ANSWER KEY – ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING – 1151CE204 NOVEMBER 2018

PART A
1. Define per capita demand.
It’s the annual average amount of daily water required by one person, and includes the domestic
use, industrial and commercial use, public use, wastes, thefts, etc. It may be expressed as:
Per Capita Demand (q) in litres/day/head
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠 (𝑉)
= 365 𝑋 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑃𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

2. Identify different storage zones in impounding reservoir.

- Normal Pool Level (or) Maximum Conservation level
- Minimum Pool Level
- Useful Storage and Dead Storage
- Maximum Pool Level
- Surcharge Storage
- Bank Storage
- Valley Storage

3. What is an intake work?

The basic function of the intake structure is to help in safely withdrawing water from the source
over a predetermined range of pool levels and then to discharge this water into the withdrawal
conduit, through which, it flows up to the water treatment plant.

4. State atleast three important requirement of distribution network.

(i) It should be capable of supplying water at all the intended places within the city with a
reasonably sufficient pressure head.
(ii) It should be capable of supplying the requisite amount of water for fire-fighting during
such needs.
(iii) It should be cheap with the least capital construction cost. The economy and the cost of
installing the distribution system is a very important factor.
(iv) It should be simple and easy to operate and repair, thereby keeping the RMO cost and
troubles to the minimum.
(v) It should be safe against any future pollution of water.

5. Give the classifications of sedimentation tank.

(i) The Intermittent Settling Tanks called Quiescent type tanks are simple settling tanks
which store sewage for a certain period and keep it in complete rest.
(ii) Continuous Flow Type of a sedimentation tank, which is generally used in modern days,
the flow velocity is only reduced, and the sewage is not brought to complete rest, as is
done in intermittent type.
ANSWER KEY – ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING – 1151CE204 NOVEMBER 2018

6. What is demineralization of water?

Process of removal of ions from the raw water supply. It is done especially for industrial
water supply.
7. Define BOD and COD.
 COD indicates the amount of oxygen required for chemical oxidation of organic
matter in the sample to carbon dioxide and water.
 The BOD is defined as the oxygen requirement of bacteria to decompose the organic
matter (present in a given sample of sewage) under aerobic conditions.

8. What is anti-siphonage pipe?

An extra pipe connected to the outlets of toilet seats of all the floors, the other end of
which is exposed to atmosphere is called anti-syphonage pipe. These are provided to
maintain water seal so that foul gases of the sewer line do not find entry in to the toilet/
bathrooms.
9. Define organic and hydraulic loading on a trickling filter.
The organic loading is defined as the pounds of BOD or chemical oxygen demand (COD)
applied per day per 1000 cubic feet of media — a measure of the amount of food being
applied to the filter slime.
10. How to eliminate dewatering of sludge?
(i) Filter Press
(ii) Horizontal Belt Filter
(iii) Vacuum Filtration
(iv) High speed centrifuge
(v) Sludge Drying Bed

PART B
11 (a) Describe the factors governing the fixation of design period.
- Useful life of component structures and the chances of their becoming old and
obsolete. Design periods should not exceed those respective values.
- Ease and difficulty that is likely to be faced in expansions, if undertaken at future dates.
For example, more difficult expansions mean choosing a higher value of the design
period.
- Amount and availability of additional investment likely to be incurred for additional
provisions. For example, if the funds are not available, one has to keep a smaller design
period.
ANSWER KEY – ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING – 1151CE204 NOVEMBER 2018

- The rate of interest on the borrowings and the additional money invested. For
example, if the interest rate is small, a higher value of the design period may be
economically justified and, therefore, adopted.
- Anticipated rate of population growth, including possible shifts in communities,
industries and commercial establishments. For example, if the rate of increase of
population is less, a higher figure for the design period may be chosen.
11 (b) Explain the factors governing the selection of a water source for a city.

12 (a) Identify the factors influencing the location of an intake structure.

Location of Intake Structure:

 Site should be near the treatment plant to reduce conveyance cost.

 Intake must be located in the purer zone of the source so that best quality water is
withdrawn from source to reduce the load on the treatment plant.

 Intake shall be located in upstream side but, must never be located in the vicinity of
waste water disposal point.

 Intake must never be located near the navigation channels so as to reduce chances of
pollution due to waste discharge from ships.

 The site should be such as to permit greater withdrawal of water, if required in future.

 Intake must be located at a place from where it can draw water even during the driest
period of the year.

 The intake site should remain easily accessible during floods and should not get
flooded.
ANSWER KEY – ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING – 1151CE204 NOVEMBER 2018

 In meandering rivers, the intakes should not be located on curves or at least on sharp
curves.

12 (b) Illustrate the step by step procedure of analysing a pipe network by Hardy Cross
method.
The method is as follows:
1. Guess the flows in each pipe, making sure that the total in flow is equal to the total
out flow at each junction. (The guess doesn't have to be good, but a good guess will
reduce the time it takes to find the solution.)
2. Determine each closed loop in the system.
3. For each loop, determine the clockwise head losses and counter-clockwise head

losses. Head loss in each pipe is calculated using h{f}=rQ^{n}} . Clockwise head
losses are from flows in the clockwise direction and likewise for counter-clockwise.

4. Determine the total head loss in the loop, Σ r Q n {rQ^{n}} , by subtracting the
counter-clockwise head loss from the clockwise head loss.

5. For each loop, find Σ n r Q n − 1 {nrQ^{n-1}} without reference to direction (all

values should be positive).

6. The change in flow is equal to Σ r Q n Σ n r Q n − 1 {{{rQ^{n}}{nrQ^{n-1}}}} .

7. If the change in flow is positive, apply it to all pipes of the loop in the counter-
clockwise direction. If the change in flow is negative, apply it to all pipes of the loop
in the clockwise direction.
8. Continue from step 3 until the change in flow is within a satisfactory range.

13 (a) Explain the disinfection action of chlorine and the factors affecting its performance.
Disinfecting Action of Chlorine:
- When chlorine is added to water, it forms hypochlorous acid (or) hypochlorite ions, which
have an immediate and disastrous effect on most forms of microscopic organisms.
- The reaction that takes place are:
ANSWER KEY – ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING – 1151CE204 NOVEMBER 2018

- The hypochlorous acid is unstable and may break into hydrogen ions and hypochlorite ions
as follows:

- The above reaction is reversible and depends upon the pH value of water. The dissociation
of hypochlorous acid into ions is more effective at high pH values and vice-versa. Thus, at pH
values greater than 10, only OCl- ions are found.
- Out of these forms of free available chlorine, the hypochlorous acid is the most destructive,
being about 80 times more effective than the hypochlorite ions.
- Moreover, the chlorine will immediately react with ammonia present in water to form
various chloramines, as given below:

- The mono-chloramine predominates at pH value of 7.5

- The di-chloramine predominates at pH value of 5 to 6.5
- The Nitrogen tri-chloramine predominates at pH value below 4.
- The chloramines formed, are stable and are found to possess disinfecting properties. The
combined chlorine with ammonia in the form of chloramines is called “Combined Chlorine”.

13 (b) Demonstrate atleast two method of achieving water softening.

(1) Lime – Soda Process: In this process, lime [Ca (OH)2] and soda ash [Na2CO3] are added to the
hard water, which will react with the calcium and magnesium salts, so as to form insoluble
precipitates of calcium carbonate and magnesium hydroxide [Mg(OH)2].
- These precipitates can be sedimented out in the sedimentation tank.
ANSWER KEY – ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING – 1151CE204 NOVEMBER 2018

- A little quantity of hardness may remain as finely divided particles and may cause
“Incrustation of Filter Media”.
- To prevent this, it is generally necessary that water shall be Re-carbonated by passing
CO2 gas.
- In the re-carbonation process, the insoluble carbonates combine with the CO2 gas to
form again the soluble Bicarbonates.

(2) Zeolite (or) Base Exchange (or) Cation Exchange Process: Zeolites are the natural salts (or) Clays,
which are Hydrated Silicates of Sodium and Aluminium, having the general formula as Na2O
Al2O3x. SiO2y. H2O.
- The usual value of x is 2 or more, and that of y is in varying ranges.
- The most common naturally available zeolite is green in colour and generally termed as
“Green Sand”.
- Zeolites like substances can also be manufactured synthetically, and they are known as
Resins.
ANSWER KEY – ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING – 1151CE204 NOVEMBER 2018

- The most common synthetic resin is white in colour and generally termed as “Permutit”
manufactured from feldspar, kaolin, clay and soda.
- The zeolites (or) Resins have the excellent property of exchanging their cations; and
hence, during softening operation, the sodium ions of the zeolite get replaced by the
calcium and magnesium ions present in hard waters.

- The calcium and magnesium zeolite can be regenerated into active sodium zeolite by
treating it with 5 – 10% solution of sodium chloride.

14 (a) Explain the usefulness of rational formula in the estimation of Peak storm drainage
from a catchment.
The Rational Method is widely used to estimate the peak surface runoff rate for design of a variety of
drainage structures, such as a length of storm sewer, a storm water inlet, or a storm water detention
pond. The Rational Method is most suitable for small urban watersheds that don’t have storage such
as ponds or swamps. It is best for areas less than 100 acres, but is sometimes used for up to 2 mi 2
areas.

The equation that is the centerpiece of the Rational Method is: q = CiA,
where q is the peak surface runoff rate in cfs, from a watershed of area, A
acres, and runoff coefficient, C, due to a storm of intensity, i in/hr. The
units on peak runoff rate, q, are actually acre-in/hr, but the conversion
from acre-in/hr to cfs is very nearly one, so the more common unit, cfs, is
tyically used for q. In order to calculate a value for peak runoff rate for a
given drainage area, values are needed for the three parameters, A, C, and
i. Each of these parameters will be discussed separately in the next three
sections.
ANSWER KEY – ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING – 1151CE204 NOVEMBER 2018

Determined constant, dependent on the nature of the drainage area surface. An impervious surface
like a concrete parking lot will have a runoff coefficient of nearly one. A very tight clay soil will also
have a relatively high runoff coefficient, while a sandy soil would have more infiltration and a lower
runoff coefficient. In addition to the nature of the surface and the soil, the slope of the drainage area
has an effect on the runoff coefficient.

14 (b) Illustrate the different plumping fixtures used in the plumbing system and their
role.
In installing a ‘water supply plumbing system’ in a building, the first and main step,
obviously is, to obtain a ‘water connection’ from the municipal water main, because the
water supply to a house or a building can start only from this point.
The various elements of a house water connection are as follows:

(i) Ferrule: A ferrule is a right angled sleeve made of brass or gun metal, and is
joined to a hole drilled in the water main, to which it is screwed down with a
plug. Its size usually varies between 10 to 50mm diameters. For all other
connections of more than 50 mm diameter, a tee branch connection, off the
water main, is used.
(ii) Goose Neck: It is a small sized curved pipe made of a flexible material (Usually
Lead) and is about 75cm in length forming a flexible connection between the
water main and the service pipe.
(iii) Service Pipe: It is a galvanized iron pipe of size less than 50mm diameter. It
should be laid underground in a trench in which no sewer or drainage pipe is laid.
The service pipe which supplies water to the building through the municipal main
is thus connected to the main through the goose neck and ferrule.
(iv) Stop Cock: The Stop Cock is provided before the water enters the water meter in
the house. It is housed in a suitable masonry chamber with a removable cover
and is fixed in the street close to the boundary wall in an accessible position.
ANSWER KEY – ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING – 1151CE204 NOVEMBER 2018

(v) Water Meters: Water meter measures and records the quantity of water
consumed in the house. The domestic type water meter generally employed for
houses, is fitted into the service pipe with Unions, which enables the meter to be
changed where necessary.
(vi) Water Taps and Bib Cocks: water taps are the types of valves provided at the
end of house service pipes for withdrawing water at the consumer’s house.
Several varieties of water taps are available, and the most common of them is
Bib Cock.

PIPE FITTINGS
The various pipe fittings, such as bends, crosses, tees, elbows, wye unions, caps, plugs,
flanges, nipples, etc. are frequently used in making service connections and also sometimes
in bigger sized mains or sub-mains. The various types of bends and other important pipe
fittings are:
ANSWER KEY – ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING – 1151CE204 NOVEMBER 2018

15 (a) Explain the needs for septic tanks and their working principles.

 A Septic tank may be defined as a primary sedimentation tank, with a longer detention
period (12 to 36 hours) and with extra provisions for digestion of the settled sludge.
 Since the digestion of the settled sludge is carried out by anaerobic decomposition
process, the septic tank unit is generally classified under the units which work on the
principle of anaerobic decomposition.
 Due to the anaerobic decomposition of settled sludge, foul gases will be evolved in
the tank, so the tank is completely covered and provided with a high vent shaft for
escape of gases.
 Thus the septic tank is, a horizontal continuous flow type of a sedimentation tank,
directly admitting raw sewage, and removing about 60 to 70% of the dissolved matter
in it.
Construction Details:

 The tank is designed to prevent direct currents between the tank inlet and outlet. This
ensures effective sedimentation, and is achieved by using pipe tees with submerged
ends as inlet and outlet.
 The T-pipe or the baffle at the outlet will also help in retaining the scum in the tank.
 It may be noted that holding of scum in the tank not only frees the effluent from it,
but is also desirable to hold back odors and to create a sort of heat insulation which
aids the bacterial action. The tank is generally covered at the top with R.C.C slab.
 The R.C.C cover prevents the escape of foul gases and odors from the tank on to the
ground; prevents the chances of accidents due to falling of children or animals; and
prevents wind agitation, thus keeping the sewage warm and helping in bacterial
activity.
 The sludge deposited and digested, is removed at an interval of 6 to 12 months, into
a side sump-well through a pipe under hydrostatic pressure or portable pump.
Disposal of the Effluent from the Septic Tank:
The effluent coming out from a septic tank is no better than the effluent of an ordinary
sedimentation tank. It contains large amount of putrescible organic matter (200 to 250 mg/l)
and its BOD is quite high (100 to 200 mg/l)
This effluent should, therefore, be disposed of carefully, so as to cause minimum
nuisance or risk to the health of the people. The following are the methods for disposal of
septic tank effluent are usually adopted:
(i) Soil Absorption System
(ii) Biological Filters
(iii) Up flow anaerobic filters
ANSWER KEY – ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING – 1151CE204 NOVEMBER 2018

15 (b) Illustrate bacteria algae symbiosis reaction in a stabilization pond.

Definition of WSP:
It is a shallow body of water contained in an earthen basin, open to sun and air. Longer
time of retention form few days to weeks is provided in the pond. The purification of
wastewater occurs due to symbiotic relationship of bacteria and algae.
These are cheaper to construct and operate in warm climate as compared to
conventional treatment system and hence they are considered as low cost wastewater
treatment systems.
Types and Operation Mechanisms of Ponds:
Aerobic Ponds: In a totally aerobic pond, the stabilization of wastes is brought about by
aerobic bacteria, which flourish in the presence of oxygen.
The oxygen demand of such bacteria in such a pond is met by the combined action of algae
and other microbes called, Algal Photosynthesis (or) Algal Symbiosis.
In this symbiosis, the algae while growing in the presence of sunlight, produce oxygen by the
action of Photosynthesis and this oxygen is utilized by the bacteria for oxidizing the waste
organic matters.
Anaerobic Ponds: In an aerobic pond, the stabilization of waste is mainly brought about by
the usual anaerobic conversion of organic wastes to carbon dioxide, methane, and gaseous
end products, with eruption of foul odors and pungent smells.
Facultative Ponds: Here, the upper layers work under aerobic conditions prevail the bottom
layers. The upper aerobic layers of the pond acts as a good check against the evolution of the
foul odors from such a pond.
 ANSWER KEY – ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING – 1151CE204 NOVEMBER 2018

PART C
16 (a) Explain the importance of physical quality of water and the method of fixing it.
(i) Temperature: The temperature of water is measured by means of ordinary
thermometers. Temperature of the surface water is generally same as the atmospheric
temperature, while that of groundwater is generally more or less than the atmospheric
temperature.

(ii) Colour: The colour of water is usually due to the presence of colloidal organic matter
or due to mineral and dissolved organic and inorganic impurities. The colour of water
is compared with standard colour solution (or) colour discs.
The colour produced by one milligram of platinum in a litre of distilled water has been
fixed as the standard unit of colour.

(iii) Turbidity: Turbidity is caused due to the presence of suspended and colloidal matter in
water. It is measured as the resistance of water to the passage of light through it. It
was earlier determined in Jackson candle turbidity units (JTU).
The unit is now replaced with more appropriate unit called ‘Nephelometric turbidity’
unit or NTU. The turbidity produced by one part of finely divided silica in a million parts
of distilled water is the standard turbidity unit.

(iv) Taste and Odour: Taste and odour in water may be due to the presence of dead or live
micro-organisms; dissolved gases such as hydrogen sulphide, methane, carbondioxide
or oxygen combined with organic matter; mineral substances such as sodium chloride,
iron compounds and carbonates and sulphates of other substances.
The intensity of odour is measured interms of Threshold Odour Number. Numerically
says,

𝐴+𝐵
TON = Where, A is the volume of odorous water in mL
𝐴

B is the volume of odour-free water required to produce a

200mL of mixture where the smell is barely detectable. The similar test to compute
flavor threshold number (FTN) is used to quantify taste.

(v) Electrical Conductivity: Electrical conductivity or specific conductance of water is

related to the dissolved salts in water. It is a measure of the ability of the water to
conduct electric current. It is determined by means of a di-ionic electrode and is
expressed in micro-mhos per cm at 25 degree Celsius.
ANSWER KEY – ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING – 1151CE204 NOVEMBER 2018

16 (b) Discuss the various factors affecting per capita demand for water and also discuss
on variation in water demand.

17 (b) Explain the importance of maintaining optimum pressure in the distribution system.
Also discuss the different types of water distribution system.
Optimum pressure in the distribution system leads to equal distribution, sufficient supply
and reducing waste spills in low demand period.
ANSWER KEY – ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING – 1151CE204 NOVEMBER 2018

(i) Dead-End System (Tree System):

- There is one main supply pipe, from which originates a number of sub-main pipes.
Each sub-main, then divides into several branch pipes, called laterals. From the
laterals, service connections are given to the consumers.
- This type of layout may have to be adopted for older towns which have developed in
a haphazard manner, without properly planned roads.
Advantages:
- This distribution system can be solved easily, and it is possible to easily and accurately
calculate the discharges and pressures at different points in the system.
- Lesser number of cut-off valves are required in this system
- Shorter pipe lengths are needed, and the laying of pipes is easier
- It is cheap and simple, and can be extended or expanded easily.
Disadvantages:
- Since, in this method, water can reach a particular point only through one route, any
damage or repair in any pipe line will completely stop the water supply in the area
being fed by that pipe.
- There are numerous dead ends in this system, which prevent the free circulation of
water.

(ii) Grid-Iron System (Reticulation System):

- In this system, the mains and sub-mains and branches are all inter-connected with
each other.
- In a well-planned city or a town, the roads are generally developed in a grid-iron
pattern, and the pipe lines in such places can follow them easily.
- Hence, this system is more suitable for well-planned cities.

(iii) Ring System (Circular system):

- In this system, a closed ring, either circular or rectangular, of the main pipes, is formed
around the area to be served.
- The distribution area is divided into rectangular or circular blocks, and the main water
pipes are laid on the periphery of these blocks.
- The ring system is very suitable for towns and cities having well planned roads.
- This system may be used as a “looped feeder placed centrally around a high demand
area” along with the grid iron system.

(iv) Radial System:

- If a city or a town is having a system of radial roads emerging from different centers,
the pipe lines can be best laid in a radial method by placing the distribution reservoirs
at these centers.
ANSWER KEY – ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING – 1151CE204 NOVEMBER 2018

- In this system, water, is therefore, taken from the water mains, and pumped into the
distribution reservoirs placed at different centers.

18 (b) Explain the role of aeration, fluoridation and defluoridation treatment units in a water
treatment plant.
AERATION
Under the process of Aeration, water is brought in intimate contact with air, so as to absorb
oxygen and to remove carbon dioxide gas. It may also help in killing bacteria to a certain extent.

It also helps in removing H2S gas, and iron and manganese to a certain extent, from the treated
water. The aeration of water can be carried out in one of the following ways:

(i) By Using Spray Nozzles: In this method, the water is sprinkled in air or atmosphere through
special nozzles which breaks the water in to droplets, thus permitting the escape of dissolved
gases. CO2 gas is thus considerably removed (Up to 90% or so) in this method.
- But, this method requires considerable head of water up to 10 to 14m.

(ii) By Using Water Cascades: In this method, the water is made to fall through a certain height
(1 to 3m) over a series of steps with a full of about 0.15m to 0.3m in each step. The structure
so formed is known as a “Freefall Aerator”. The simplest type of a freefall aerator is Cascade
Aerator shown below.
ANSWER KEY – ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING – 1151CE204 NOVEMBER 2018

- Such aerators are widely used as water features. They will take large quantities of water
in a comparatively small area at low head, are simple to be kept clean and can be made
of robust and durable materials with a long life.
- The plates can be made of cast iron, or of RCC, or of timber, or even glass. The aerators
should preferably be installed in open air.
- The cascade aerators are efficient in raising dissolved oxygen content of water, but not
for CO2 removal, which is removed only in the range of 60 to 70%.
(iii) By Air Diffusion: In this method, compressed air is bubbled through the water, so as to
thoroughly mix it with water.
- Perforated pipes are, therefore, installed at the bottom of the setting tanks, and the
compressed air is blown through them.
- The Compressed air is thus bubbled up from the bottom of the tank. During its upward
movement through the water body, it gets thoroughly mixed up with the water contained
in the tank, thereby completing the aeration process.
(iv) By Using Trickling Filters: In this method, the water is allowed to trickle down the beds of
coke, supported over the perforated bottomed trays, and arranged vertically in series as
shown below:
- Generally, three beds are used, the depth of
each being about 0.6m with a clear distance of
about 0.45m in between. The water is applied
from the top through perforated distribution
pipes are allowed to trickle down, up to the
bottom bed.
- During this downward motion, the water
gets mixed up with air, and aeration takes
place. The size of the coke to be used, usually
ranges between 50 to 75mm. This method
gives better results than “Cascade” method of
aeration.
ANSWER KEY – ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING – 1151CE204 NOVEMBER 2018

- The aeration process is limited up to an extent. Too much of aeration may make the
water more corrosive and may necessitate the de-aeration process.
- The De-aeration process can be carried out by allowing the water to trickle down
through the gravel layers in a closed vessel at a pressure of about 1/30th of an
atmosphere.

DEFLUORIDATION
Fluoride mainly enters the human body through drinking water. 96-99% of it combines with bones,
since fluoride has affinity for calcium phosphate in the bones.

Excess intake of fluorides can lead to dental fluorosis, skeletal fluorosis / non-skeletal fluorosis.

- Dental fluorosis is characterized by discolored, blackened, mottled (or) chalky white

teeth.
- Skeletal fluorosis leads to severe and permanent bone and joint deformations.
- Non-skeletal fluorosis leads to gastro-intestinal problems and neurological disorders.

Since the ground waters in countries like India and Bangladesh are found to contain large quantities
of fluoride, it becomes imperative to remove fluoride from water. The technique of removing excess
level of fluoride from water is known as “Defluoridation”.

Methods of Defluoridation: The following technologies are generally used for removing fluorides
from water:

(i) Absorption by Activated Alumina (AA), Commonly known as Prasanti Technique

(ii) Ion Exchange Adsorption Method
(iii) Nalgonda Technique
(iv) Reverse Osmosis Process

19 (a) Explain the function of different sewer appurtenances in the smooth functioning of a
sewage.

 Sewer appurtenances are the various accessories on the sewerage system and are
necessary for the efficient operation of the system.
 If sewerage system will not be maintained properly, salt, ashes, fats, oils and greasy
matters etc. will choke the sewer line.
 Therefore for the proper operation and maintenance of sewerage system, various
devices like manholes, lamp holes, drop manholes, street inlets, flushing tanks, catch
basins, ventilating shafts and storm role of works etc. are essential

6.1 Street Inlets:

 Street inlets are the openings through which storm water is admitted and conveyed
to the storm sewer or combined sewer.
 The inlets are located by the sides of pavement with maximum spacing of 30 m. The
inlets are connected to nearby manholes by pipe line.
 The clear opening should not be more than 25mm.
ANSWER KEY – ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING – 1151CE204 NOVEMBER 2018

 The dia. of connecting pipe to street to main street sewer should not be less than
200mm
 The inlet is simply a concrete box. It may have gratings or openings in vertical direction
(vertical inlet or curb inlet) or horizontal direction (Gutter or horizontal inlet).

6.2 Catch Basins:

 Catch basins are small settling chambers of diameter 60 - 90 cm and 60 - 75 cm deep,
which are constructed below the street inlets.
 They interrupt the velocity of storm water entering through the inlets and allow grit,
sand, debris and so on to settle in the basin, instead of allowing them to enter into the
sewers.
 Maintenance: The catch basins provided a temporary storage of impurities contained
in the rain water. Hence, it requires a periodical cleaning.
 Otherwise the organic matter decomposes and gives out bad smell.
 It also then forms a breeding place for mosquitoes and causes annoyance to the
person passing or living nearby.
 Uses: The catch basins are adopted for the combined sewerage system. But at present
the trend is to lay sewers with such a gradient that self-cleaning velocity is achieved
and to construct paved streets which contribute little debris or grit.

6.3 Clean Out:

 A clean out is an inclined pipe which is connected to the underground sewer.
 The other end of the clean out pipe is brought up to ground level & cover is placed at
ground level.
 A clean out is generally provided at the upper ends of lateral sewers in place of
manholes.
 Working: The working of a clean out is simple.
 The cover is taken out and the water is forced through clean out pipe to the lateral
sewers to remove the obstacles in the sewer lines.
 If the obstructions are large enough, a flexible rod may be inserted through the clean
out pipe and pushed backward and forwarded to remove such obstacles.

6.4 Manholes:
 Man holes are the openings of either circular or rectangular in shape constructed on
the alignment of a sewer line to enable a person to enter the sewer for inspection,
cleaning and flushing.
 They serve as ventilators for sewers, by the provisions of perforated man-hole covers.
 Also they facilitate the laying of sewer lines in convenient length.
 Manholes are provided:
o At all junctions of two or more sewers
o Whenever diameter of sewer changes
o Whenever direction of sewer line changes
ANSWER KEY – ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING – 1151CE204 NOVEMBER 2018

6.6 Lamp Holes:

 Lamp holes are the openings constructed on the straight sewer lines between two
man-holes which are far apart and permit the insertion of a lamp into the sewer to
find out obstructions if any inside the sewers from the next man-hole.

6.7 Oil and Grease Trap:

 These are the traps or chambers which are provided on the sewer line to exclude
grease and oil from sewage before it enters the sewer line.

6.8 Inverted Siphons

 These are depressed portions of sewers, which flow full under pressure more than the
atmospheric pressure due to flow line being below the hydraulic grade line.
 They are constructed when a sewer crosses a stream or deep cut or road or railway
line.
 To clean the siphon pipe sluice valve is opened, thus increasing the head causing flow.
Due to increased velocity deposits of siphon pipe are washed into the sump, from where
they are removed.

20 (a) Generate the oxygen sag curve for a polluted stream undergoing self-purification
and discuss the important point in it.
The oxygen deficit D at any time in a polluted river stream is the difference between the actual
D.O content of water at that time and the saturation D.O content at the water temperature.
Oxygen Deficit (D) = Saturation D.O – Actual D.O
In order to maintain clean conditions in a river-stream, the oxygen deficit must be nil, and this
can be found out by knowing the rates of de-oxygenation and re-oxygenation.
De-Oxygenation Curve:
In a polluted river, the D.O content goes on reducing due to decomposition of volatile organic
matter. The rate of de-oxygenation depends upon the amount of organic matter remaining
to be oxidized at the given time as well as on the temperature of reaction.
Hence, at a given temperature, the curve showing depletion of D.O with time.
Re-Oxygenation Curve:
In order to counter-balance the consumption of D.O due to de-oxygenation, atmosphere
supplies oxygen to the water, and the process is called re-oxygenation. The rate at which the
oxygen is supplied by the atmosphere to the polluted water depends upon:
(i) The depth of the receiving water (rate is more in a shallow depth)
ANSWER KEY – ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING – 1151CE204 NOVEMBER 2018

(ii) The condition of the body of water (rate is more in a running stream than in a
quiescent pond)
(iii) The saturation deficit or the oxygen deficit
(iv) The temperature of water
Oxygen Deficit Curve:
In a running polluted stream exposed to the atmosphere, the de-oxygenation as well as the
re-oxygenation go hand in hand. If de-oxygenation is more rapid than the re-oxygenation, an
oxygen deficit results.
The amount of resultant oxygen deficit can be obtained by algebraically adding the de-
oxygenation and re-oxygenation curves.
The resultant curve so obtained is called as “Oxygen Sag Curve”.

20 (b) Make a detailed discussion on standard rate and high rate trickling filter, highlighting
their merits and demerits.
Definition of Trickling Filter:
A trickling filter is a fixed film attached growth aerobic process for treatment of
organic matter from the wastewater. The surface of the bed is covered with the biofilm and
as the wastewater trickles over this media surface, organic matter from the wastewater
comes in contact with the aerobic bacteria and oxidation of organic matter occurs.
ANSWER KEY – ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING – 1151CE204 NOVEMBER 2018

Diameter of the trickling filter depends on the mechanical equipments used for
spraying the wastewater. Diameter more than 12 m for single filter unit is common. Rotary
arm rotates as a result of jet action as the wastewater is sprayed horizontally on the filter
bed; hence, external power is not required for rotation of the arm.
Number of commercial packing media is available. These include vertical-flow random
packed and cross flow media made of rock, polygrid, plastic media or asbestos sheets.
In order to avoid filter plugging, a maximum specific surface of 100 m2/m3 is
recommended for carbonaceous wastewater treatment and up to 300 m2/m3 for nitrification,
because of slow growth rate of nitrifiers.
Operation of Trickling Filter:
Since, the wastewater is applied through the rotary arm from the top of the reactor
the biofilm grown on the media surface receives wastewater intermittently.
As the wastewater trickles down leaving the wet biofilm, the biofilm is exposed to the
air voids present in the media, and thus oxygen from the air, after solubilizing in the water
adhering on biofilm, is made available to aerobic bacteria grown in the biofilm by diffusion of
oxygen through the biofilm.
The end product CO2 diffuses out of the biofilm into the flowing liquid. Treated
wastewater is collected from the bottom of the bed through an underdrainage system and is
settled in the final settling tank.
ANSWER KEY – ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING – 1151CE204 NOVEMBER 2018

Sloughing: The biological film or slime forms on the surface of the filter media after
application of wastewater. Organic matter is adsorbed on
the slime layer and it is degraded by the aerobic
microorganisms present in the slime.
As the thickness of the slime layer increases the condition
near the surface of the media becomes anaerobic because
of limitations of availability of oxygen.
At this stage the microbes lose their ability to cling to the surface of the media and the slime
layer gets detached and washed out along with flowing liquid. This phenomenon is called as
‘sloughing’.
Merits and Demerits of Trickling Filter:
Merits of Trickling Filter:
(i) Rate of filter loading is high, as such requiring lesser land areas and smaller
quantities of filter media for their installations.
(ii) Effluent obtained from the trickling filters is sufficiently nitrified and stabilized.
They can remove about 75% of BOD and about 80% of suspended solids.
(iii) Working of trickling filters is simple, and does not require any skilled supervision.
(iv) They are flexible in operation, and they can, therefore, withstand the application
of variety of sewages having different concentrations and compositions.
(v) They are self-cleaning.
(vi) Mechanical wear and tear is small, as they contain less-mechanical equipment.
Demerits of Trickling Filters:
(i) The head loss through these filters is high, making automatic dosing of the filters
necessary.
(ii) Cost of construction is high
(iii) These filters cannot treat raw sewage, and primary sedimentation is a must.
(iv) These filters pose a number of operational troubles such as Fly nuisance, Odor
nuisance and ponding trouble.

Prepared by

Saravanan J - TTS 2475

Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering