DHANALAKSHMI SRINIVASAN

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

AE8501 FLIGHT DYNAMICS L T P C 3 2 0 4

OBJECTIVE:
 To study the performance of airplanes under various operating conditions and the static and dynamic response of
aircraft for both voluntary and involuntary changes in flight conditions

UNIT I CRUISING FLIGHT PERFORMANCE 9+6

Forces and moments acting on a flight vehicle - Equation of motion of a rigid flight vehicle - Different types of drag –
estimation of parasite drag co-efficient by proper area method- Drag polar of vehicles from low speed to high speeds -
Variation of thrust, power with velocity and altitudes for air breathing engines . Performance of airplane in level flight -
Power available and power required curves. Maximum speed in level flight - Conditions for minimum drag and power
required
UNIT II MANOEUVERING FLIGHT PERFORMANCE 9+6
Range and endurance - Climbing and gliding flight (Maximum rate of climb and steepest angle of climb, minimum rate of
sink and shallowest angle of glide) – Takeoff and landing - Turning performance (Turning rate turn radius). Bank angle and
load factor – limitations on turn - V-n diagram and load factor.
UNIT III STATIC LONGITUDINAL STABILITY 9+6
Degree of freedom of rigid bodies in space - Static and dynamic stability - Purpose of controls in airplanes -Inherently stable
and marginal stable airplanes – Static, Longitudinal stability - Stick fixed stability - Basic equilibrium equation - Stability
criterion - Effects of fuselage and nacelle - Influence of CG location - Power effects - Stick fixed neutral point - Stick free
stability-Hinge moment coefficient - Stick free neutral points-Symmetric maneuvers - Stick force gradients - Stick force per
'g' - Aerodynamic balancing.
UNIT IV LATERAL AND DIRECTIONAL STABILITY 9+6
Dihedral effect - Lateral control - Coupling between rolling and yawing moments - Adverse yaw effects - Aileron reversal -
Static directional stability - Weather cocking effect - Rudder requirements - One engine inoperative condition - Rudder lock.
UNIT V DYNAMIC STABILITY 9+6
Introduction to dynamic longitudinal stability: - Modes of stability, effect of freeing the stick - Brief description of lateral
and directional. dynamic stability - Spiral, divergence, Dutch roll, auto rotation and spin.

TOTAL: 75 PERIODS
 UNIT – I
CRUISING FLIGHT PERFORMANCE
PART A (2 Marks)
1. Differentiate between thrust and thrust power (Nov/Dec 2018)
Thrust Thrust power
Thrust is a reaction force described by Newton's The power usefully expended on the thrust, which
third law when a system expels or accelerates is equal to the thrust (or net thrust) times air speed
mass in one direction, an equal force opposite
direction is experience on that system. The force
applied on a surface in a direction perpendicular
or normal to the surface is also called thrust.
Prop aircraft burn fuel at a rate that's
the propulsive force of a jet or rocket engine approximately proportional to the power being
produced.

2. Depict the forces acting on an aircraft during steady flight (Nov/Dec 2018)
Steady flight is defined as flight with no net acceleration. This means the forces of lift, thrust, drag and
weight all cancel out and the plane is left to fly at a constant velocity whether this is level flight, a climb
or a shallow dive.

3. What is drag polar (Nov/Dec 2018)

The drag polar is the relationship between the lift on an aircraft and its drag, expressed in terms of the
dependence of the drag coefficient on the lift coefficient. It may be described by an equation or displayed
in a diagram called a polar plot.

4. Define absolute ceiling and service ceiling (Nov/Dec 2018)

A ceiling is the maximum density altitude an aircraft can reach under a set of conditions, as determined
by its flight envelope.
 Absolute Ceiling Service Ceiling
The absolute ceiling is the highest altitude at Service ceiling of the aircraft is defined as the
which an aircraft can sustain level flight altitude at which the rate of climb is 100 units per
unit time.
Absolute ceiling of the aircraft is defined as the Service ceiling of the aircraft is defined as the
maximum height to which the aircraft can reach at altitude at which the rate of climb is 100 units per
this altitude Power required (PR) = Power unit time
available (PA)

5. Draw the lift curve for symmetric airfoil and cambered airfoil (April/May 2019)

6. Define center of pressure (April/May 2019)

The center of pressure is the point where the total sum of a pressure field acts on a body, causing a force
to act through that point. The resultant force and center of pressure location produce equivalent force and
moment on the body as the original pressure field.
7. What is zero lift drag? (April/May 2019)
The zero-lift drag coefficient is a dimensionless parameter which relates an aircraft's zero-lift drag force
to its size, speed, and flying altitude.
Mathematically, zero-lift drag coefficient is defined as
C D 0 = C D − C Di
Where
C D is the total drag coefficient for a given power, speed, and altitude, and
C D i is the lift-induced drag coefficient
 8. Plot the variation of lift coefficient and angle of attack and indicate the effect of aspect ratio on this curve?
(April/May 2017)
Aspect ratio of a wing is the ratio of its span to its mean chord. It is equal to the square of the wingspan
divided by the wing area. A long, narrow wing has a high aspect ratio, whereas a short, wide wing has a
low aspect ratio.

9. What are the factors which decide the flying path of an airplane as a rigid body? (April/May 2017)
Ans: Airplane as a rigid body its flying path is decided by,
a) Its inertia characteristic.
b) Earth‘s acceleration due to gravity
c) Propulsive force generated by power plant
d) Aerodynamic forces (L&D) and moments created on it due to the reaction between airplane and air.
10. Why the airplane is considered as a dynamic system in six degrees of freedom? What are the conditions
to be satisfied for equilibrium along a straight unaccelerated flight path?
Ans: Airplane motion in air can be completely defined only if six velocity
components three linear velocities u,v,w along X,Y,Z axes and angular velocities pitching, rolling and yawing
(p,q,r) about X,Y,Z Axes . Hence airplane is considered as a dynamic system in six degrees of freedom.
11. What is plane of symmetry of airplane and define symmetric and asymmetric degrees of freedom?
Ans: Plane of symmetry of airplane is the X-Z plane that divides it into two symmetric halves. Symmetric degrees
of freedom are those components of motion related to airplane’s longitudinal motion .They are motions along X
and Z axes and about Y-axis . Asymmetric degrees of freedom are those components of motion related to
airplane’s lateral motion. They are motions along Y- axis and about X and Z axes.
12. What will decide the lateral (asymmetric) degrees of freedom and define directional stability and dihedral
effect.
Ans: Lateral degrees of freedom of an airplane is decided by the direction of relative wind to the plane of
symmetry. This angle is called sideslip (β) and the airplane is designed to resist the development of sideslip during
all normal flight maneuvers .The ability of the airplane to create yawing moments that tend to eliminate any
sideslip is called directional stability (sometimes called weathercock stability). The rolling moment created
because of sideslip is referred to as dihedral effect. The second type of static lateral stability is associated with
the dihedral effect.
13. What are the different power plants used in airplanes? Which power plant is most efficient for subsonic
airplanes? (April/May 2016)
Ans: Latest power plants used in airplanes include; propeller driven by reciprocating engines as well as turbines ,
turbojets ,ramjet and rockets .Here other than rockets all other power plants are using air-breathing engines.
Turbojet power plants are most efficient for subsonic airplanes compared to Turboprop, ramjet and rockets.
Ramjet and rockets are efficient for short duration supersonic flights whereas turbo propellers are less efficient
and can be used only at low speed.
14. Write down the major differences between the turboprop and turbojet engines in generating the propulsive
power
Turboprop Turbojet
In airplanes using turbo propeller system, out of In turbojet propulsion system, the total useful
total useful work done to propel the airplane, 80- work done to propel the airplane is produced by
95% is derived from the propeller and the the expansion of the combustion gases through
reminder only from the exhaust jet reaction exhaust nozzle.
In typical turboprop system, power(P= TV) is Thrust is made nearly constant by increasing the
nearly constant and hence thrust (T) decreases as mass flow rate (kg/s) at high speed (V).
speed (V) increases

15. What are the conditions for minimum drag and minimum power required for an airplane? Mention them
in drag coefficients also.
Ans: Minimum drag (D) occurs when L/D or CL/CD is a maximum.
It occurs when parasite drag = induced drag or when CDf =CL**2/пAe .
Minimum power (Pmin) occurs when the parasite power is 1/3 of Induced power .
In the drag coefficient form CDf = 1/3(CL**2/пAe).
16. What causes induced drag?
Ans: Induced drag is an unavoidable by-product of lift and it increases as the angle of attack (α) increases. Up to
a critical angle of attack (αc at which CLmax occurs) both lift and induced drag increases. Since there are two types
of lift (dynamic & induced lift), there are two types of drag also ; dynamic drag and induced drag .

17. Define skin friction drag and pressure drag. (April/May 2016)
Ans: Drag caused by the shear force (viscous flow) in the boundary layer is called skin friction drag. The drag
caused by the pressure variation over and below the surface of the wing is called pressure drag. It is caused by
flow of high pressure air from under the wing to over the wing .Sum of the above two drags are called profile
drag. All drags other than induced drag is called parasite drag.
 18. What are the conditions required for maximum drag and minimum power? (April/May 2019)
Ans: Maximum drag occurs when the angle of attack exceeds the critical angle of attack and the speed approaches
the stalling speed. The left hand limit of PR versus Vcurve shows the stalling speed corresponding to maximum
lift (CLmax) and maximum drag.

Minimum power occurs at the speed at which total power (PR) is minimum .This occurs when parasite drag is
1/3 of induced drag .In drag coefficient form,
CDf = 1/3(CL**2/пAe)
 PART B

1. Discuss in detail various types of drag in an airplane and methods of minimizing the drag
(April/May 2019)
Drag:-
Drag is one of the four aerodynamic forces that act on a plane. For more information on aerodynamic forces
click here. Drag is a restrictive force which opposes the motion of an aircraft. There are various types of drag
depending upon their sources
Types of drag
 Parasite drag
 Form drag or pressure drag
 Skin friction drag
 Profile drag
 Interference drag
 Lift induced drag
 Wave drag
A detailed explanation of each type of drag is given below
1. Parasite drag
Parasite drag is a drag produced due to the motion of an object through a fluid. With respect to aviation, the
object is an aircraft and the fluid is the atmospheric air. Parasite drag occurs due to air molecules. Parasite drag
is classified as form drag or pressure drag, skin friction drag and interference drag.
2. Form drag or pressure drag
Form drag is produced due to the shape of the object moving through the fluid. It depends on the cross section
of an object. An object with a larger cross section and blunt shape will have a larger form drag whereas an
object with a smaller cross section area and a sharper shape will have a lesser form drag.
Method to Reduce
It can be reduced using smaller cross section area for making wings and by using aerodynamic shape
for an aero foil.

3. Skin friction drag

Skin friction drag is a drag produced due to friction between an object (aircraft) & fluid (atmospheric air). The
rough surface will have high skin friction drag and conversely a smooth surface will have less skin friction drag.
Method to reduce
Making the aircraft skin smooth will reduce skin friction.
4. Profile drag
Profile drag is a sum of the form drag & skin friction drag.
5. Interference drag
Interference drag is produced due to the interference of two or more airflows having different speeds. And this
drag is produced by the interference of different aircraft parts, that is, due to a mixture of airflow around wing
and the airflow around the fuselage.
Method to reduce
This can be reduced by keeping the angle between the two parts below 90 degrees
6. Lift Induced drag

Lift is another aerodynamic force. It is a force which keeps an aircraft in the air and its magnitude is equal to the
weight of the aircraft during stable flight. The direction of lift is perpendicular to the oncoming airflow towards
the aircraft. Lift induced drag, as the name suggests, is a drag produced due to lift. At slower speed & higher
angle of attack, aircraft will have more lift. But as the angle of attack increases, the air pushes the aircraft in the
backward direction. This backward push is the induced drag. Technically speaking change in a vector direction
of lift of the aircraft results in the formation of this type of drag.
Other types of induced drag are due to a mixture of airflow above and below the wing. The air flow mixes at the
tips of the aircraft. We know that speed of airflow above the wing is higher than the speed of an airflow below
the wing. At the wing tips, these two air flows with variable speed, get mixed with each other which produces
vortices at wing tips. The Reason for production of vortices is that high-pressure airflow gets pulled toward
low-pressure airflow.
Method to reduce
Using winglet or shark-lets at wing tips.
8. Wave drag
Wave drag is generally produced at transonic speed (speed almost equals to speed of sound) & Supersonic
speed (speed greater than speed of sound). Due to high speed of airflow, shock waves are produced.
Shockwaves are nothing but the disturbance in the air. This disturbance increases drag of the aircraft known as
wave drag.
Method to reduce
Shock wave drag is one of the reason that at present time there are no supersonic passenger aircraft.
Hence scientists are looking for the way to reduce shock wave drag. NASA is trying to reduce the
shock wave drag by making aircraft noses sharp
2. Derive condition for minimum thrust and power required in straight and level flight (April/May
2019) (refer notes)
3. Derive expression for the equation of motion of a rigid airplane (Nov/Dec 2018)
(Refer notes)
4. With suitable plots explain the variation of thrust and SFC with velocity and altitude for air
breathing engines (Nov/Dec 2018)
5. For an aircraft in straight and level flight. Show that P/Pmin = (3+n4)/4n Where P is power of
aircraft (April/May 2017)
(Refer Note)
 6. Describe different types of drag and their estimation with suitable sketch (April/May 2018)
(Types of drag Refer qtn 1)
Drag Estimation
The drag of the airplane can be calculated through the drag of the various components.

The calculation starts with the non-dimensional drag coefficient (CD) of the various components. Once the aircraft
CD is known, the drag is then obtained by scaling with the free stream dynamic pressure and the wing reference
area.

For the calculation of the drag coefficients, a wind tunnel model exists can be used to determine the overall drag
coefficient and the component drag coefficient can be obtained through testing. In addition the previous design
data can also be used.
Simplified Drag Calculations
There are essentially three significant types of drag (or drag coefficients) for calculations
Parasite Drag: the penalty the object must suffer just to move through the fluid. It is sometimes called the zero
lift drag. There are two important components to parasite drag
Skin friction Drag - the friction is estimated through the shear stress at the surface. This is usually applied in the
region the fluid is still attached to the object. Since the shear stress varies with distance from the stagnation point,
an average value is used. It is computed through estimating the skin friction drag coefficient (Cf ). This coefficient
depends on the type of flow (laminar/turbulent) and can be calculated based on the Reynolds number. Once the
coefficient is known, the shear stress is calculated over the entire wetted area (the area over which fluid is in
contact with the flow).

Where,
Fcur is a factor for increase in area (about 2 %) due to curvature.
In these calculations,
(i) We are really not concerned with the type of airfoil at this stage, (ii) skin friction drag calculations are
based in the wetted area (Swet) but the parasite drag coefficient (like all other aerodynamic coefficients
for the aircraft) is based on the reference area (S)
Pressure Drag: The pressure drag is due to flow separation. This cannot be known until an actual design exists.
In that case usually wind tunnel or other such sources will provide the information. In the preliminary design, for
general aviation in normal flight conditions we will assume a 50 % drag increase (of the skin friction drag) due
to pressure drag. This correction factor (referred to Kp) is a strong function of thickness Mach number.
Therefore we can compute the total parasite drag as

We can obtain similar information for the fuselage, horizontal tail, and vertical tail.
The parasite drag for the engine is usually provided by the manufacturer. The wing and the fuselage parasite drag
is typically 75 % of the total parasite drag of the plane. The engine drag can be assumed to be 20 % of the drag
of the plane
Induced Drag: The induced drag is calculated from the induced drag coefficient and is generated by the wing
only. The formula is same as the one we saw earlier.
Wave Drag: The wave drag is the effect of compressibility. There is a sharp rise in the drag coefficient at the
Mach number close to 1. Once again corrections are based on actual design
7. (i)Considering a steady flight determine the expression for drag polar and thrust required.
(ii) Mention the condition for minimum power required for a flight. What are its implications of
it? (April/May 2018)

(i) Expression for drag polar

For every aerodynamic body, there is a relation between CD and CL that can be ex pressed as an equation or
plotted on a graph. Both the equation and the graph are called the drag polar. All the aerodynamic information
about an airplane necessary for a performance analysis is wrapped up in the drag polar.
The total drag for an airplane: (Total drag) = (parasite drag) + ( wave drag) + (induced drag)
In coefficient form,
CD = CD,e + CD,w +CL2 /πeAR ------------------ 1
The parasite drag-coefficient CD,e can be treated as the sum of its value at zero lift CD,e,o and the increment in
parasite drag ΔCD,e due to lift. The skin-friction drag (to a lesser extent) and the pressure drag due to flow
separation (to a greater extent) change when angle of attack changes; the sum of these changes creates ΔCD,e.
Since Δcd varies approximately as cl2, we can reasonably assume that ΔCD,e. varies as CL2.
Therefore, C D,e = CD,e,o + ΔCD,e = CD,e,o + K1 CL2 ------------------ 2
Where k1 is a suitable proportionality constant.
Similarly for wave drag, CD,w = CD.w,O + ΔCD, w = CD.w,O + K2 CL2 ------------------ 3
Therefore Eqn (1)  CD = CD,e,o + K1 CL + CD.w,O + K2 CL + CL /πeAR ------------------
2 2 2
4
Assume K3 = 1/πeAR
CD = CD,e,o + CD.w,O + (K1 + K2 + K3)CL2
Assume, CD,e,o + CD.w,O = CD,0 and K1 + K2 + K3 = K
Hence expression for drag polar: CD = CD,0 +K CL2
 UNIT II
MANOEUVERING FLIGHT PERFORMANCE
PART A (2 Marks)
1. Define specific fuel consumption (April/May 2019)
Specific fuel consumption is the amount of fuel consumed by a vehicle for each unit of power output. We can
define specific fuel consumption (SFC) as the quantity of fuel burned in unit time required to produce a given
engine output. SFC is a technical figure of merit that indicates how efficiently the engine converts fuel into power.
2. Define stalling speed (April/May 2019)
A stall is a reduction in the lift coefficient generated by an airfoil as angle of attack increases. This occurs when
the critical angle of attack of the airfoil is exceeded.
As the airplane slows down, it needs to increase angle of attack to create the same lift (equal to weight). As the
speed slows further, at some point the angle of attack will be equal to the critical (stall) angle of attack. This speed
is called the "stall speed".
3. Significance of V-n diagram (April/May 2019)
The V-n diagram provides a treasure trove of information regarding flight performance for pilots. It is a graph
depicting the variation of load factor with the speed of the vehicle. An understanding of what the load factor
represents is crucial to understanding the V-n diagram
4. What is bank angle? (April/May 2018)
The roll angle is also known as bank angle on a fixed-wing aircraft. The aircraft "banks" to change the horizontal
direction of flight. It is the angle between resultant lift force vector and normal to weight.

5. Explain the significance of load factor.

Ans: Load factor (n) is defined as the lift (L) divided by the weight (W) at the stalling speed corresponding to
CLmax . Any attempt to increase the lift by further increasing the angle of attack will result in the reduction of
CL and increase of CD. This will result in increase of thrust required to maintain the flight at lower speed. Hence
a load factor of 1, at CLmax, only feasible provided enough power is available.
6. How load factor (L/W) is related to bank angle?
Ans: During turning, the bank angle (ϕ) is related to Lift (L) and weight (W) as follows:
𝑤 𝑣2
L Sinϕ = C.F= 𝑔 𝑔
𝑣2 𝑊 𝑣2 1
i.e. Sin ϕ=𝑔𝑅 𝐿
= {𝑔𝑅}𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
Hence bank angle (ϕ) decreases when load factor (L/W) increases.
 7. Define range and endurance of an airplane.
Ans:
Range
Range of an aircraft is defined as the total distance
travelled by an aircraft on one load of fuel. It is
denoted by R
The range (R- km) may be determined by multiplying
the total fuel (F-kg) available by the average km
traveled per kg of fuel consumed.
ie; R (km) = F(kg) * (km/kg )
Endurance
Endurance of an aircraft is defined as the amount of
time that an aircraft can stay in the air on one load of
fuel. It is denoted by E.
The endurance (E-hrs) may be computed by dividing
the total fuel (kg) available by the average
consumption of fuel in kg/hr .
ie ; E (hrs) = F (kg) /(kg/hr)

8. Write down the conditions for unaccelerated, steady level flight

Thrust is equal to Drag,T=D and Lift is equal to weightL=W. Climb angle and roll angle is equal to zero
9. Write shortly about unpowered flight
When power required is larger than the power available the aircraft will descent rather than climb. At this
condition there is no power at all and the aircraft is said to be in gliding or unpowered flight
10. Write shortly about climbing flight.
At steady condition of flight for increase in power of engine there will be corresponding increase of lift. The
elevators are operated in such a condition that the increase in power can be used for climbing flight with nose up
position.
11. Define rate of climb.
Rate of climb is defined as the rate at which the aircraft improves its altitude. The main parameter affecting rate
of climb is Excess power.
Rate of climb = Excess power / Weight
12. Draw TR versus V graph of turbojet airplane and indicate VmaxE and VmaxR.init.
Ans:

.
13. What are the factors affecting the actual efficiency of the propeller
a) Thrust is not uniform over the disc due to losses at root and tip of blades.
b) There is loss of energy due to the rotation of the slip stream of real fluid.
c) Losses due to skin friction drag as the fluid is a real one.
14. What are the main aspects of requirements to be considered in airplane design
1) Range
2) Takeoff distance
3) Stalling velocity
4) Endurance
5) Maximum velocity
15. Explain empty weight of an aircraft?
This is the weight of everything else the structure, engine, electronic components,. Landing gear, fixed
equipment and anything else that is not crew, payload and fuel
16. Draw PR versus V graph of turbo propeller airplane and indicate VmaxE and VmaxR. in it .

:
 PART B

1) Derive Breguet range equation for a jet engine aircraft and discuss its implications (April/May 2019)
2) Explain with a neat sketch V-n diagram with gust load (Nov/Dec 2018)
3) Derive an expression for the landing ground run and discuss its implication. Also obtain and expression
for flare distance (April/May 2017)
4) Derive expression for endurance and range for a jet engine (April/May 2018)
5) What is turning performance and minimum radius of turn? Deduce an expression for turning
performance and minimum radius of turn (April/May 2018)
6) Derive an expression for maximum rate of climb of a propeller airplane and discuss the parameters
influencing the same (Nov/Dec 2018)
7) What are pull- up and pull- down maneuvers? (Nov/Dec 2018)
 UNIT III
STATIC LONGITUDINAL STABILITY
PART A
1. How do you locate the neutral point in an aircraft (April/May 2019)
Neutral Point (Stick Fixed) Theneutral point (NP) defines the location of the CG for which the aircraft is neutrally
stable. The aircraft CG can vary depending on the payload and its distribution for every flight. It defines the aft
limit of the CG for static longitudinal stability.
The location of neutral point can be found in the following manner, the tail-volume is calculated by multiplying
the area of the stabilizer, including the elevator, by the distance between the tail and wing. This is called a volume
because the results are in cubic inches or meters. The value is then divided by the area of the wing, and the average
wing chord will give the neutral point value in an aircraft
2. Mention the role of flaps during take-off of an aircraft (April/May 2019)
Flaps are a kind of high-lift device used to increase the lift of an aircraft wing at a given airspeed. Flaps are usually
mounted on the wing trailing edges of a fixed-wing aircraft. Flaps are used for extra lift on takeoff.
3. What is meant by ‘degree of freedom’ and how many does an aircraft have (April/May 2019)
Airplane motion in air can be completely defined only if six velocity components three linear velocities u,v,w
along X,Y,Z axes and angular velocities pitching, rolling and yawing (p,q,r) about X,Y,Z Axes . Hence airplane
is considered as a dynamic system in six degrees of freedom.
4. Define Neutral point of an aircraft. What is its significance (April/May 2019)
It is the limit of the centre of gravity of the airplane at which the static longitudinal stability becomes neutral
(dCm/dCL) =0. Between this limit of neutral points only the airplane c.g can be allowed to shift during all
maneuvering conditions of airplane in order to maintain longitudinal stability.
5. Define static Margin (April/May 2017)
Static margin is defined as the distance between the center of gravity and the neutral point of the aircraft, expressed
as a percentage of the mean aerodynamic chord of the wing. For more stable aircraft this distance will be more
with a narrow wing.
6. Indicate the center of gravity of a static flight (April/May 2018)

For static stability the C.G should lie ahead of the Centre of Pressure (CP) point.
7. What are the criteria for static longitudinal stability (Nov/Dec 2018)
For static longitudinal stability of the airplane (AP)
 8. Mention the significance of hinge moment coefficient (April/May 2018)
The hinge moment is the moment acting about the hinge line of a control surface. It is the force that pilot must be
overcome to move a particular control surface. At any given dynamic pressure and airspeed, the hinge moment
will vary with angle of attack, the amount of control surface deflection, and trim tab deflection. Hence it is critical
for engineers while designing control systems for an aircraft with lesser hinge moment.
9. Define mean aerodynamic chord
The mean aerodynamic chord is defined as the chord length that when multiplied by the wing area, the dynamic
pressure and the moment coefficient about the aerodynamic Centre yields the value of the aerodynamic moment
about the airplane’s aerodynamic Centre.
10. Define static stability
If an aircraft in steady level flight is disturbed and return to its original position it is known as statically
stable.
11. Define dynamic stability
The characteristic of an aircraft when disturbed from its original state of steady motion in an upright position, to
damp out the oscillations set by restoring moment and gradually returns to its original state.
12. Define elevator hinge moment (Nov/Dec 2018)
Elevator hinge moment is the hinge moment is the moment acting on elevator about its hinge line. It is the force
that pilot must be overcome to move the elevator.

13. What is meant by control of an airplane, how longitudinal, roll and directional controls are provided in
airplane?
Ans: When an airplane is stable, it is necessary for the pilot to be able to control it, so that he can maneuver it into
any desired position.
Longitudinal control is provided by the elevator, ie; flaps hinged behind the tail plane. Roll control is provided
by the ailerons, ie; flaps hinged at the rear of the aero foils near each wing tip. Directional control is provided by
the rudder, ie; a vertical tail hinged to the stern post.

14. What is meant by stability of an airplane and what way it is different from Balance?
Ans: The stability of an airplane means its ability to return to some particular condition of flight, after being
disturbed from equilibrium, without any effort by the pilot. The stability is often confused with the balance or
equilibrium of an aircraft. Balance is the related to the symmetry of aircraft.

15. Define the three conditions of stability.

Ans:
 If the airplane on disturbance tends to move father away from its original position, it is unstable.
 If it comes back to its original position, then it is in stable condition.
  If the airplane tend to do neither of the two and prefer to remain in its new position. This condition
of airplane is called neutral stability.
16. With the help of Cm vs CL curve of an airplane, state the stable, neutral and unstable conditions of it.

17. State two contributions for static longitudinal stability and indicate them with a plot.
Ans: In Cm versus CL plot indicate the longitudinal stability contributions of wing And fuselage, tail alone and
the total for airplane. If the total longitudinal stability which is the sum of individual contributions is negative
(dCm/dCL )≤ 0 then the airplane will be stable .

18. Define elevator power and write down the elevator power criterion equation
Ans: The magnitude of pitching moment coefficient, Cm, obtained per degree deflection of the elevator is termed
as the elevator power .It is the derivative of Cm w.r.t elevator deflection (dCm/dδe =Cmδ )
The elevator power criterion is mentioned below dCm/dδe =Cmδ
The usable c.g range is between (dFs/dn)max point and power-on stick-free Neutral point (No`)
 PART B

1. Derive expression for wing contribution for static longitudinal stability. Also offer your comment on this
expression (April/May 2017)
2. How does the aft position of the tail affect the stability of the aircraft? Support your theory with
appropriate derivation (April/May 2019)
3. What is the need of aerodynamic balancing? Discuss any four methods (Nov/Dec 2018
4. Derive the elevator hinge moment to determine the static margin for an aircraft (April/May 2019)
5. Derive an expression for stick free and stick fixed neutral point (April/May 2017)
6. What are static and dynamic stability? Indicate inherently stable and marginal stable aircraft with suitable
schematic
7. What are stick free and stick fixed stability
8. Obtain expression for stick free neutral point and stick force
9. Discuss the power effects on static longitudinal stability for both jet and propeller airplane (Nov/Dec 2018)
10. Derive an expression for elevator angle required to trim the airplane at a particular angle of
attack(Nov/Dec 2018)
 UNIT- IV
LATERAL AND DIRECTIONAL STABILITY
PART –A (2 marks)
1. Define side slip angle (April/May 2019)
Side Slip is a slip is an aerodynamic state where an aircraft is moving sideways as well as forward relative to the
oncoming airflow or relative wind. In other words, for a conventional aircraft, the nose will be pointing in the
opposite direction to the bank of the wing(s). The aircraft is not in coordinated flight and therefore is flying
inefficiently.
Side slip angle is the angle between relative wing causing side slip and the longitudinal axis of the aircraft.

2. Differentiate stability from controllability (April/May 2019)

Controllability is the response of an aircraft in steady flight, on pilot control inputs. For instance deflecting the
ailerons: a high resulting roll rate means a fast response whereas the Stability is the tendency of an aircraft air
frame to return to trimmed position after a disturbance in air stream. Note that in this definition of stability, the
airframe itself does all the work in getting back to neutral position, no pilot input required.

3. Define dihedral effect (April/May 2019)

The angle that the relative wind makes with longitudinal axis of airplane is called sideslip. This sideslip (β) alters
the wing’s span wise lift distribution to create a net rolling moment. This rolling moment due to sideslip is termed
as dihedral effect. It is the measure of change in rolling moment coefficient (dCl) per degree change in sideslip
(β = -ψ for straight flight path).
ie; dihedral effect = dCl/dψ or Clψ. For a stable aircraft this value will be +ve.
4. What is the need for a fin in an airplane (April/May 2019)
Fins are called the vertical stabilizers of the aircraft. Fins are typically located on the aft end of the fuselage or
body. They are intended to reduce aerodynamic side slip and provide direction stability.
5. Define rudder lock (April/May 2017)
A typical curve of floating angle (δfloat) vs sideslip (ψ) can be made for a closely balanced rudder. The rudder
angle (δr) required to produce the sideslip varies somewhat linearly upto high (ψ). The pedal force required is a
function of the difference between δrreqd and δfloat . At high ψ, the δfloat may catch up to δrreqd, at which point
the PF becomes zero .This point of intersection is called rudder lock. Considerable force is required afterwards,
to break the lock and restore the airplane to zero sideslip
 6. What is aerodynamic balancing of an airplane (April/May 2017)
Aerodynamic balancing is a means of reducing the hinge movement and thereby the physical effort needed to
control an aircraft. Common methods of aerodynamic balancing are inset hinges, horn balances, internal balances,
and tab balances.
7. State the function of a rudder (April/May 2018)
The rudder is typically mounted on the trailing edge of the vertical stabilizer, part of the empennage. When the
pilot pushes the left pedal, the rudder deflects left. Pushing the right pedal causes the rudder to deflect right.
Deflecting the rudder right pushes the tail left and causes the nose to yaw to the right. Centering the rudder pedals
returns the rudder to neutral and stops the yaw.
Pilot uses Ruder to provide sufficient moments in the cases of Adverse yaw, Cross wing landing, Power imbalance
etc. to make the aircraft stable.
8. What is aileron reversal? Give its significance (April/May 2018)
Aileron reversal is a situation occurs at some high speed when the moment is so large that there is total loss of
lift when the aileron is deflected downward, and the aircraft rolls in the reverse direction. This is called aileron
reversal.
9. Define power of lateral or aileron control.
The power of lateral or aileron control will be expressed as the change in rolling moment coefficient per degree
deflection of the ailerons. It is expressed as dCl/dδa and it acts in such a way that to counter balance the dihedral
effect so that the wings can be held level from straight flight or maintained at some equilibrium angle of bank (Ф)
during turn.
10. What are the basic requirements that are to be fulfilled by the lateral control system?
Ans: The basic requirements that determine the size of the control and amount of aerodynamic balance are (a) it
should be large enough to provide sufficient rolling moment at low speeds to counteract the unbalance tending to
roll the airplane ;(b) the second requirement is that it roll the airplane at a sufficiently high rate at high-speed for
a given stick force.
11. What is meant by aileron reversal speed?
Ans: The deflection of the aileron will create a pitching moment tending to twist the wing. When the wing twists
it rotates in a direction tending to reduce the rolling moment created by the aileron. When the speed is high
enough, a point can be reached where the wing twist will just counter the aileron rolling moment and lateral
control will be lost. This speed is known as the aileron reversal speed. Hence designer should ensure that wings
are sufficiently rigid in torsion so that the aileron reversal speed is higher than the maximum speed anticipated
by the airplane.
12. What are the advantages of sideslip?
Ans: Sideslip can be used (a) to increase the airplane drag and thereby its flight path angle during an approach
for landing, (b) useful in getting smooth aerobatics such as slow rolls and (c) finally it can help during flight with
asymmetric power.
13. How the total directional stability contributions of parts of airplane is made more stabilizing?
Ans: Sum of the directional stability contributions of wings, fuselage and propeller and that of their interference
effects will usually give an unstable effect.
Hence an additional stabilizing surface must be incorporated not only to overcome the instability but also to give
the desired level of directional stability. This stabilizing surface is the normal vertical tail placed as far aft of the
c.g of airplane as practicable.
14. What is the requirement of directional control - rudder?
Ans: Although the airplane will normally be in equilibrium at zero sideslip (β=0), there are many maneuvers that
introduce yawing moments which are to be opposed by some yawing moment control (directional control) to
achieve zero sideslip. This yawing moment control is supplied by pilot by means of a rudder, normally a plane
flap attached to the aft portion of the vertical tail.
15. What are the flight conditions or maneuvers that produce unbalance yawing moments those are to be
overcome by rudder?
Ans: One is (a) the adverse yaw moment, which happens due to turn during normal flight (b) slipstream rotation ;
the slip stream behind the propeller has rotational components which changes the angle of attack on the vertical
tail (αv ) and create sideslip .This is critical at high power - low speed flight. © Cross wind during take-off and
landing. (d) spinning recovery by rudder (e) antisymmetric power flight ,when one of the multi-engines of airplane
fails.
16. Define rudder power and how it is related to directional stability of airplane.
Ans: The rate of change of yawing moment coefficient (dCn) per degree change in rudder angle (dδr) is called
the rudder power. That is equal to dCn/ dδr or Cnδr . The directional stability of airplane is dCn/dψ = Cnψ . If
Cnδr = -0.001 and Cnψ = - 0.001, it can be seen that 10 of rudder will produce 10 of yaw.
17. What is adverse yaw effects and how it is controlled by rudder?
Ans: Rudder power required to overcome the adverse yaw during rolling maneuver is usually not very high and
not usually used for rudder design .Adverse yaw is created by the normal action of the aileron together with the
yawing moment created by the twisting of wing itself. These adverse moments are always critical at low speeds
and rudder must be capable of overcoming them at speeds very close to stall.
18. How rudder power is estimated?
Ans: Rudder power to overcome the adverse yawing moment (Cn) tail is estimated using wind-tunnel model test
data .The adverse yawing moment coefficient due to rolling of the wing (Cn)roll can be estimated theoretically .
So the rudder power required to overcome adverse yaw can be expressed as follows:
dCn/dδr =Cnδr = ((Cn)roll +(Cn)tail )/ rudder throw (=300) .
19. Why the rudder is designed to suit one-engine inoperative condition?
Ans: The yawing moment coefficient due to the asymmetric thrust (Cnth ) is proportional to 1/V3. The rudder at
full deflection gives a constant corrective yaw moment coefficient (Cnr) . The intersection of these two Cnth and
Cnr gives the critical speed of airplane below which Cnth is more than Cnr . Hence below the critical speed (near
stalling at full power) the full rudder will not balance out the moment due to antisymmetric power. Since other
types of yawing moments are not critical, most rudder are designed only to fulfill the antisymmetric power flight
condition.
20. How the floating rudder (stick-free) affects the directional stability?
Ans: When rudder is left free to float in response to its hinge moment, it can have large effects on the directional
stability. It is in the similar way, the floating elevator affects the longitudinal stability. When the airplane sideslips,
the restoring moment due to the tail will be decreased if the rudder floats with the wind and will be increased if it
floats against the wind. The floating rudder changes the effective angle of attack of the total vertical tail.
21. What is the criterion to keep the directional stability with stick-free above certain limit or not to lose
much?
Ans: For high speed airplanes which require close aerodynamic balance of rudder and hence the rudder pedal
force to be applied by the pilot should be within practicable limit. So it is essential that the ratio of derivative of
H.M coefficient with tail angle of attack (αv ) and rudder power (Chδr) should be kept low so as not to lose too
much directional stability with stick-free.
22. How to avoid rudder lock?
Ans: Rudder lock can be avoided by two ways;
1) To cut down the rudder effectiveness (dαv /dδr ) , thereby increasing the δrreqd at a given sideslip (ψ).
(2)Another way is to provide a dorsal fin which increases the fuselage stability at high (ψ) as well as
reduces the tendency of the vertical tail to stall.

PART B
1. Quantitatively explain the condition of different components of aircraft towards directional stability and
explain directional control (April/May 2019)
2. Briefly explain Aileron reversal, One engine inoperative condition and Rudder lock (April/May 2019)
3. Discuss the contribution of various components of lateral stability (April/May 2017)
4. Effect of following to directional stability (i) Wing, (ii) engine power, (iii) vertical fin (April/May 2017)
5. Brief on lateral control of aircraft
6. Deduce expression for directional stability due to wing sweep and rudder control (April/May 2018)
7. Describe about coupling and rolling moments in aircraft
8. What is weather cocking effect? Mention its characteristics (April/May 2018)
9. Discuss with suitable example the coupling between rolling and yawing moment
10. Explain requirements of Rudder in detail (4 marks) (Nov/Dec 2018)
 Unit – V
BASICS OF PROPULSION AND HEAT TRANSFER
PART – A
1. What is Dutch roll (April/May 2019)
A Dutch roll is a combination of rolling and yawing oscillations that occurs when the dihedral effects (lateral
stability) of an aircraft are more powerful than the directional stability.
2. Define load factor (April/May 2019)
The load factor is the ratio of the lift of an aircraft to its weight and represents a global measure of the stress
("load") to which the structure of the aircraft is subjected.
3. What are stability derivatives and what is its significance (April/May 2019)
For the analysis of dynamic characteristics (Modes of motion) of Aircraft either in longitudinal or lateral direction,
respective simultaneous homogenous differential equations are to be developed. The constant coefficients of these
equations are made up of AP mass and inert parameters and so called stability derivatives, like CLα, CDα and
Cmα. CLα = dCL / dα which is the slope of the lift curve with respect to angle of attack. Cmα = (dCm / dCL)(dCL
/ dα) = (dCL / dα) (S.L.S) criteria.

4. Represent a system that is statically stable but dynamically unstable (April/May 2017)

5. What are the parameters that affect phugoid mode? (April/May 2017)
Parameters that affect the phugoid mode are external and internal disturbances. The external disturbances are
atmospheric conditions and the internal disturbances are control surface movement, elevator.
6. List the modes of Stability (April/May 2018)
The dynamic stability of an aircraft refers to how the aircraft behaves after it has been disturbed following steady
non-oscillating flight. The mode of dynamic stability are
a. Longitudinal modes
 Phugoid (longer period) oscillations
 Short period oscillations
b. Lateral-directional modes
 Roll subsidence mode
 Dutch roll mode
 Spiral divergence
7. Mention the difference between static and dynamic stability (April/May 2018)
Static stability is the initial tendency of an aircraft to return to its original position when it's disturbed whereas
Dynamic stability is how an airplane responds over time to a disturbance. There are three kinds of static and
dynamic stability: Positive, Neutral and Negative.
8. What is keel effect (Nov/Dec 2018)
The keel effect is also known as the pendulum effect or pendulum stability, is the result of the side force-
generating surfaces being above the center of mass in an aircraft. Along with dihedral, sweepback, and weight
distribution, keel effect is one of the four main design considerations in aircraft lateral stability
9. Why the study on dynamic characteristics of the airplane is necessary?
In order to understand the requirements for static stability and control, it is necessary to study the dynamic
characteristics of the airplane. It is done by investigating the types of motions of the airplane in response to a
disturbance from some equilibrium flight condition and the nature of transient motions of the airplane in response
to the movement of its controls.
10. What way the dynamic stability analysis of the airplane help the design of control systems and the pilot
who operates it?
If the motion of the airplane in response to some disturbance is very slow divergence, the control requirements
are different from those needed if the divergence is extremely rapid. The ability of the pilot to react and apply the
controls is a factor which must be kept in mind for all studies of airplane dynamics. The design of controls and
the ability of the pilot to apply controls in time, requires some knowledge of the transient response of the airplane
to a disturbance or to controls.
11. What are the 4- different modes of motion of a dynamic system when responding to a disturbance from
an equilibrium position?
Dynamic system in general have 4- different modes of motion when responding to a disturbance from its
equilibrium position. They are aperiodic and oscillatory modes with and without damping. That is aperiodic can
be pure convergence if the motion is damped (stable) and divergence if
undamped (unstable) .Similarly oscillatory motions (periodic ) can be damped oscillation (stable) or undamped
oscillation (unstable) .
12. What are the six degrees of motion of a dynamic system and how it is formed for the airplane?
According to the Newtonian laws of motion which states that (a) the sum of all external forces in any direction
must be equal to the time rate of change of momentum, and (b) the sum of all external moments of forces must
be equal to the time rate of change of moment of momentum, all measured w,r,t axes fixed in space . The six
equations of motion are: ∑ Fx = m ax , ∑ Fy = m ay , ∑
Fz = m az , ∑ L = dHx /dt , ∑ M = dHy/dt , ∑ N = dHz /dt . (Where `m` is the mass, ax ,ay ,az are linear
accelerations and Fx , Fy , Fz are external forces and L, M, N are external moments of forces and Hx ,Hy , Hz are
moments of momentum about X, Y, Z axes respectively .)
13. What are the different ways the moving airplane axis system can be fixed with reference to the airplane?
Ans: The moving airplane axis system can be fixed with reference to the airplane in two different ways:
(1) One is to consider the axes fixed to airplane under all conditions, and are called body axes in which X -axis is
along the thrust axis.
(2) Other possibility is to consider the X- axis always pointing to the direction of motion or into the relative wind,
called wind axes .The wind axes are usually convenient.0
16. What are the characteristic modes of stick-fixed longitudinal motion of airplane?
Ans: Characteristic modes of stick-fixed longitudinal motion for nearly all airplanes are two oscillations
(1) Long period with poor damping called phugoid mode
(2) Short period with heavy damping is referred to as the short period mode or second mode (Note: give
figures also.) The damping of the phugoid motion is therefore a direct function of CD . The cleaner the
designer makes the airplane, the more difficult will be to ensure damping of phugoid mode.
17. What is proposing mode of dynamic motion?
Ans: The damping of long period mode (phugoid mode) can become very weak under certain design conditions
and can become neutrally damped or even unstable. This mode when neutrally damped is usually called
proposing. Such modes have occurred in high speed airplanes, in which the oscillations of normal acceleration
become so severe that the pilot was injured seriously and airplane damaged before the pilot could stop the
oscillation by slowing down.
18. How many degrees of freedom are there for lateral dynamic motion and what are they?
Ans: There are 5- degrees of freedom for the lateral dynamic motion, because there are two lateral controls ; the
rudder and aileron. The five degrees of freedom are : a) Velocity along the Y -axis (b) rotation about X- axis (c)
rotation about Z-axis (d) rotation of rudder about its hinge (e) rotation of aileron about its hinge.
 14. Define spiral divergence in dynamic stability?
Ans: When an aircraft has too much static directional stabiles (or weathercock stability) in comparison to the
dihedral effect spiral instability arises. In spiral divergence the airplane disturbed goes into an ever steeping spiral
dive.
14. Briefly explain autorotation. (Note: give figure, α vs CL and show the cause of autorotation).
Ans: When the wing’s are stalled; ie; beyond the critical angle of attack (α cr ) , the rising wing will have higher
CL than the falling wing .This creates an unbalanced couple about X-axis to rotate (roll) further which is called
autorotation. Rolling occurring in the almost horizontal plane is also a form of autorotation.

15. Briefly explain the spinning of an aircraft.

Ans: Spinning is caused by the autorotation developed by the unequal lift in the wings .In a spin the airplane
follows a steep spiral path which is composed of varying degrees of yaw, pitch and roll. A flat spin is chiefly yaw
and spinning nose-dive is chiefly roll. The amount of pitch depends on how much the wings are banked from the
horizontal. Area and disposition of the fin, rudder and tail plane exert considerable influence on the airplane to
spinning.
16. How to get out of the spin smoothly?
Ans: In order to get out of a spin we must get out of the stalled (CLmax ) state by putting the nose down (reduce
α) and also we must stop rotation by applying `opposite rudder `. In practice the roll is stopped first, because it is
found the elevators are not effective (to change α ) until the rotation is stopped .
17. State two basic requirements of aircraft control surface.
Ans: Control surfaces are mainly ailerons, canard (forward tail), elevator, rudder and spoilers (special ailerons).
Most of the control surfaces are used to produce additional forces when it is required at different locations of
Aircraft. Also they produce counter-balancing about three major axes of the Aircraft to improve stability.
It aids the pilot to produce control forces to come out of maneuring flights.
18. Distinguish between stability and controllability.
Ans: Stability and control characteristics of an AP are called flying qualities. Stability is the property of an
equilibrium state and it is divided into static and dynamic stability. Static stability is the tendency of the AP to
return to its equilibrium after a disturbance. In dynamic stability, the vehicle’s motion with the time after it is
disturbed from its equilibrium point is considered. Controllability of a system is related to its ability to transfer
control requirements. A system is controllable if it transfers any initial state Xi(t) to any final state Xf(t) in finite
time.
19. What is the need for aerodynamic balancing?
Ans: Control surfaces like elevators, ailerons and rudders are used for generating forces and moments in different
directions for controlling the AP. When using, the methods of controlling parameters (H.M coefficients) Chα and
Chδ are of prime interest and are referred to as methods of aerodynamic balancing. If these coefficients are not
suitably controlled, the stability and control will be in danger and it will do harm. (eg, In (dCm / dCL)free eqn,
the effect of elevator freeing comes as 1-τ Chα / Chδ and if τ Chα / Chδ = 1, the whole tail contribution to S.L.S
will become zero.
20. What is meant by weather cocking effect?
Lateral degrees of freedom of an airplane is decided by the direction of relative wind to the plane of symmetry.
This angle is called sideslip (β) and the airplane is designed to resist the development of sideslip during all normal
flight maneuvers .The ability of the airplane to create yawing moments that tend to eliminate any sideslip is called
directional stability (sometimes called weathercock stability)
 PART B

1) Explain in detail the phenomenon of autorotation and spin and discuss how the pilot can recover from the
situation (April/May 2019)
2) Write short notes on (i) Spiral and directional divergence (ii) Stability derivatives in longitudinal
dynamics
3) Quantitatively explain the condition of different components of aircraft towards directional stability and
explain directional control (April/May 2019)
4) Briefly explain Aileron reversal, One engine inoperative condition and Rudder lock (April/May 2017)
5) Write short note on (i) phugoid mode, (ii) dutch roll, (iii) routh’s criterion (April/May 2017)
6) The statically stabled aircraft may be dynamically stable or unstable. Similarlly dynamically stable
aircraft may be statically stable or unstable. Are both statements true? Discuss various stability derivatives
relevant to longitudinal dynamic stability(April/May 2017)