Hydrogeology is the field of geology that deals with movement and distribution of underground water in the rocks of earth

crust (for example: commonly in aquifers) and soils of earth’s surface. As water is the most important natural resource to
mankind, it is very important to know its distribution as well as movement in order to protect this resource.
The Water Table or Phreatic Surface
The pores within the zone of saturation are filled with water, generally referred to as phreatic water. The upper surface of
this zone is therefore known as the phreatic surface but is more commonly termed the water table. Above the zone of
saturation is the zone of aeration in which both air and water occupy the pores. The water in the zone of aeration is referred
to as vadose water. This zone is divided into three subzones, those of soil water, the intermediate belt and the capillary
fringe. The uppermost or soil water belt discharges water into the atmosphere in perceptible quantities by
evapotranspiration. In the capillary fringe, which occurs immediately above the water table, water is held in the pores by
capillary action. An immediate belt occurs when the water table is far enough below the surface for the soil water belt not
to extend down to the capillary fringe. The degree of saturation decreases from the water table upwards.
Aquifers, Aquicludes and Aquitards
An aquifer is the term given to a rock or soil mass that not only contains water but from which water can be abstracted
readily in significant quantities. The ability of an aquifer to transmit water is governed by its permeability. Indeed, the
permeability of an aquifer usually is in excess of 10-5 m s-1. By contrast, a formation with a permeability of less than 10-9
m s-1 is one that, in engineering terms, is regarded as impermeable and is referred to as an aquiclude. For example, clays
and shales are aquicludes. Even when such rocks are saturated, they tend to impede the flow of water through stratal
sequences. An aquitard is a formation that transmits water at a very slow rate but that, over a large area of contact, may
permit the passage of large amounts of water between adjacent aquifers that it separates. Sandy clays provide an example.
An aquifer is described as unconfined when the water table is open to the atmosphere, that is, the aquifer is not overlain
by material of lower permeability (Fig. 4.2a). Conversely, a confined aquifer is one that is overlain by impermeable rocks
(Fig. 4.2a). Confined aquifers may have relatively small recharge areas as compared with unconfined aquifers and,
therefore, may yield less water. A leaky aquifer is one which is overlain and/or underlain by Aquitarde(s) (Fig. 4.2b). Very
often, the water in a confined aquifer is under piezometric pressure, that is, there is an excess of pressure sufficient to raise
the groundwater above the base of the overlying bed when the aquifer is penetrated by a well. Piezometric pressures are
developed when the buried upper surface of a confined aquifer is lower than the water table in the aquifer at its recharge
area. Where the piezometric surface is above ground level, the water overflows from a well. Such wells are described as
artesian. A synclinal structure is the commonest cause of artesian conditions (Fig. 4.3a). Other geological structures that
give rise to artesian conditions are illustrated in Figure 4.3b. The term sub-artesian is used to describe those conditions in
which the groundwater is not under sufficient piezometric pressure to rise to the ground surface.
Figure 4.2
(a) Diagram illustrating unconfined and confined aquifers with a perched water table in the vadose zone. (b)
Diagram illustrating a leaky aquifer.
 Figure 4.3
(a) Section across an artesian basin; (b) other examples of artesian conditions (permeable layer, stippled,
sandwiched between impermeable beds).

Artificial Recharge of ground water

Artificial recharge may be defined as an augmentation of the natural replenishment of groundwater storage by
artificial means. Its main purpose is water conservation, often with improved quality as a second aim. For example, soft
river water may be used to reduce the hardness of groundwater. Artificial recharge therefore is used for reducing
overdraft, for conserving and improving surface run-off and for increasing available groundwater supplies. The suitability
of a particular aquifer for artificial recharge must be investigated. For example, it must have adequate storage, and the
bulk of the water recharged should not be lost rapidly by discharge into a nearby river. The hydrogeological and
groundwater conditions must be amenable to artificial replenishment. An adequate and suitable source of water for
recharge must be available. The source of water for artificial recharge may be storm run-off, river or lake water, water
used for cooling purposes, industrial waste water or sewage water. Many of these sources require some kind of pre-
treatment. Interaction between artificial recharge and groundwater may lead to precipitation, for example, of calcium
carbonate and iron and manganese salts, resulting in a lower permeability. Nitrification or denitrification, and possibly
even sulphate reduction, may occur during the early stages of infiltration. Bacterial action may lead to the development of
sludges that reduce the rate of infiltration. There are several advantages of storing water underground. Firstly, the cost of
artificial recharge may be less than the cost of surface reservoirs, and water stored in the ground is not subjected to
evapotranspiration. Secondly, the likelihood of pollution is reduced. Thirdly, an aquifer will sometimes act as a distribution
system, recharge water moving from one area to another as groundwater at depth. Fourthly, underground storage is
important where suit-able sites are not available at the surface. Lastly, temperature fluctuations of water stored
underground are reduced. Artificial recharge may be accomplished by various surface spreading methods utilizing basins,
ditches or flooded areas; by spray irrigation or by pumping water into the ground via vertical shafts, horizontal collector
wells, pits or trenches. The most widely practised methods are those of water spreading that allow increased infiltration
to occur over a wide area when the aquifer outcrops at or near the surface. Therefore, these methods require that the ground
has a high infiltration capacity. In the basin method, water is contained in a series of basins formed by a network of dykes,
constructed to take maximum advantage of local topography.

Techniques of groundwater recharge

The artificial techniques use for groundwater recharge can be divided in two groups, i.e. direct method and
indirect method. Further, the direct method can be sub grouped as surface method and sub-surface method. The
main objective of the surface method is to enhance groundwater infiltration by providing more residence time
with the help of structural and nonstructural measures. Some of the structural measures are contour bunding,
percolation tank, check dams, etc . On the other hand, afforestation falls under the category of nonstructural
measures. The induced recharge method and aquifer modification method falls under the category of indirect
method.
Direct Methods
Surface method
1. Percolation tank
In this method, series of earthen dams are constructed on suitable sites for storing of adequate quantity
of surface water. The tank area should be selected in such a way that significant amount of water
infiltrates through the bed of the tank and reaches the groundwater table. This method is very effective
in alluvial area as well as in areas with hard rock. This method is very useful in providing continuous
recharge after the monsoon.

2. Flooding

This method is suitable for relatively flat region where water

can be spread as a thin layer. Water is distributed over the
region using a distribution system. This method can achieve
higher rate of infiltration in a region having thin vegetation
cover or sand soil cover. Fig. 29.1 shows a schematic diagram
of recharge basin.

3. Stream augmentation
In this method, seepage from natural stream or river is artificially increased by putting some series of check
dams across the river or stream. The placing of check dams spread the water in a larger area which eventually
increases groundwater recharge. The sites for the check dams should be selected in such a way that sufficient
thickness of permeable bed or weathered bed is available for quick recharging the stored water.

4. Ditch and furrow system

This method is used for uneven terrain. In this technique, a system of closely spaced flat bottom ditch or furrow
is used to carry the water from the source. This system provides more opportunity to percolate the water into
the ground. The spacing of the ditch depends on the permeability of the soil. For less permeable soil, more
densely spaced ditch or furrow should be provided.

5. Contour bund

Contour bund is a small embankment constructed along the contour in hilly region to retain the surface runoff
for longer time. This scheme is adopted for low rainfall area where internal subsurface drainage is good.

Subsurface method
1. Recharge well

Recharge wells are used to

recharge water directly to the
aquifer. Recharge wells are
similar to pumping wells.
This method is suitable to
recharge single wells or
multiple wells. This method
is costlier than the other
method as wells are required
to be bored. However,
sometimes abandoned tube
wells can be used for
recharging water into the
aquifer.

2. Dug well

Dug wells can also be used to artificially recharge the groundwater. Generally, water level of dug wells depletes
during the non-monsoon period. Sometime the dug wells even dried up in the non-monsoon period. These dug
wells can be used for recharging groundwater. The water from various sources can be collected through a
distribution system and can be discharged at the dug wells.
3. Pits and shafts:
Recharge pit of variable dimensions are used to recharge water to unconfined aquifer. Most of the time,
especially in case of agricultural field, a layer of less permeable soil exist. Due to the existence of the less
permeable strata, the surface flooding methods of recharge do not show satisfactory performance. For such
type of cases, recharge pit can be excavated which are sufficiently deep to penetrate the less permeable strata.
On the other hand recharge shaft is similar to the recharge pits, but the cross sectional size of the recharge
shaft is much lesser than the recharge pits. Like the recharge pits, recharge shafts are also used to recharge
water to unconfined aquifer whose water table is deep below the land surface and a poorly impermeable strata
exist at the surface level.

Indirect method

Induced recharge: It is an indirect method of artificial recharge. In this method water is pumped from the
aquifer hydraulically connected to the surface water sources like stream, river or lake. Due to pumping, a reverse
gradient is formed and water from the surface water source enters into the aquifer and thus the aquifer is
recharged . This method is good, especially when quality of the surface water is poor. The filtration of surface
water through soil strata removes the impurities of the water. Thus the quality of the water receives in the wells
is much better than the surface water.
Aquifer modification method

This is also an indirect method of artificial recharge. In this method, some techniques are used to change the
aquifer characteristic so that aquifer can store more water and also can transmit more water. After application
of these techniques, more recharge takes place under natural condition as well as under artificial condition.
The most commonly used techniques are, bore blasting method, hydro-fracturing method, jacket well
techniques, fracture seal cementation and pressure injection grouting, etc.

1. Bore blasting method

This method is used to increase the fracture porosity of an aquifer. Shallow bore wells are drilled in the area where
fracture porosity of the aquifer is planned to increase. These bore holes are blasted with the help of explosive which
creates fracture porosity in the aquifer.
2. Hydro-fracturing method
Hydro-fracturing is used to improve the yield of a bore well. In this technique, water is injected at a very high pressure
to widening the existing fracture of the rock. The high pressure injection of water also helps in removing of clogging,
creates interconnection between the fractures, and extends the existing length of the old fracture. The high pressure
injection also creates new fracture in the rock strata. As a result of these, the water storing and transmitting capacity of
the strata increases.
3. Jacket well techniques
Jacket well technique is used to increase the yield of a dug well. In this method, the effective diameter of the well is
increased by drilling small diameter bores around the well in a circular pattern.
4. Fracture seal cementation and pressure injection grouting
This technique is used to control the outflow from an aquifer. Cement slurry is injected into the aquifer using
mechanical means or manually near to the aquifer outlet like spring, etc. The injection of cement slurry helps in
reducing the fracture porosity of the aquifer near the outlet which will eventually reduce the outflow from the aquifer.

Elementary ideas of geological investigation:

Groundwater exploration is a typical task of a hydro-geologist or an engineer. Identifying the location of its availability is
a challenging task. Exploration of groundwater requires a basic understanding of its position in the subsurface geological
setup. Groundwater Exploration is attempted through either by direct or indirect methods. Test drilling is the direct
approach to find out the resource. This is an expensive affair. Every individual cannot go for test drilling. During the last
two centuries, more and more techniques have been developed to explore the groundwater. They are classified into surface
and sub-surface methods
Surface methods
The surface methods are easy to operate and implement. These require minimum facilities like topo-sheets, maps, reports,
some field measurements and interpretations of data in the laboratories. The surface methods of groundwater exploration
include the following:
– Esoteric Methods
– Geomorphologic methods
– Geological & structural Methods
– Soil and Micro-Biological Methods
– Remote Sensing Techniques
– Surface Geophysical Methods
Subsurface methods
The subsurface methods of groundwater exploration includes both Test Drilling & Borehole Geophysical Logging
techniques. When compared to the surface methods, the subsurface methods are very expensive. These are done for
government level projects where large scale investigations are carried out to ascertain the results of surface surveys. The
subsurface methods are very accurate methods as the help in direct observations of features in the form of bore-hole
lithologs as core samples and also geophysical measurements of formation properties.
Esoteric methods
The Esoteric methods are the ancient methods. These are the oldest water divining methods practiced by ancient people
for several centuries. They are also called as water-dowsing. People believed that the flow of groundwater can induce
some vital currents above the surface. When a wet plant twig is moved above such zones, it tends to rotate the twig as
well. Wet twigs of trees, husk-removed coconuts, watches and other materials have been used as dowsing materials. The
person handling the twig has some role of induction and hence it is not applicable to everybody attempting to divine water.
All these methods have been practiced since 17th century. There is no scientific explanation available with reference to
these approaches. Probability of success is a mere coin-tossing experiment. These methods are called as water divining.
Water Witching
Water witching is a traditional method adopted by people to detect bore-well locations. Using a forked stick to locate
water source is known as water witching. Although this method is lacking any scientific justification for the method, water
witches diligently practice the art wherever people can be persuaded of its potential value. Commonly, the method consists
of holding a forked stick in both hands and walking over the local area until the butt end is attracted downward-ostensibly
by subsurface water. It is amazing that the idea of supernatural powers has such a continued fascination for people to use
despite its limitations.
Geomorphological Methods
Surface drainage is the subdued replica of topography. It is controlled by the basement rocks. Mostly, groundwater flow
coincides with the surface drainages. The streams and water courses may also be controlled by some underlying structures.
Junctions of streams at the down slopes are promising zones for groundwater. Landforms originate due to several
geological processes. Some of them are likely to contain relatively permeable strata. River-borne modern alluvial terraces,
floodplains, stratified valley-fill deposits in abandoned channels, glacial outwash and moraine deposits are good landforms
for groundwater. Alluvial fans, beach ridges, partly drift-filled valleys, sand dunes, moist depressions, and marshy
environments are good localities.
Study of Land forms
Landforms are the likely indicators to show the relatively permeable strata. The locations of modern alluvial terraces and
floodplains, stratified valley-fill deposits, glacial outwash plains, glacial deltas, kames , moraine complexes, eskers,
alluvial fans and beach ridges are good locations for groundwater occurrence. Partly drift-filled valleys marked by a chain
of elongate closed depressions, largely masked bedrock valleys cutting across modern valleys that are indicated by local
non-slumping of weak shale strata in valley sides, sand dunes assumed to overlie sandy glacio-fluvial sediments, nearby
locations of lakes and streams are very good indicators for groundwater prospecting.
Topography and Drainage
Physiographic methods analyse the surface topography and drainages. The locations of confluence and junctions of surface
streams at the downstream points of small watersheds are good locations for groundwater for confluence. Hydraulic
gradients of groundwater systems will always follow the topographic gradients and slopes. Such locations are also suitable
for water collection and storage for recharge.
Drainage density of stream network
Drainage density is the ratio between the total length of all streams and the area of watershed or river basin. The resultant
drainage density is used to indicate the potentiality of groundwater. If the drainage density is low, groundwater potentiality
will be more. If it is high, due to more streams, runoff will be more.
Geological Methods
A geologic investigation begins with the collection, analysis, and hydrogeologic interpretation of existing topographic
maps, aerial photographs, geologic maps and logs, and other pertinent records. This should be supplemented, when
possible, by geologic field reconnaissance and by evaluation of available hydrologic data on stream flow and springs, well
yields, groundwater recharge, discharge, and levels and water quality. In some places, the drainages may be fully
controlled by the presence of minor and major structures like joints, faults and lineaments. Such zones are good and
potential zones for groundwater exploration. These are the conduits for groundwater flow.
Geophysical methods
Exploring the ground water by geophysical method is termed Ground water geophysics. Geophysical investigations are
conducted on the surface of the earth to explore the ground water resources by observing some physical parameters like
density, velocity, conductivity, resistivity, magnetic, electromagnetic & radioactive phenomena. Geophysical methods
comprise of measurement of signals from natural or induced phenomena of physical properties of sub surface formation.
Geophysical methods detect the differences, or anomalies of physical properties within the earth's crust. Density,
magnetism, elasticity, and electrical resistivity are properties that are most commonly measured. The purpose of
exploration is to detect the indirect indicators and locate the potential zones for exploitation. The main geophysical
methods which are useful in solving some of the problems of hydrogeology, are the Electrical, Seismic, Gravity, and
Magnetic methods.
Remote Sensing techniques
Remote sensing is the science (and to some extent, art) of acquiring information about the Earth's surface without actually
being in contact with it. This is done by sensing and recording reflected or emitted energy and processing, analyzing, and
applying that information. In much of remote sensing, the process involves an interaction between incident radiation and
the targets of interest. Remote sensing shows an increasing role in the field of hydrology and water resources development.
Remote sensing provides multi-spectral, multi-temporal and multi-sensor data of the earth’s surface which are suitable for
mineral explorations, water resources evaluation, environmental monitoring and groundwater targeting. Remote sensing
techniques help in the demarcation of groundwater potential zones, identification of groundwater recharge sites and, to
analysis the future artificial recharge sites.
Applications of remote sensing
Satellite data products are much varied depending upon the spectra considered. The high resolution satellite images are
interpreted (visually or digitally) to identify the groundwater potential zones. Thematic layers are prepared based on
hydrogeomorphic units, land-use/ land-cover/ lineaments, rock types, structures and many other features. The
methodology involves the delineation of hydrogeomorphic units which are influenced by the hydro geological conditions
of the area. The hydrogeological conditions are controlled by the lithology, geomorphology, structures like lineaments,
faults and fractures. The visual interpretation of satellite data in conjunction with limited field verification of these features
will focus on the priority zones. Most of them are reflected as hydrogeomorphic units. Remote sensing provides the
distribution of these units.
Engineering Geological Maps
Engineering geological maps frequently consist of basic geological maps on which some engineering geological data
have been incorporated. Engineering geological maps and plans are used mainly for planning and civil engineering
purposes. They provide planners and engineers with information which assists them in the planning of use of land, and
the location, construction and maintenance of engineering structures of all types. Engineering geological maps are
produced on the scale of 1:10000 or smaller whereas engineering geological plans, being produced for a particular
engineering purpose, have a larger scale.
Types:
i. Analytical
ii. Comprehensive
Analytical maps provide details or evaluate individual components of the geological environment. Examples of such
maps include those showing the degree of weathering or seismic hazard. Comprehensive maps either depict all the
principal components of the engineering geological environment or are maps of engineering geological zoning,
delineating individual territorial units on a basis of uniformity of the most significant attributes of their engineering
geological characters.
The engineering geological report accompanying the engineering geological map should include following
discussions and recommendations if any:
· Areas to be avoided if any and mitigation alternatives.
· Topography and slope.
· Stability of geologic units in the site
· Identification and extent of known or probable geologic conditions which may result in risk to the proposed land
use (such as flood, surface- and groundwater pollution, snow avalanche, landslide, debris flow, rock fall, expansive soil,
subsidence, erosion, earthquake shaking, fault, volcanic eruption etc.).
· Prediction of what materials and structural features will be encountered in proposed cuts.
· Excavation considerations (hard or massive rock, groundwater flows).
· General considerations of proposed fill masses in canyons or on side-hills.
· Suitability of on-site material for use as compacted fill.
· Recommendations concerning erosion protection on fill slopes.
· Other recommendations required by the proposed land use, such as the angle of cut slopes, position of drainage
terraces, need for rock-fall and/or erosion protection on cut slopes.
· Protection from sheet flood or gully erosion, and debris flows or mud flows
· Recommendation for additional studies like boring, test pits and trenches, percolation tests and programmes for
long-term monitoring of the site to evaluate geological conditions (survey hubs, inclinometers, extensometers etc.)

Methods commonly used to improve the strength and stability conditions in these rocks are:
1. Grouting;
2. Backfilling, and,
3. Rock bolting.
1. Grouting:
Object:
Grouting involves injecting under pressure a good quantity of cement slurry with admixtures into the rocks of the site.
The cement and admixtures are carried deep and all through the minute cracks where these fill, set, harden and virtually
seal all the types of openings in the rocks. The grouted rock becomes impermeable, strong and free from defects associated
with earlier planes of weakness or open spaces.
Method:
In grouting, three main operations are involved:
(i) Drilling of bore holes at properly selected positions with predetermined diameter, depth and angle. Usually a number
of bore holes are to be dug in a grouting programme, the number going as high as many hundreds or even thousands. Their
aggregate depth may exceed thousands of meters.
(ii) Preparation of Grout Slurry – This is done separately under expert guidance. It involves thorough mixing of pre-
calculated quantities of cement, and if needed, sand and other desired admixtures such as asphalt, saw dust, and chemicals
like sodium silicate and calcium chloride. Ashes and even gravel have been used as ingredients in grouting.
(iii) Injection – The slurry is injected into the ground through perforated injection pipes generally under definite pressure.
In fact, on the basis of pressure applied, grouting is differentiated into low-pressure grouting (pressure below 10 kg/cm)
and high-pressure grouting (pressure above 40 kg/cm). In some cases, grouting might be done in two stages, piercing the
solidified grouted zone made earlier once again to achieve maximum imperviousness and strength.

Results:
Grouting has been adopted and remains as one of the best methods available for making rocks impervious and/or strong
in critical places such as in the foundations and abutments of dams, sides and roofs of the tunnels and in stability of slopes.
Hundreds of thousands of tonnes of cement has been used as grout in each such major project and all of it becomes a part
of the ground, invisible but strong part. The grouted zone may form a thin sheet (grout screen) to stop leakage, or, it may
be the entire zone separating a whole mass from the rest of ground (grout curtain), or, it may be the entire mass below or
along the sides which has been treated and transformed into a grouted zone.
2. Backfilling and Site Reinforcement:
In many cases, drilling investigations reveal the existence of faults, shear zones, clay seams and such other shattered or
weak zones that the entire zone of rock is made virtually useless with respect to the requirements of the foundation. The
weak rock zone might not be prone to improvement by grouting etc. at economical costs.
In such cases, the treatment of this zone would require:
(i) Excavation of the entire volume of the weak, objectionable material.
(ii) Cleaning (by washing) of the excavated zone and
(iii) Backfilling the excavated place with concrete of proper mix design.
The depth to which this weak zone should be excavated and backfilled depends on a number of factors such as:
(a) Location of the weak zone viz-a-viz the structure e.g. dam foundation or abutment;
(b) Likely loads that are to act upon at that location.
From theoretical studies at many constructions made in the case of dams, it has been found that excavation of weak
zones should be done to a depth given by:
d = 0.002 bH + 5 for H < 150 feet
d = 0.3 bH + 5 for H > 150 feet
where, H = height of dam in feet, above general level of foundation;
b = width of weak zone, in feet;
d = depth of weak zone, in feet, below surface.
It has also been suggested by various workers in the field that in clay gouge seems, ‘d’ should not be less than 0.1 H.
However, the above account is only an empirical attempt. In actual practice, the factors have to be kept in mind.
Another method of ‘treatment’ of sites gaining favour with the engineers is ‘reinforcement’ involving construction of
concrete blocks at predetermined places with prestressed reinforcement. Such concrete counterforts are then anchored to
the sound rock by prestressed cables.
3. Rock Bolting:
Rock bolting is perhaps the most popular and prevalent method for keeping the fractured rocks together in and around
tunnel openings. Hundreds of thousands of tonnes of rock bolts are inserted every year in important tunnel projects in
many parts of the world.
A rock bolt is a specially designed steel bolt with main function of holding broken pieces of rocks together by providing
reinforcement and support. It is inserted without disturbing the natural environment of the rock. Once within the rock
body, a bolt provides, besides the usual grip, additional strength (due to its material) and thereby contributes to improve
stability of the rock.
Rock bolts are manufactured in many types. In fact it is a well-established industry having patented types of rock bolts
each with different qualities. The main types of rock bolts are the slotted type, the expansion-type and the groutable-rock
bolts. The first type is the simplest and most commonly used in fissured rock.
The slotted rock bolt consists of a steel bolt, length varying between 80 cm to 100 cm, and diameter 2-2.5 cm. On one
end, it is slotted to accommodate a wedge. It is also threaded and provided with a bearing plate, washer and nut.
For providing anchorage with rock bolts, process starts with drilling holes, slightly bigger in size than that of the bolts
according to a predetermined scheme. Then wedges are placed in the holes and bolts are driven over them. After proper
placement, each bolt is clamped, tightened and tensioned at a proper stress