CHAPTER II

Related Literature

This chapter reviews the literature related to the citronella plant and its effects to
housefly. Citronella is the commonly used name for a group of familiar plants best
known for insect repelling abilities. Oil of citronella is derived from the lemongrass
plant, Cymbopogon, spp. Citronella is a popular natural insect-repellent, and is used
as a component in many outdoor skin-care products, such as balms, sunscreens,
repellents, etc.
In 2004, the U.S. Department of Agriculture tested the effectiveness of a number of
citronella-based mosquito repellents, and found that these products offered from 0-
5 hours of protection, depending on the product used (Cox, C., 2005, Fall). According
to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), citronella oil is considered a
Minimum Risk Pesticide.
A 2011 review of natural insect repellents published in the Malaria Journal cited
very high levels of protection (up to 100%) from direct application to skin of
essential oils from citronella.
Thermal expulsion of citronella essence from leaves that were heated or directly
burned in rooms still provided between 49-79% protection (Ferreira Maia, M., &
Moore, S.J., 2011, March 15).
Just planting some of these plants is not a guarantee for a mosquito-free time. A
plant that could be more suited for this task is the next contender.

Industrial interest in essential oils is due to their application as fragrances in

perfumes, as flavor additives for use in food products or even as pharmaceutical
products. In the case of citronella species, for example, the components present in
the oil are responsible for the desirable repellent characteristics of the plant against
mosquitoes (Katz et al., 2008; Simic et al., 2008). Numerous plants and derived
products, in particular essential oils, have been investigated and described as
potential natural sources of insect repellent. Trongtokit et al. (2005) compared the
repellent efficiency of 38 essential oils against mosquito bites, including the
species Aedes aegypti. Among other essential oils, citronella oil was the most
effective and provided 2 hours of repellency. Wong et al. (2005) studied five
commercial plant extracts, including citronella, and showed that it is effective in
deterring the infestation of cartons containing muesli and wheat germ by red flour
beetles. Moreover, Olivo et al. (2008) proved that citronella oil has other effects,
such as the control of cattle ticks, the most important active principles being
citronelal and geraniol. Nakahara et al. (2003) studied the chemical composition of
citronella oil and its antifungal activity. The crude essential oil markedly suppressed
the growth of several species of Aspergillus, Penicillium and Eurotium. The most
active compounds among the 16 volatiles examined, consisting of 6 major
constituents of the essential oil and 10 other related monoterpenes, were citronellal
and linalool.

According to 2011 Maia and Moore; licensee BioMed Central Ltd. It is commonly
assumed that plant-based repellents are safer than DEET because they are natural.
However, some natural repellents are safer than others, and it cannot be assumed
that natural equates to safe. DEET has undergone stringent testing and has a good
safety profile. An estimated 15 million people in the U.K., 78 million people in the
U.S.A., and 200 million people globally use DEET each year. Provided that DEET is
used safely, i.e. it is applied to the skin at the correct dose (such as that in a
commercial preparation) and it is not swallowed or rubbed into the mucous
membranes then it does not cause adverse effects. DEET has been used since 1946
with a tiny number of reported adverse effects, many of which had a history of
excessive or inappropriate use of repellent. Its toxicology has been more closely
scrutinized than any other repellent, and it has been deemed safe for human use,
including use on children, pregnant women, and lactating women. In contrast, plant-
based repellents do not have this rigorously tested safety record, with most being
deemed safe because they have simply been used for a long time. However, many
plant-based repellents contain compounds that should be used with caution.
It is also commonly stated that plant based repellents are better for the
environment than synthetic molecules. While plant volatiles are naturally derived,
distillation requires biomass energy, extraction commonly uses organic solvents
that must be disposed of carefully, growing the plants uses agrichemicals, such as
fertilizers and pesticides (unless sourced from a sustainable and organic source).
However, if carefully practiced, cash cropping of plants used for repellents provides
a vital source of income for small scale farmers in developing countries and can
have beneficial environmental impact when planted in intercropping systems to
prevent soil erosions. Therefore, it is important to carefully source of repellent
plants to avoid pitfalls associated with unsustainable cropping practices. Another
common misconception is that garlic is an effective repellent. It does have a
moderate repellent effect when rubbed on the skin, although there are far more
effective repellents available that also have a more pleasing odor. The consumption
of garlic however, has not been shown to be effective at repelling mosquitoes.

The house fly, Musca domestica Linnaeus, is a well-known cosmopolitan pest of both
farm and home. This species is always found in association with humans or the
activities of humans. It is the most common species found on hog and poultry farms,
horse stables and ranches. Not only are house flies a nuisance, but they can also
transport disease-causing organisms. Excessive fly populations are not only an
irritant to farm workers but, when there are nearby human habitations, a public
health problem could occur.
The stable fly Stomoxys calcitrans L. is among the most damaging arthropod pest of
livestock worldwide, with a high economic impact on dairy and beef cattle
production. It is also a potential mechanical vector of animal pathogens such as
equine infectious anemia virus, Trypanosoma evansi, and Besnoitia besnoiti. Control
of stable fly populations includes various methods, such as chemical control
(pesticides and repellents), cultural control (sanitation), mechanical control
(trapping devices), and biological control (parasitoids and entomopathogenic fungi).
The best approach is the simultaneous use of several methods in an integrated pest-
management program. Management of adult flies is accomplished mainly with
topical insecticides, applied directly to animals. However, continued or repeated use
of conventional insecticides often results in the development of resistance and
fosters serious human health and environmental concerns. Populations of S.
calcitrans resistant to pyrethroids and/or organophosphates have already been
described in North America and in Europe. As a result, there have been increased
research efforts for natural and environmentally friendly repellents, particularly
those based on essential oils. Several plant-based repellents, such as citronella oil,
eucalyptus oil, catnip oil, and zanthoxylum oil, have previously been tested against
stable flies and have shown a reduction in attraction and in feeding. These
repellents can be applied topically on animals or in livestock barns. The first study
demonstrating the potential application of a plant-based repellent was conducted by
Zhu et al., in which wax-based catnip pellets spread in the manure/soil areas of
cattle feedlots resulted in over 99% repellency of stable flies.
Lemongrass oil is the essential oil obtained from the aerial parts of Cymbopogon
citratus (DC.) Stapf., Poaceae. Geranial (α-citral) and neral (β-citral) are the two
main active components of lemongrass oil, but other compounds, such as geraniol
and citronellol, which are known repellents, are also present in small amounts.
Lemongrass essential oil has previously shown a repellent effect, alone or in
combination, against different species of disease-transmitting mosquitoes (Diptera:
Culicidae) and the house fly Musca domestica L. (Diptera: Muscidae), and is already
present in commercially available products. Therefore, our objectives were to verify
the sensitivity of antennal receptor cells of S. calcitrans to lemongrass oil and to
evaluate its repellency against stable flies using a video-tracking system.