Applied Psychological Trauma Theory and its Reflection in Architecture: Wounds and Memorials

Author: David S. Bathory, Psy.D. ; Bathory International LLC, Somerville New Jersey USA
Keywords: Psychological Trauma; Applied Psychology; Architecture; Public Interventions

Historical archivalists, architects, designers, and artists have addressed the use of space and memory to desribe their
intent, influence and the power of creating sacred spaces or memorials. (Elzanowski, 2010; Schramm, 2011) Much of
the proceedings of the Memory and Spaces Conference, held in Belgrade Serbia in April 2011 was dedicated to this
area and is described within these proceedings (Spaces of Memory: Architecture, Hertiage, Art, 2011).
Clinical Psychology tends to focus on individuals and small groups with “similar symptoms” and rarely, except with the
exception of social psychology, addresses large group dynamics. Social psychologists study effects and patterns of
large groups, but do not have the knowledge to address clinical interventions. Where can countries look for guidance
on how to address the needs of large groups who are exposed to events that may affect their citizens for generations?
This paper incorporates knowledge gained from the field of psychological trauma (usually applied to individuals) to
larger populations. Psychological Trauma occurs in situations created by man (e.g. wars, torture, fires) and by nature
(e.g. natural disasters). People exposed to trauma are affected by these events and remnants of the event effect
people throughout their lifetime both physically and emotionally. People who are exposed to such events also may pass
on these effects both in their behavior and in their biological response to trauma to their offspring (De Zulueta, 2007;
Kaplan, 2009; Kaitz, Levy, Ebstein, Faraone, & Mankuta, 2009). An example of this is found with mothers exposed to
stress who show increased Cortisol levels and this effects the development of their in utero fetuses (Loewy, 1986). In
the study of extreme disasters and in instances such as wars, the number of victims is astronomical. Some people go
on to develop psychological or physical disorders, but most trauma victims are never diagnosed with a psychiatric
disorder. Countries faced with overwhelming numbers of people exposed and affected by these occurrences cannot
provide traditional psychological/medical support that is needed to recover.(Aker & Onen, 2007; Kaitz, Levy, Ebstein,
Faraone, & Mankuta, 2009; Kaplan, 2009)
This paper addresses a new framework focused on the health and well-being of large groups of people exposed to
mass traumatic experiences. A cross disciplinary project, like the one outlined, is not merely a process of adding
information or knowledge from other schools of thought but requires stepping beyond the traditional limits of study and
assimilating ideas into new theoretical concepts. This new framework for addressing complex problems has been
attempted in other areas such as Chaos Theory (where mathematical models are applied to science and the humanities
in non-linear forms) (Lasser & Bathory, 1997). The example outlined in this paper is an attempt to join psychology
biology, chemistry, architectural theory of space and design, history, culture, media and their public entities of
governance to heal their citizens and their offspring. This new model not only describes but integrates models and
theories that have been formed over the past 100 years. The proposed application of these principles for a National
Campaign at the site of the Ministry of Defense Building in Belgrade Serbia is only a single example of countless other
possibilities that may be created or modified. The example of the Ministry of Defense Building is not intended to be
used as it is written. It does not inclusive of the people necessary (that can be a combinations of international or
national) experts as a well as representatives of those who have been most affected by the trauma. In designing and
bringing a project like this to its fruition, there are many factors that must be considered (some will be explored in the
example and others are not discussed). Some of the relevant issues not reviewed are: The historical relevance of the
event that occurred and the location of the event; What structural damage has occurred to the proposed site or building
and can the structure be used or rebuilt?; Who constitutes the population to be helped?; What are the most salient or
important messages that should be promoted?; What ages groups are to be addressed?; How much money is
available?; Who is interested in working together on the project and what groups do they represent?; How will
ownership of this living monument/memorial (or relevance) be created for subsequent generations?
Sites of Comparison
The three sites explored are examples of locations where mass psychological trauma has occurred by acts of man: the
World Trade Center in New York City in the United States of America, the Ethnographic Museum in Sarajevo Bosnia,
and the Ministry of Defense Building in Belgrade Serbia. These sites are representative of more than buildings but
symbolize traumatic events that affected each of these counties and their people. The sites in both Serbia and Bosnia
occurred during acts of war, and the destruction of the World Trade Center was an act of terrorism. While the
underlying individual biological and neuropsychological responses to psychological trauma are largely the same, the
expression of (or reaction to) psychological trauma differs based upon cultural influences and a variety of premorbid
mitigating and aggravating factors: genetics, age, sex, education and cognitive abilities, socioeconomic status, individual
history/experience, pre-existing medical/psychiatric conditions, family or support systems, and beliefs. Cultural

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influences include areas such as; shared historical experiences (e.g. war, school), political, constitutional and
educational doctrine, a sense of individual versus community responsibility, majority and minority perspectives and
status (e.g. religion, economic status, education or role), resources (e.g. natural, monetary and within the population),
and values (e.g. freedoms) and beliefs. Examples of cultural beliefs are common saying such as: Strike while the iron
is hot – Gvožđe se kuje dok je vruće; and Don’t bite the hand that feeds you (an American belief) versus Hrani Psada te
Ujede (translated: Feed the dog he will bite you (a Bosnian and Serbian belief).

Museum of Ethnography

David Stefan Bathory, Psy.D.

© Давид CteФaн Бatxopи,

Псѕ.Д.
Ministry
of
Defense

World Trade Center Complex, USA: On September 11, 2001 a group of terrorists hijacked three planes with the intent
of destroying key buildings in the USA. Two of these planes struck their targets (The World Trade Center Complex in
New York City and the United States Pentagon in Washington, DC), the third plane crashed in a field in a rural area of
Pennsylvania. The US Pentagon was repaired immediately after the attack. In the United States of America,
controversy has been rampant regarding the building of “new” structures on the site of the previous World Trade Center.
A group of Muslim leaders wished to erect a community center to promote wellbeing and greater understanding
between people who may have suffered losses by the acts of a Muslim group of extremists (the terrorists) who claimed
to represent their religion and beliefs and made the attacks of September 11th. This project was met by such public
outrage that the community center (that would have served as a multi-cultural center) was never erected. Just as US
citizens were divided in their feelings about this Community Center, there has been great discord over the
reconstruction of the World Trade Center Complex and Monuments. People who had relatives die in this disaster have
expressed anger over not being recognized as victims and/or compensated as they feel they were promised. Many of
these families have also expressed anger at not being included in the rebuilding and redesign of the site that is to
reopen on September 11, 2011, ten years after the initial tragedy. These same individuals/families have had equally
divided thoughts about the construction of the proposed Community Center.(Vaszily, 2001; Bernstein, 2002; Good
Morning America, 2010).
Americans, as a culture, tend to replace things that are broken or damaged. The site, which was originally left open to
the public to view the devastation, was sealed off during the time period when reconstruction began. Once fenced in,
visitors to the rebuilding site of World Trade Center Complex, had nowhere to go to express their grief, reflect on the
event, or ability to see the reconstruction as it progressed. The project opened an exhibition adjacent to the rebuilding
site to show pictures of what the site looked like before and immediately after the attacks and what was now being
completed, but this area has no physical area to address psychological healing.
Trinity Church has remained a spot close to the site, where personal and dedicated memorials exist and continue to be
placed. Many visitors go to the church for space to reflect on their thoughts and experiences. A Gallery dedicated to
the history of events and images exists nearby. A bronze plaque sits near a firehouse of first responders to the event
and memorializes public servants who died in their effort to save others. This bronze plaque has to its’ left, a cardboard
poster-collage of pictures of those who died in service on that day. People often leave small memorials of flowers and
tokens beside the plaque, but they are removed daily. (Vaszily, 2001; Bernstein, 2002)
It is an enormous undertaking to rebuild the World Trade Center Complex, as it is more than a full city block, where
multiple skyscrapers once stood. Transportation hubs, located within the World Trade Center Complex, were and are
still utilized to bring thousands of people in and out of New York City each day. The design of the new complex and
structures are intended to provide areas of refection as well as areas of business and commerce. The area of reflection
is one of mall with planted trees and large water sculptures. The business and commerce areas are similar to the
original structure of the Twin Towers. The intention of rebuilding on this site was to create a useful space and a
memorial. Knowledge from psychological trauma theory was not included in the design and rebuilding process. By not

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incorporating this body of knowledge, the opportunity to assist in the healing of people who were present at the disaster,
people who were indirectly affected (e.g. family members of the deceased), and the larger population of the United
States of America (who were exposed to the event through the media) has been missed. (Bathory D. S., 2009/2010)
Ethnographic Museum, Bosnia: The Ethnographic Museum in Sarajevo stands as a historical marker or monument of
the war between Serbia and Bosnia as well as a museum of history. This building was damaged by artillery and has
been left marked and is a constant reminder of the destruction. It sits near other significant buildings, museums that
contain works of art and ancient graves sites, memorials such as an engraved rock that reflects on the loss of lives, and
sculptures such as, a can of food that symbolizes the aide offered to the citizens of Sarajevo. Across the street is the
US Embassy and further down the block, the Holiday Inn that served to house media representatives during the conflict.
A new government building that houses National Ministries is located next to buildings still in decay from the war. The
choice to build and leave these sites on what is still referred to as “Sniper Alley” (a main through-fare where there was
active fire and both deaths of citizens and soldiers), keeps the conflict alive in the Bosnian culture. Additionally, the train
station in Sarajevo has perceptible bullet holes in the concrete walls and shattered glass on the train platforms but the
front of the building and the inside of the station show no signs of damage from the conflict.
Many young people, who were not alive during the conflict, retain anger at Serbia for the devastation that they see each
day. People, who were alive during the conflict, seem to have more anger at the international community for delays in
relief and do not have the same rage at their “past enemy”. Many families in Bosnia retain relationships with people and
relatives who live in Serbia and view this past war as a political/religious conflict that had been developing over
centuries. In sections of the city that are predominantly divided by religious beliefs (Muslim or Serbian Orthodox) there
is less and less interchange and opportunities for these two groups to interact. (Bathory D. S., 2010/2011)
This geographic separation of people by belief can lead to or foster less tolerance for understanding similarities and
differences between people. This segregation of people, by belief, is in stark contrast to many towns and cities within
Serbia. In southern Serbia, where there a large numbers of Muslims and members of the Serbian Orthodox Church,
people are able to live side by side with a mutual respect as citizens and neighbors. In the largest city in Serbia,
Belgrade, there are representatives of many countries and religions; people openly discuss religious differences without
concern. Bosnians visiting Serbia are not a target of prejudice. (Bathory D. S., 2010/2011)
Ministry of Defense, Serbia: The Ministry Site (that I will refer to as the Former Ministry of Defense) was bombed by
NATO in Belgrade Serbia and has been left largely untouched since this occurred in 1999. Thousands of people pass
by this site on a daily basis, which spans over a city block and a half of the central downtown area, and capital of Serbia.
The building was erected in the 1963 by the internationally acclaimed architect, Nikola Dobrović, who was renowned for
his innovative designs. The building was created to give the impression of a river canyon. A main street passes
through the center of the building, representing the flow of water by traffic and divides the building into two halves. This
street ends at the Central Train Station and Bus Station, which symbolizes movement and freedom.
The Former Ministry of Defense building sits in ruin, appearing as if the bombing had just occurred, yet a small portion
of one corner still has working offices. Military personnel are stationed near the site to ensure people’s safety, but they
do not discourage anyone from either looking at the building (from behind a fence) or taking pictures. Serbian culture
has a long history of invasions and occupations by other countries. Belgrade alone has been invaded 157 times and
rebuilt. Leaving a site untouched, as significant as this building once was, is unusual for this country as its cultural norm
is to rebuild using pieces of what was once there to restore a site or create a functional place.
The Former Ministry of Defense Building and a Communication Building in another section of the city are two buildings
in Belgrade left untouched and unrestored from the NATO bombings. Countless other structures that were destroyed in
Serbia, have been rebuilt or are in use in a variety of new ways (this includes mainly buildings used for communication,
bridges and highways to access towns and cities, and other structures such as oil refineries). The decision of the
Republic of Serbia to keep these damaged structures retains an awareness of the bombings (as are the structures in
Bosnia) and serves as a reminder to people that they are still in use. Unlike the Ethnographic Museum site and other
memorials in Sarajevo, there are no memorials at the sites in Belgrade. No museums address the traumatic experience
of this war. This affords Serbia an opportunity to create ways and possibly use some of these sites to develop
experiences in architecture and design that can assist in the healing of psychological trauma for current citizens and
generations to come.
The Fortress that stands at the northwest corner of the city of Belgrade is an example of a site that has suffered great
damage and destruction over centuries and it has been continually rebuilt. Today this fortress serves as a park,
historical site, and recreation area for residents and visitors. At this site there are activities such as concerts, gatherings
for competitive chess, celebrations for holidays, a zoo, restaurants, merchants, a museum that describes Serbian
Military History (from B.C. to modern day), and open areas for people to walk among the fortress walls without

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restrictions. The Fortress, at Kalemegdan, stands as an example of how a structure can be a living or evolving
monument to healing. As any other site that represents past destruction and war, the Fortress can also incorporate
some of the additional concepts outlined by Applied Trauma Theory. (Bathory D. S., 2010/2011)
Psychological Trauma and Development
Post Trauma Stress Disorder (PTSD) is a psychiatric condition that can occur after exposure to severe and life
threatening psychological trauma. Many of the symptoms associated with PTSD can be found to a lesser extent in
people who are exposed to traumatic events. For instance, people who experience a car accident often have recurrent
nightmares of the accident and when they hear noises, such as the tearing of metal they may recall details and
emotions from the accident. The accident may not have been life threatening, but mammalian brain structure is
designed to recall events that were dangerous in different ways than normal events. This difference in the memory and
storage of information has helped mammals survive since the beginning of time. Animals and people who could not
store memories of potentially dangerous situations and react quickly did not survive through evolution. The ability to
recall an event with an intensity of sensory experience allows the body to react by either fight or flight (Cannon, 1914) or
dissociation (Janet, 1925). Repeated exposure to dangerous situations results in conditioned learning (or a repeated
response). In original experiments conducted by Pavlov, dogs were taught to salivate to just the ringing of a bell when
they believed food was to follow the sound (Pavlov, 1927). Maier and Seligman (1976), later demonstrated, if a dog
was unable to respond to a threat and or painful shock (by a flight response) that they learned to be helplessness and
they gave up their attempts to escape.
If these concepts are applied to people (as they have been, in psychological theories of depression, anxiety, and
psychological trauma) people are both biologically changed and influenced in their later behavior by exposure to
traumatic events. The body’s response to psychological trauma involves the nervous system, parts of the brain involved
with memory (hippocampus) and a feedback system that responds to traumatic threats (hypothalamic feedback loop)
(van der Kolk, 1987; van der Kolk, Roth, Pelcovitz, & Sunday, 2005). These systems balance one another, and are
regulated by neurotransmitters (biological chemicals that assist in the transmission of signals to and from neurons). The
most significant neurotransmitters, in relation to trauma theory are: Norepinephrine (NE), Dopamine (DA), and Serotonin
(5HT). Neurotransmitters are released from the brain and activate or deactivate parts of the nervous system. This
communication allows the brain to send information to the body via pathways, in the most efficient means available
(similar to a reflex).
Table 1: Breakdown of the three major neurotransmitters involved in response to trauma and their associated biological and psychological responses.
Adapted from Bathory D. S., Psychological, Neurobiological and Developmental Consequences of Trauma in Children, 1993

Dopamine (DA) Serotonin (5HT) Norepinephrine (NE)

Sensory-Motor Memory account of Affective Memory Arousal Memory
event (hearing, taste, smell, vision, feelings associated with events Proprioception (immediate location in space)
Memory

physical sensation) or triggers Locomotion (immediate movements)

Proprioception (location in space) Sequencing of events leading to
Locomotion (movement) the ability to create a narrative
Sequencing (location in time) account of the trauma

Where memory/arousal & affect Preoccupations and intrusive Cognitive distortion of time
interface thoughts Fight or Flight decision
Dissociation Processing of feelings (guilt, self- Cortical inhibition or racing thoughts
Cognition

Hypervigilance reflection, responsibility) Hypervigilance

Attention Narrative account of event & Dissociation (immediate)
Intrusive recollections feelings Attention
Flashbacks (sensory motor re- Cognitive increases, decreases or Input of sensory motor information into Taxon
experiencing of event) slowing of thoughts System (by passes normal memory storage &
Recurring nightmares retrieval)
Irritability Liable moods Loss of interests & pleasures or obsessions
Rage & explosive outbursts Profound emotions Anxiety
Affect

Generation of emotions Rage & explosive outbursts

associated with event &
triggers
Psychomotor retardation or Disturbances of appetite Immediate Fight or Flight Response
agitation Hormonal & endocrine ↑ Sympathetic Nervous system activity (fight
Appetite disturbances deregulation or flight) - ( anxiety, hypervigilance, ↑ startle
Physical

Sleep regulation (insomnia’s 2nd to
nightmares)
Hormonal & endocrine deregulation
Long term hypervigilance for survival
Insomnias due to cognitive response, ↑ respiration, ↑ BP, ↑ HR, ↑
processing peripheral sympathetic tone-(blood to muscles
Changes in eye contact, energy in limbs & shutdown of nonessential body
levels functions), dilation of pupils, and eventual
resetting of balance in nervous system)
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Table 2: Reviews how traumatic experience is expressed by different age groups. It describes the expression of psychological symptoms when children are
exposed to trauma from Developmental Psychopathology, defenses mechanisms (Psychoanalytic and Jungian Theory), cognitive stages of development
(Piaget), and psychosocial development (Erik Erikson) and incorporates the usual ages of neurobiological development (brain structures, chemical or
neurotransmitter levels and their influence and their myelination (or growth, specialization, and efficiency of neurons). Adapted from: (Bathory D. S.,
Psychological, Neurobiological and Developmental Consequences of Trauma in Children, 1993; Lasser C.J. & Bathory D.S., “Reciprocal Causality and
Childhood Trauma: An Application of Chaos Theory”, in The Psychological Meaning of Chaos (Masterpasqua, Perna (eds), 1997).

Factor Age 0 to 5 years Age 6 to 12 Age 13 to 18 Age 18 Plus

Helpless, Passive Helpless but not passive Personal ownership of actions, Loss of a Ownership of actions, Able to take
observer, Defenseless, observer, Survivor guilt, sense of being invulnerable, Sensitive, action and see their role or actions in
Self

Unable to take action or
alter trauma, Magical
powers
Nightmares/Flashbacks
Psychological Presentation
expressed as Identification Feeling of Guilt, A belief that there will event, Survivor guilt or Identification
with Aggressor, Belief of no be no future, “Live for the Moment” with Aggressor, Future exists but there
control over destiny is a lack of commitment
Cognitive constriction, Antisocial identity formation and poor Life is futile, inability to commit in

with sensory focus, Decline or Improved School work values vs. premature Adulthood, relationship or work; Can be paired
Withdrawn, Subdued, Performance, Either guarded, ability for abstract thought with antisocial and borderline
Symptoms

Aloof, Reenactment of
Central Action of Trauma,
Aggression & Activity
Looks like Attention
deficits and hyperactivity
(ADHD)
Regression, Denial in
fantasy, action and affect
Defenses
Aggressive vs. Avoidant;
Redramatizations of Trauma,
Poor Social Skills,
Nightmares/Flashbacks with
the ability to Sequence
events, looks like ADHD
Denial (cognitive style of
forgetting), repression
allows for sequencing paired with
responsibility, Fear of stigma and
labeling, Looks like ADHD or Bipolar
Disorder
Turning against self to distract from
anxiety, painful memories, and feelings
personality disorders, Major
Depression and Looks like ADHD, or
Bipolar Disorder
Repression, Dissociation, Denial,
Somatization, Repression, sublimation

(wish fulfillment), (inability of spontaneous of guilt, Dissociation, somatization, & accommodation

Dissociation, sublimation thought) , Primativization, Primativization, repression, regression,
& accommodation somatization, Dissociation, sublimation & accommodation
sublimation & accommodation

0-3 Basic needs &

mths signaling for help There are roles for
people
20 to 34 I can to love another or
I exist and you yrs I will be alone
4-6 6-10
exist-Starting yrs
mths
relationships I am good at…
or I am a failure I can view ideas,
Psychosocial

6mths You will come concepts and people

1yr back 13-19 beyond myself and my
yrs experience & I can be I can be active and
I have an affect 35 to 65
1-2 independent (live/function create or I contribute
on you but I yrs
yrs on my own) nothing
want to be me
Symbols can
2-2½ represent 11-12 I know who I am…or
yrs Objects & yrs I unsure of who I am
or want to be What I do and have
people 65 yrs
done was worthwhile or
Plus
There are boys my life is/was useless
3-5
& girls and I am
yrs
one of them
Cognitive Sensory Motor Preoperational Concrete Thought Formal Operations
Hypothalamic Feedback Loop of Trauma releases NE, adrenalin, 5HT that is then deactivated by DA
↑NE from a conversion
of DA = ↓DA & stable ↑DA occurs with ↑ demands on the brain & activity (this allows for Trauma can result in the regeneration
5HT this creates the traumatic dreams & flashbacks or re-experiencing of the trauma to of neurochemical substances &
occur) connections if there is a reinvestment
& Biological Factors

ability for the following:

in the future (or purpose found for the
Neurobiological

1.Taxon system to
store traumatic memory individual) vs. cognitive decline that
as senses in the Locale System in the Hippocampus of the brain adds happens when hope or meaning are
Hippocampus Space and time memory to traumatic memory lost
2.Initial growth spurt of
brain neurons, so the
brain can easily learn
new roles or take on Hippocampal Pituitary Adrenal Axis .
roles of other parts (HPA Axis) at Its .
(plasticity) greatest activity (sex & growth hormones .

Pathways (called the Taxon and Locale Systems) share space in the hippocampus and hypothalamic regions and
develop earlier than normal adult memory and decision making processes. The Taxon System is involved in sensory
memories and stores information as smells, tastes, touch, sounds, and images. At about the age of four, the Locale
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System begins to develop (storing memories in space, time, and eventually by sequence) and is usually fully mature by
puberty. In addition to accessing memory (stored in the Taxon or Locale Systems), the hypothalamic and hippocampal
areas also access areas responsible for rage (septum), autonomic reflexes for stopping blood flow to things like
digestion and returning energy to the limbs for the ability to fight or flee by releasing or retaining neurotransmitters. (van
der Kolk, 1987; (van der Kolk, Roth, Pelcovitz, & Sunday, 2005)
The human body uses these emergency feedback systems to survive, but after a trauma has ended the continued
activation of these systems does not stop. In the case of war, when every minute is unpredictable, no one knows when
a threat will occur. Long term changes to neurochemistry and brain structure occur when people are repeatedly
exposed to potential life threatening events. Growth, development and bodily functioning can shutdown, or health
related problems can occur such as gastrointestinal problems. The body exposed to continued trauma or threats
becomes immune to respond (numb), or when finally triggered can over react to things that are not life threatening
(hyper-aroused). People who are exposed to continued threats often disregard what others see as potential threating
signals, an example may be a person who chooses to continue with normal activities during an air raid rather than
taking shelter.
It has been demonstrated in both adults and children that trauma, especially repeated exposure to traumatic events,
causes permanent changes in brain-central nervous system structure and function and neurochemical availability in use
by the body (van der Kolk, Roth, Pelcovitz, & Sunday, 2005; Kaplan, 2009; Jackowski, de Araujo, de Lacerda, & Mari,
2009). In exploring the reaction of people to traumatic events it is essential to look at the age of the individual at the
time the event occurs. Children are more vulnerable to permanent changes in brain structure and function than adults
yet are also more adaptable to brain injuries (Perry, 1993). Trauma experienced at different ages needs to be
addressed with regard to neurochemical changes as well as psychological and biological development. In exploring the
reaction of people to traumatic events it is essential to look at the age of the individual at the time the event occurs.
Please refer to Table 2.
Applied Psychological Trauma - Theory to Practice:
To be effective in applying psychological trauma it is necessary to address many factors outlined in Table 2.In addition
to this information issues such as the location of the event; what damage has occurred; who constitutes the
population/culture to be helped; how are multiple ages addressed; how much money is available and can be dedicated
to a project, who is interested in working on the project and participating in its completion (is there motivation to
participate for themselves or to help the greater good), how is this project created in a way where it becomes living
(where it is useful over years) and evolves over time to meet new needs as they develop, and finally how to create
ownership in the project over generations. These questions need to be reviewed as a project is undertaken and the
parties involved complete the process. The areas reviewed in the final portion of this article will focus on all but the
motivation of those involved in the process since this is a theoretical example of how to apply the bases of psychological
trauma theory to architecture and the design of structures that will promote healing.
A project that will impact a populations healing from exposure to a traumatic event needs to address some of the
following question prior to a site being determined. What is the best location for this project? How many people are and
were exposed to the trauma (are they still present?) and will the people we care trying to help have access to this
building or site. Are there other locations of similar historical relevance? If this site is chosen what is the message we
wish for persons who use the facility to leave with? Who is and will be our target audience and finally how do we keep
this facility evolving as the needs of people and a country change?
Psychological trauma theory has known the significance of creating environments and personal spaces for both active
exploration of the effects of a traumatic event on an individual as well as times for self-reflection. Neither being
consistently involved in intense review of how a trauma has changed a person, or bombarded by images or reminders
(sometimes called triggers) of the event is healing. There is a balance of both of these types of intervention that must
be in control of the individual as well as thoughtfully guided by people who can assist when someone may become
overwhelmed.
In museums that are interactive, such as many of the holocaust museums throughout Europe and America, people who
have been victims or family of victims (as well as others who may have experienced other types of psychological
trauma) have sometimes experienced intense reactions to these exhibits that are intended to be helpful. Training staff
to be aware of people’s reactions to exhibits and to respond with appropriate and simple interventions, such as “Are you
okay?, May I get you a glass of water?, Would you like to sit down for a minute somewhere quiet?”, or “Would you like
to talk about what is happening for you right now?” Interventions do not need to be conducted by professionals, in fact,
the more normalizing of people’s reaction, the less likely it is to develop into something more in need of professional
services and intervention. These simple, yet compassionate acts and recognition of another’s discomfort and pain can

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in itself be extraordinarily healing to an individual. In extremely rare occasions, people may be so overwhelmed by an
interactive setting that they do need professional intervention, and these should be coordinated with the individual’s
permission. If someone is not able to contain their emotions after a period of time and given alternatives, offering
professional interventions is an appropriate response. “You seem like this is just too much for you to deal with at the
moment, do you have someone you see to help you when you are having problems or can I help you to get to someone
who can help you with this?” Most people will gladly ask for assistance.
For a building, museum or memorial to be affective in addressing psychological trauma it must incorporate multiple
sensory areas (be multimedia oriented) and have a repetitive theme that flows throughout the experience. The more
sensory areas addressed (smell, taste, touch, hearing, sight, and physical location of a body in space; the more
affective the experience will be in reaching greater numbers of people. This is due to learning styles of individuals as
well as how traumatic memories are stored (as sensory information). The culture and values shared by the people who
are traumatized is an important area to be considered. Not all cultures express emotions, loss, and recovery in a similar
manner. In designing a structure or memorial, it must include relevant cultural values and have a historic base; not only
from the trauma, but from shared experiences of the people (sometimes referred to as a collective unconscious (Jung,
1916 (reprinted 2002)).
To remain a relevant and well utilized site, personal ownership by a large number of people for the design, construction,
use, and eventual changes made to the project is essential. There are countless structures and memorials that have
been created that become meaningless in short periods of time, and the message that someone once wished to convey
disappears. How a country chooses to address the use, renovation, leave untouched, or destruction of these structures
can result in many outcomes. Buildings can serve as reminders of what has happened and when paired with cultural
influences: these structures become icons to the people of these nations. As powerful images, thoughts and actual
biological changes occur in our brains when we are exposed to these places. The choices if it is better to leave a
structure untouched, restore it to what it once was, redesign its use, remove or replace it need to be thoughtfully
completed; as does the reason and message to be delivered to people. Simple memorials that are found in large or
small cities can have a greater or lesser impact on people than even great buildings or structures, if they address the
issues of psychological trauma and create a space for healing.
Applied Psychological Trauma Theory: The Former Ministry of Defense Building, Belgrade Serbia:
As the Ministry of Defense Building that was bombed by NATO in 1999 is used as a theoretical example for the
application of psychological trauma theory to address the healing needs of larger populations, it should be noted that
this is not intended to be a complete plan. In order for an actual plan to be made to address this kind of undertaking it
requires the input of the government and people who reside, work and are both interested in being involved in a
complicated project and are motivated to assist in helping beyond monetary and personal gains. To represent the
public good in a project such as this paper outlines, is paramount in its’ successful outcome. This example is a guide
and basic blueprint of the types of areas to be considered and address in their potential limitless applications.

Museum of Potential Sports Complex & Performance Areas

and Achievements Library & Conference Area

Restaurant

Repelling
Reflection Park Ropes
Action Park Cafe
With Memorial
Tile Side of Action
Side of Reflection
Example of Applied Trauma Theory: © Давид CteФaн Бatxopи, Псѕ.Д. David Stefan Bathory, Psy.D.

As this structure spans two streets, it affords an easy method to address neurobiological factors that are involved in
recovering from trauma. A natural separation can occur between areas of reflection and areas of activities. These two
sites, can visually provide a division of painful recollections and rebirth that is a technique used in addressing
psychological trauma for individuals (van der Kolk, 1987; van der Kolk, Roth, Pelcovitz, & Sunday, 2005), as well as the
Jungian archetype of rebirth (Jung, 1916 (reprinted 2002)).

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The Side of Reflection: The left side can be used as a park setting, as well as house an interactive museum , a library
or catalog of personal recollections from the time of war. The Museum’s focus on potential and achievement allows the
Republic to begin archiving information on successful ventures and contributions made by Serbians throughout history
and into the future. Examples of interactive museums are available from a variety of sources such as holocaust
museums and science museums ( (Elzanowski, 2010; Schramm, 2011) These interactive settings stress the
importance of a thematic message and multi-sensory information, and can also incorporate the issues outlined in the
previous section regarding age and the intended target audience to be the most advantageous.
A restaurant that sits atop the structure can provide people with a space for quiet conversations and the ability to
overlook large portions of the city that are in use. The inclusion of both a park for silent reflection and a restaurant for
people to quietly reflect their thoughts and feelings with others allows a different type of psychological processing to
occur based on the individual’s needs. The ability to look out over the city from atop the building permits someone to
physically see the world from a different perspective and affords the ability to contemplate the past, present and future in
another manner. A conference area that may be used for a variety of state and private venues could prioritize issues
such as international relationships (political, economic, religious, physical, psychological, medical and educational),
building leaderships skills for adults and youth who are active (or would like to become active) in their communities,
examining history for patterns that may lead to conflict or resolution of conflict, the value of developing new structures,
retaining historic sites and memorials, in addition to their care and their evolution of use.
The Side of Action: The right side of the structure could be created into a sports and performance complex for both
professional and amateur use. Indoor tracks, arenas for amateur and professional sports and competitions can be held
within the complex. For example a bicycle and running track may incorporate some sculptures created from building
ruminants, art work created by all ages in related to the Republic and its growth can be exhibited in these areas to
encourage more thoughts and ideas. The exhibits can change or rotate on a regular basis, and can also be areas
where pictures and stories about participants in events held at the complex (or within the country) are highlighted. The
action area can provide additional space for City Emergency Service & Military training; such as sky diving paratroopers
as a drop site/repelling- up the side of the building, disaster and fire prevention trainings and demonstrations. These
same training areas can be used for intensive team building exercises for leadership groups. Fire, police, crisis/medical
evacuation helicopter pads can be housed on the roof top and can respond to emergency needs throughout the area.
A small café for coffee and healthy snacks can be located in adjacent to the activity park for children in the front yard
and is constructed from parts of the damaged building. This playground creates a way for youngsters to be exposed to
the historical significance of the buildings and events, as well as provides ways for them to incorporate this experience
into their own psychological development. Obstacles created with pieces of the building that are life-size mazes that
help children to learn to overcome challenges by helping others. For older children and adults, a climbing wall, that has
stations or levels to reach (at each of these can be examples of people who have overcome great difficulties or
accomplished great things). When a challenge is met, earning small stars (symbolic of a variety of meanings in Serbian
culture) are examples of how culturally significant values can be incorporated into healing. The original building is
muted shades of pink that are also significant.
The Use of Color and Cultural Icons: Puce (a pinkish brown) may represent the dirt from which brick and homes were
built mixed with the flesh of the people. Heliotrope (a bluish pink) may represent the flesh of the people mixed with their
blood, or the blood of Christ or battles. Gold may represent the ocher of the fields where the Serbs came from and built
a nation despite being repeatedly overrun and having to rebuild their nation. Blue can represent the heavens, reaching
toward God and aspirations as well as to represent royalty (blue blood). Red may represent the blood of the people
whom the country was built upon an example being The Red Peonies of Kosovo Field (Vitošević, 2002) or the socialist
prospective of encouraging people together work toward a common good. White can represent the law and purity and
the balance between church and state, democratic freedom or often forgiveness. Silver, rather than gold may signify
the highest level of achievement, as the first coins minted from mines in Serbia for King Stefan Uroš II Milutin can further
symbolize the concept of reaching back in time and into the earth to heal one another (Kandić, 1986; Ivić, 1999). The
colors used in the building and in items such as stars earned for achievements or certificates can enhance the power of
these symbols.
Other significant cultural concepts and events that should be considered are things like: the traditions in Literature
(Serbian Epic Poems, Stories and the recounting of historical events); Theater (the use of acting to portray tragedy,
survival and overcoming past traumas); Printing (the storing and protecting of books by the Serbian Orthodox Church
that retained the Serbs culture and history); Sculptures, monuments, other structures and historical buildings throughout
the country that may also provide healing; Painting (the tradition of epic & historic portraits as well as some of the
modern art that was reflective of times when the expression of public emotion was discouraged); Frescos (that have

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retained Serbian religious culture and values of the earth and heavens in colors and the portrayal of icons); Sports (and
their emphasis on Public Health, champion athletes , and Tito’s previous focus on developing scholar/athletes). (Ivić,
1999)
A final area, but most significant, is the Serbian Psyche in relationship to trauma and loss. Any civilization that has
endured the numerous invasions and conflicts that have faced this region has developed a cultural value to withstand
adversity and not crumble in devastation. There is a resiliency in the people of this area that resounds with “I will
rebuild, I will survive. I will myself through trauma by doing.” It is reflected the lives of people who refuse to surrender
and remain productive citizens as they rebuild their homes, families, community, and country (Atkinson, Martin, &
Rankin, 2009).
National Campaign: Serbia has a tradition of academic and professional competitions for awarding projects and designs
for national projects. This appears to be an area where this same venue may be utilized paired with input from the
public. Public input may be encouraged by casting votes based on a few of the best proposals in a national advertising
campaign using existing media. This gains countrywide participation in rebuilding the site and determining its future.
These campaigns can incorporate portions of the complex as well as its total design, sculptures and art work that may
be displayed on site and in the vicinity. Using debris from the building to create new art, is a way of transforming ruins
into something of beauty, and also honors the remains.
Another example of national participation may be in paving the sidewalks of Kneza Miloša with tiles that are designed by
children from all over the country. This can be promoted as “we are all winners in building and developing Serbia.”
Adults and journeymen who are experienced in setting tile can participate in placing the students tiles, or when feasible
accompany children from different towns and represent their region as this pathway to the future of the Republic of
Serbia is created. For young people who are interested in learning how to either kiln tiles or set them, working with
experienced craftspeople can assist them in developing trades and relationships that may span years.
A slogan, such as “Reach for the Silver and be the Gold of Serbia”, reflects both the concept of earning silver stars (the
highest achievement earned) ; silver as a natural resource within the country, and its significance as the first minted
coins for King Stefan Uroš II Milutin. The gold of Serbia, represents the wheat of the fields that have sustained the
Serbs for centuries. This slogan and concept combines recognition of the country’s greatest asset- its future leaders,
the importance of natural resources in Serbia and Serbs deep connection to the earth.
As the project is concluding, a television commercial that has people who have participated in the project, adults and
children could line Kneza Miloša (showing the complex and the created pathway to the future) one by one singing to a
simple melody (such as the sound of the Bells of Saint Sava). The lyrics to this tune might be the person’s name, their
city of residence and then Serbia, sung in unison (e.g. Nikola Dobrović, Peć, Srbija; Milica Krstić, Beograd, Srbija; Milan
Zloković, Trieste, Srbija).
When undertaking such a large and significant project, it is advised to encourage participation from people who are
motivated to help and assist in a variety of ways. Some people can contribute to the project as professionals and in
their role as governmental representatives, or as stakeholders (people who have a vested interest in a positive
outcome). For a healing site to remain useful it requires the ongoing dedication of many people and not just those who
are usually involved as part of their job duties and the more involvement people have as individuals in the activities and
use of the structure, the more likely it will continue as a living monument or memorial.
Discussion and Conclusion:
Within psychological research there is a need for recognizing that response to trauma is simply a reaction to an
unreasonable occurrence. The human body has a tendency to reset itself, but when thrown out of balance, either
repeatedly or severely sometimes needs the assistance of other interventions. Medications used for the treatment of
psychological trauma have been extremely ineffective, as they are the equivalent of using a sword to cut a loaf of
bread. Rebalancing of the body’s natural reaction to being overwhelmed can be addressed by diet, exposure to
additional life stressors, or when utilizing medications targeting the most salient symptoms and being conservative in
dosages. For example, small time-released quantities of drugs that increase DA influence the production of NE and
5HT and can help to rebalance the central nervous systems. High dosages of the same medications are known to
induce psychosis in people who do not have psychotic thought processes or disorders. (Kaplan & Sadock, 2009)
Little research has been conducted in the method to apply multidisciplinary knowledge in addressing the needs and
response of large populations to psychologically traumatic events or specific cultural responses to psychologically
traumatic events. The study of psychological trauma and its impact on individuals has been focused on symptom relief
and has largely been ignored in accurate diagnosis and treatment. It is more often misdiagnosed as another disorder,
usually something far more severe and debilitating over time, yet everyone is exposed to psychological trauma
throughout their life time.

9
Attempting to bridge various disciplines and the conceptual premises from which they are founded, is a difficult task, but
in looking at the potential outcomes in pooling knowledge and resources from many areas of study, this becomes
increasingly necessary in our complex world in order to successfully address large group needs. Whether these bridges
address areas, such as outlined, or combine other fields of study, projects of this nature require much thought and
collaboration. Any project of this size is costly in both money and time, but when Nations make a decision to
encorporate (or not encorporate) the current knowledge available the memorials or structures they design risk being well
intended but inaffective ideas. In the case of large disasters and wars, where so many people are both affected and
effected by the experience of psychological trauma; there is a greater cost in the health and well being of those who
were exposed and the generations to come. To envision and complete a project, such as illustrated in this article, is a
government’s investment in their people and a means toward healing the world.

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