LFM) for pulse compression. Because of its great popularity,
more approaches for generating and processing linear FM have been developed than for any other coded wave-
form.
We use 24µs pulse width with LFM (Linear frequency modulation) of 5 MHz to achieve 200ns pulse
after pulse compression.
Antenna parameters: Almost all radars use directive antennas with relatively narrow beamwidths
that direct the energy in a particular direction. The antenna is an important part of radar. There is always a trade
between antenna size and transmitter size when long range performance is required.
36 System Calculations
We select antenna in such way that we can achieve gain of 32db, half power azimuth beam width 0.9
degree and half power elevation beamwidth 30 degree for effective Height coverage and minimum cone of
silence. The coverage of simple fan beam is not adequate for the detection of aircraft target at height altitude
even with higher elevation beamwidth. To obtain better illumination of close-in targets at high elevation angles,
the fan beam is modified so that its gain in elevation angle coordinate is proportional to the square of cosecant
of elevation angle.
Cone of Silence: Higher the elevation coverage lesser the Cone of silence. No target detection in the
area of cone of silence.
Fig. 2.3
Radar Transmitter and optimum power to meet required: AS per ‘Specification Requirements’,
Radar must detect target of 2 m2 RCS at 150 km range. By radar range equation, approximately 150kw peak
power to transmit with 24µs pulse width to meet above mentioned requirement of Target detection.
Now we have to select a radar transmitter having the technical and operating characteristics of
• Ability to generate the required mean RF power and the required peak power.
• Have a suitable RF bandwidth.
• High RF stability to meet signal processing requirements,
• The transmitter must be efficient, reliable and easy to maintain and the life expectancy and cost of
the output device must be acceptable.
Parameters considered for calculating the ranges are:
• Peak power : 150kw
• qaz 3dB : 0.9°
• Φel 3dB : 30°
• Antenna Gain Tx/Rx : 32 dB
• Pulse width : 24 µs
• λ Wavelength : 0.1m (3.0GHz)
• Noise Figure of Rx : 3.0dB
• Bandwidth Rx : 6.0MHz
• System Losses : 7dB
• kT : -204.0db (= 10 log(1.38 × 10-23 × (273+25))
Expected detection ranges are computed taking into consideration of the above parameters using,
PT GT GR λ 2 σ[ Bτ]
[R]4 =
[4p]3 kT BFn L[ S / N ]
Where, = Peak RF Power Transmitted
= Gain of Antenna in Transmit Mode
= Gain of antenna in Receive Mode
= Wave length
= Target Cross section
= Time Bandwidth Product
= Boltzmann Constant Temperature
= Noise figure of Receiver
L = Loss budget
System Calculations 37
= Signal to Noise Ratio required per pulse for Pd of 0.8 and Pfa of 10-6, including inte-
gration gain in the Signal Processor.
Calculation of Required[S/N]:
• Signal to Noise ratio required per pulse for Pd = 0.9 and Pfa = 10-6 for non fluctuating targets
= 13.0dB
(Refer “A Guide to Basic Pulse-Radar Maximum-Range Calculation” by L. V. BLAKE)
• Fluctuation Losses
= 5.50dB
Total = 18.5 dB
Integration Gain
= 13.98 dB
• Signal to noise ratio
= S/N for Pd : 0.9 and Pfa : 10-6 + Fluctuation Losses - Integration Gain = 4.52
Fig. 2.4: Required signel-to-noise ratio (visibility factor) at the input terminals of a linearrectifier detector as
a function of probability of detection for a single pulse, with the false-alarm probability (Pfa) as a parameter,
calculated for a nonfluctuating signal. (Note: This figure also appears in an appendix at the end of the report.)
38 System Calculations
Parameter for Required Range calculation
Variable Parameters Values
ARR(RPM) 7.5
PRF (Hz) 800
PW (Tx) in µS 24
Receiver Bandwidth in MHz 6
Peak Power (dB) 150.00
Antenna Gain (dB) 32
Antenna Gain (dB) 32
Wave length (m) 0.1
Noise Figure (dB) 3.00
Cross Section (RCS) 2.00
Temperature (°C) 25
Tx Loss (dB) 1
Receiver Loss (typical value is 1 db) 1
Propagation Loss (typical value is 1 db) 1
Processing Loss (typical value is 2 db) 2
Beam Shape Loss (typical value is 1 db) 1
Beam Width (degree) 0.9
S/N ( for Pd = 0.8, Pfa = 10E-6) (dB) 13
Fluctuation loss (dB) 5.5
Fig. 2.5
40 System Calculations
Antenna
Efficiency 65%
Diameter (meters) 6
Gain (dB) 49.6
Ts = Ta + Tr + Lr Ts = 598.2°K
Ta = (0.88Ysky – 254) / (La + 290)
Tr = Ttr (Lr – 1) and Te = To (Fn – 1)
<<<
Electronically Steered
Array Antennas (ESAs)
E
lectronically steered array antennas, ESAs, have
been employed in surface based radars since the
1 1. In surface-based radars, they
l950s. But, because of their greater complexity
were called “phased arrays”—
and cost, they have been slow to replace mechani- a name which has carried over
cally steered antennas in airborne applications. to airborne applications. They
are frequently called electroni-
However, with the advent of aircraft of extraordinarily cally “scanned,” as opposed to
low radar cross section and the pressing need for extreme “steered” arrays. In light of the
beam agility, in recent years avionics designers have given versatility of the technique,
the more general “steered” is
the ESA more attention than virtually any other “advanced” used here.
radar concept.
In this chapter, we will briefly review the ESA concept,
become acquainted with the two basic types of ESAs, and
take stock of the ESA’s many compelling advantages, as well
as a couple of significant limitations.
Basic Concepts
ESA
An ESA differs from the conventional mechanically
steered array antenna in two fundamental respects:
Wa
vefr
o
nt*
ture θ Broadside
Direction
• Its beam is steered by individually controlling the
phase of the radio waves transmitted and received by
each radiating element (Fig. 1)
A general purpose digital processor, referred to as the
beam steering controller (BSC) translates the desired deflec-
*Line of equal phase radiation
tion of the beam from the broadside direction (normal to
the plane of the antenna) into phase commands for the Radiating
Elements
individual radiating elements.
1. The ESA is mounted in a fixed position on the airframe. Its
The incremental phase difference, ∆φ, which must be beam is steered by individually controlling the phase of the
applied from one radiating element to the next to deflect waves transmitted and received by each radiating element.
473
PART IX Advanced Concepts
In traveling one wavelength simpler than the active ESA. It operates in conjunction with
eo
of 2π radians. So, in traveling the same sort of central transmitter and receiver as the
ual
θ
θ the distance ∆R, it incurs a MSA. To steer the beam formed by the array, an electroni-
Pha
Broadside
d
se
λ
n
φ T/R
Receiver LNA Receiver
φ T/R
Protection φ T/R
F F
E
φ T/R
E
Exciter Duplexer Exciter
E φ E T/R
D D
φ T/R
φ T/R
Transmitter
φ T/R
3. The passive ESA uses the same central transmitter and receiv- 4. In the active ESA, a tiny transmit/receive (T/R) module is
er as the MSA. Its beam is steered by placing an electronical- placed immediately behind each radiating element. The cen-
ly controlled phase shifter immediately behind each radiating tralized transmitter, duplexer, and front-end receiving ele-
element. ments are thereby eliminated.
474
CHAPTER 37 Electronically Steered Array Antennas (ESAs)
475
PART IX Advanced Concepts
476
CHAPTER 37 Electronically Steered Array Antennas (ESAs)
ately behind the radiators, thereby essentially eliminating - 0.7 dB φ Phase Shifter - 0.15 dB Duplexer
the effect of losses not only in the antenna feed system but Low-Power
- 0.10 dB Receiver
also in the phase shifters. - 0.8 dB Level 1 Feed Protection
• Neglecting the comparatively small loss of signal Fn LNA
power in the radiator, the duplexer, and the receiver
protection circuit, the net receiver noise figure is
- 0.6 dB Level 2 Feed
established by the LNA (Fig. 8). It can be designed to Noise Figure:
have a very low noise figure. Fn + 0.25 dB
- 0.25 dB Central
Duplexer
• Loss of transmit power is similarly reduced. This
improvement, though, may be offset by the difference
NOTE
between the modules’ efficiency and the potentially - 0.2 dB Waveguide
For both the passive
very high efficiency of a TWT. Central
ESA and the active
Receiver ESA, the receiver
- 0.5 dB
• Amplitude, as well as phase, can be individually con- Protection noise figure equals the
noise figure of the LNA
trolled for each radiating element on both transmit (Fn) plus the total loss
Fn LNA
and receive, thereby providing superior beam-shape of all elements ahead
agility for such functions as terrain following and of the LNA.
477
PART IX Advanced Concepts
θ The foreshortening broadens antenna beam in the face of changes in aircraft attitude.
ESA (top view)
the beam. But more import- These complications and the means for circumventing them
antly, it reduces the projected
W area, A', of the array, as view-
are outlined briefly in the following paragraphs.
ed from angle, θ, off broadside. Achieving a Broad Field of Regard. With an MSA, to
A' = A cos θ whatever extent the radome provides unobstructed visibili-
A'
1.0 ty, the antenna’s field of regard may be increased without in
Projected
area of array, any way impairing the radar’s performance. With an ESA,
viewed from however, as the antenna beam is steered away from the
angle θ off
broadside A' broadside direction, the width of the aperture is foreshort-
0.5
A ened in proportion to the cosine of the angle off broadside,
increasing the azimuth beam width (see panel, left).
More importantly, the projected area of the aperture also
0.0 decreases in proportion to the cosine of the angle, causing
A 0 30 60 90° the gain to fall off correspondingly. At large angles off
Angle Off Broadside, θ
Area of array as broadside, the gain falls off still further as a result of the
viewed from Since the gain of the antenna lower gain of the individual radiators at these angles.
broadside is proportional to the projected
area, the maximum practical Depending upon the application, the fall-off in gain may
field of regard for an ESA is be compensated to some extent by increasing the dwell
limited to about ± 60°.
time—at the expense of reduced scan efficiency. Even so,
the maximum usable field of regard is generally limited to
around ±60°.
2. In many applications, because 2
While ±60° coverage is adequate for many applications,
of radome restrictions, ±60˚ is
about all that can be obtained, wider fields of regard may be desired. More than one ESA
even with an MSA. may then be provided—at considerable additional expense.
In one possible configuration, a forward-looking main array
is supplemented with two smaller “cheek” arrays, extending
the field of regard on either side (Fig. 10).
120°
PRIMARY ARRAY
AY
CHE
120°
120°
ARR
EK A
EK
RRA
CHE
478
CHAPTER 37 Electronically Steered Array Antennas (ESAs)
φ
trolling the phase of the signals transmitted and received by Protection φ
φ
mitter and receiver; while an active ESA has the transmitter φ
and the receiver front end functions distributed within it at Transmitter
φ
T/R
Both types have three prime advantages: (1) the contri- Receiver
T/R
E T/R
are extremely agile; (3) they are highly reliable and capable D
T/R
of graceful degradation. The active ESA also has the advan- T/R
479
SAR INDOOR TESTING
Passive ESA of the ultrahigh-resolution SAR radar for the U-2 reconnaissance
aircraft undergoes tests in an indoor range.
ESA Design
T
o fully realize the compelling advantages of the
ESA, its design and implementation must meet a
number of stringent requirements, not the least of
which is affordable cost.
This chapter begins by discussing those design consider-
ations common to both passive and active ESAs. It then
takes up the considerations pertaining primarily to passive
ESAs and, finally, those pertaining solely to active ESAs.
481
PART IX Advanced Concepts
482
CHAPTER 38 ESA Design
d sin θ1 = λ – d sin θ 0
Gain, G
483
PART IX Advanced Concepts
Array
v Imaginary
Space
An engineer named Von Aulock elegantly solved all Real Space
three problems in a single stroke by (a) representing
the main lobe and each grating lobe with a unit vector
(arrow one unit long) and (b) projecting the tip of this Main Lobe
vector onto the plane of the array.
When evaluating radiator lattice patterns and radiator
spacing, potential grating lobe positions are often plotted
in imaginary space.
θ
Real Space
Since the distance from the center of the plane to each One can then readily see whether any of these lobes
point projected onto it is (1 x sin θ n), Von Aulock named will materialize—i.e., move into real space—when the
the plane Sine Theta Space. main lobe is steered to the limits of the desired field of
regard.
484
CHAPTER 38 ESA Design
485
PART IX Advanced Concepts
φ
Space feeds vary widely in design. Figure 7 shows a repre-
sentative feed. In it, a horn or a small primary array of radi-
φ ating elements illuminates an electronic lens filling the
φ
desired aperture. The lens consists of closely spaced radiat-
ing elements, such as short open-ended wave guide sections,
L φ each containing an electronically controlled phase shifter.
e
SPACE FEED n The space feed is simple, lightweight, and inexpensive. It
s φ
has low losses and an instantaneous bandwidth comparable
Primary
Array φ to that of a corporate feed. But the focal length of the pri-
φ
mary array adds considerably to the depth of the antenna.
Also, sidelobe control is difficult to obtain without ampli-
φ tude tapering at the radiator level.
Choice of Transmission Lines. The transmission lines
7. The space feed is simple, inexpensive and has an instantaneous
commonly used in antenna feed systems are of two general
bandwidth comparable to a corporate feed’s. But the focal
length of the primary array adds to the depth of the antenna. types: strip line and hollow waveguide.4
Strip line consists of narrow metal lines (strips) sand-
4. Strip line is more precisely wiched between metal surfaces. It is lightweight, compact,
defined as transverse electro-
magnetic mode (TEM) trans- and low cost. Moreover, it can pass signals having instanta-
mission line; hollow wave neous bandwidths of up to a full octave! It thus meets the
guide, as transverse electric/
transverse magnetic (TE / TM) requirements of applications ranging from ECCM and LPI
transmission line. to high resolution mapping.
Strip line is of two general types (see panel below). In
one, the strips are insulated from the metal surfaces by a
dielectric sheet, making this feed cheaper but lossy. In the
other—called “power” strip line—losses are minimized by
isolating the strips from the metal surfaces with an air gap.
(RS95-4626)
This type of strip line is made of two thin metalized dielectric Strip-like conductor, etched from the metalized surface of a
sheets. The bottom sheet (foreground) is metalized on both sides. dielectric sheet, is sandwiched between thin aluminized sheets into
Metal on top is etched away leaving a strip-like conductor. which matching grooves have been stamped. Supported by the
The upper sheet is metalized only on top. When the two sheets dielectric, the conductor is separated from the metal by air in the
are put together, the conductor is sandwiched between the metal groves. Also very wide band, it is more expensive than dielectric strip
layers and insulated from them by the dielectric. line but has much lower losses.
The result is lightweight, compact, low cost, and can pass In another version of air strip line, conductor is supported at
wideband signals. It is lossy, but good for low-power and strong- intervals by plastic standoffs in groves cut into light metal plates by
signal applications. an automated machine tool.
486
CHAPTER 38 ESA Design
487
PART IX Advanced Concepts
Receiver Receiver Noise Figure. Since one of the main reasons for
Protection
going to an active ESA is reduction of receive losses, to fully
realize the ESA’s potential it is essential that the T/R module
LNA
have an extremely low receiver noise figure. Typically, the
receiver noise figure is quoted for the module as a whole. It
equals the noise figure of the LNA plus the losses ahead of
12. Receiver noise figure equals the noise figure for the LNA plus
the losses in the elements ahead of the LNA: radiator, duplex- the LNA—i.e., losses in the radiator, the duplexer, the pro-
er, receiver protection circuit, and interconnections. tection circuit, and the interconnections (Fig. 12).
488
CHAPTER 38 ESA Design
• Smaller the acceptable phase and amplitude errors If the gain of the final stage is reasonably high, the
power added efficiency very nearly represents the
Array Physical Design. The performance and cost of an efficiency of the entire amplifier chain.
active ESA depend critically not only upon the design of Power Overhead. This is the power consumed by
the T/R modules, but also upon the physical design of the the other elements of the module—switching circuitry,
LNA, and module control circuit. Because of this
assembled array. overhead, a module’s efficiency may be considerably
In general, the radiators must be precisely positioned less than the HPA’s efficiency, which typically is
and solidly mounted on a rigid back plane. This is essential somewhere between 35 and 45%.
if the antenna’s RCS is to be minimized; for any irregulari- Since much of the overhead power is consumed
continuously, while the RF output is pulsed, module
ties in the face of the array will result in random scattering efficiency may vary appreciably with PRF.
which cannot otherwise be reduced (see page 495).
Output Power
The modules are typically mounted behind the back plane
on cold plates, which carry away the heat they generate. Loss In HPA
Behind the cold plates then are: (a) a low-loss feed mani- Overhead Power
PRF 1 PRF 2 Aperture
fold connecting each module to the exciter and the central Weighted
receiver; (b) distribution networks providing control signals Also, since overhead power is independent of
and dc power to each module; and (c) a distribution system output power, if all modules are identical, as they
for the coolant that flows through the cold plates. reasonably would be, aperture weighting can
significantly reduce the efficiency of many modules.
Just how this general design is implemented may vary
To minimize this reduction yet achieve extremely low
widely. One approach, called stick architecture, is illustrated sidelobes, special weighting algorithms have been
in Figs. 13 and 14. developed for active ESAs.
489
PART IX Advanced Concepts
Enlarged
Radiators
RF Feed-Through
Upper
Cold
Plate
4-Channel T/R Tile Modules
DC and RF Connector
Control
Signal
Connector
r
ve
Co
Feed
Circuit
DC Power and
Control Signal
Feed Through
Lower Cold Plate
DC Power and
Control Signal
Pads
Coaxial
Power and Connector
Control-Signal
Distribution DC and Control
Printed Wiring Signal Connector
Board.
17. “Tile” array architecture. Four-channel three-dimensional T/R modules (such as shown in Fig. 10) are sandwiched between two cold plates.
RF input and output signals, control signals, and dc-power feed through slots in the lower cold plate. RF signals to and from the radiators
feed through slots in the upper cold plate.
490
CHAPTER 38 ESA Design
Summary
To minimize the cost of an ESA—whether passive or
active—the radiating elements must be spaced as far apart
as possible without creating grating lobes. The maximum
spacing is about half a wavelength. For stealth, still closer
spacing may be required to avoid Bragg lobes.
The number of radiators may be reduced by up to 14%
by using a diamond lattice. And it may be reduced still fur- Diamond
Lattice
ther by thinning the density of elements at the array’s edges,
but for such reductions, a price is paid in terms of sidelobe
and RCS performance.
Key elements of a passive ESA are the phase shifters.
They account for more than half the weight and cost of the
φ φ φ φ φ φ φ φ
array, hence must be lightweight and low cost. Also critical
are the transmission lines and feed. For wideband opera-
tion, strip line and either a corporate or a space feed must
be used. For high power and weak-signal detection, hollow Corporate Feed
waveguide is required.
The key element of an active ESA is the T/R module. It is
implemented with a limited number of monolithic integrat-
ed circuits in a hybrid microcircuit. For X-band frequencies
and higher, the monolithic circuits are made of gallium
arsenide. Critical electrical characteristics are the module’s
peak power output, precision of phase and amplitude con-
trol, receiver noise figure, and noise modulation of the
transmitted signal, which must be minimized through fil-
tering of the dc input power.
To minimize the antenna’s RCS, the radiators are mount-
ed on an extremely rigid back plane. The T/R modules are
mounted on cold plates, immediately behind the back
plane. Self-test and self-calibration capabilities are essential.
491