Students' Challenges in Essay Writing at Second Semester Students' of Widya Gama Mahakam University On Academic Year 2017-2018

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P-ISSN: 2477-1880; E-ISSN: 2502-6623
April 2017, Vol.2 No. 2
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Article DOI:
Students’ Challenges In Essay Writing At Second Semester Students’ Of

Widya Gama Mahakam University On Academic Year 2017-2018
Nur Fauziah
University of Widya Gama Mahakam Samarinda
zmyza26@gmail.com
Abstract
In learning English, writing is one of important majors that students should be mastered. Due to that,
the objective of the study is to investigate the challenges in essay writing.
The design of the study is content analysis and using qualitative as the approach. The data obtained
from the students’ answer essay writing sample and student’s opinion from interview. Saturation
sampling technique was used in the selecting the sample for the study. The sample of the study of two
classes includes of class A and class B which consists of 53 students. The researcher divided the
sample into two part, 30 for essay writing sample and 23 participants for interview.
The research findings found that second semester students of Widya Gama Mahakam faced
challenges in essay writing caused by factors such as grammatical error, mechanics of writing,
spelling, word choice, and plagiarism. The mostly appeared in students’ essay writing was mechanics
of writing with 178 data or 32,60%. Then through interview, twenty three participants that have been
interviewed by the researcher investigated that there are several challenges such as grammar, word
choice, plagiarism, and lack of description. The mostly occurred that the students experienced was
lack of description with eleven participants or 47,82%.
Keywords: Writing Challenges, Essay, and Student
INTRODUCTION
1. Background
English is known as the most influential language in the world. It can be seen from
UNESCO’s policy that approves English as one of the Lingua Franca which is used to
facilitate communication between people to access information about scientific,
technological, economic, and international trade (Henderson, 2011) where Lingua Franca
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April 2017, Vol. 2 No. 1
can be interpreted as a language that commonly used among people who do not communicate
in their respective language (Kirkpatrick, 2012). In the same way, Dewey (2007) considered
that English play an important role in globalization that spread and developed very quickly
around the world in every aspect. In short, English is expected to be able bridge between two
or more countries that have their respective languages to facilitate cooperation in various
fields. For this reason, English as Lingua Franca is needed.
Furthermore, Coleman (2010) said that English is known as international language
because English affected by three international movements such as; 1) the movement of
international tourist, 2) the movement of international student, and 3) the movement of
international worker. Similarly with Graddol (2006) stated that English is used increasingly
as the medium of education in universities across the world, Genc & Bada (2010) regard that
English is the main language of publication for journal. Another point is English has
enormous importance for understanding disciplinary knowledge and for establishment in
career (Hyland, 2013). Above all, the existence of English is very crucial.
To compete with other international students in the world, local students have to
improve four language basic skills in English namely; 1) speaking, 2) reading, 3) listening,
and 4) writing. Recently, students consider that writing skills is the easy skills to be mastered.
Told to be truth, writing is more difficult skill than the other skills. Umunnakwe & Pitse
(2017) found that essay writing was considered a challenging task by students in making a
scientific work in academic class and became demanding exercise (Rijlaarsdam et al, 2003).
In fact, the main assessment in determining a student graduating from college is to write an
essay in the form of a thesis or dissertation. Then to make a good essay, due to the writing
process of an essay, students have to concern in aspects of writing for example content, form,
vocabulary, grammar, and mechanics (Brown, 2001). For these reasons, students in university
have to more pay attention about their writing skill.
Talking about writing an essay, many challenges in writing skill is also encountered
by students at university of Widya Gama Mahakam Samarinda. It can be seen on the average
of the developing data in writing subject (see figure 1.1). The researcher found that in the
academic year of 2015-2016, it is only 66 while, in the academic year of 2016-2017, it is only
65 whereas in academic year of 2017-2018, it is only 64. From the finding, the researcher
concludes that their writing skill is more decline and low from year to year.
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Students’ Challenges in Essay Writing at Second Semester Students’ of Widya Gama Mahakam University on Academic
Year 2017-2018.
Nur Fauziah.
Finally from the background above, the researcher is interested to investigate the
challenges in essay writing that may face by second semester at university of Widya Gama
Mahakam Samarinda.
2. Problem of the Study
“What are students’ challenges in essay writing at second semester in university of
Widya Gama Mahakam Samarinda on academic year 2017-2018?”
3. Objective of the Study
The objective of this study is to investigate the students’ challenges in essay writing at
second semester in university of Widya Gama Mahakam Samarinda on academic year 2017-
2018.
4. Significance of the Study
Theoretically, students’ challenges in essay writing will support the teaching and
learning process in academic writing subject. It is hoped that the result of this study would
give benefit to language instructor, lecturer, and teacher. Furthermore, the result could
overcome the issue that may encounter to student effectively.
Practically, the result also could help student to be conscious of challenges that may
faced them when writing an essay in English and some facts about this issue could be
expected to be reflected positively on the educational effect generally. Thus, this study could
develop and create a better quality in learning essay writing in English.
METHODOLOGY
1. Research Design
In this study, the researcher uses qualitative as the approach to collect and analyze the
data where qualitative is a process of understanding a social or human problem based on
building a complex, holistic picture, formed with words, reporting detailed views of
information, and conducted in a natural setting (Cresswell, 2012). Also, the researcher
attempted to conduct the data by using content analysis which is content analysis can be
defined as a research tool used to determine the presence of certain words or concepts within
text or sets of texts. Moreover, a text is broad as books, book chapters, essays, interviews,
discussions, newspaper headlines and articles, historical documents, speeches, conversations,
advertising, theater, informal conversations, or really any occurrence of communicative
language (Cresswell, 2012). Additionally, the researcher used essay writing sample and
interview to collect the data.
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The only variable to be studied is the students’ challenges in essay writing. With using
the qualitative approach, the data that has taken from essay writing sample and interview will
be described in percentage and will be displayed in narrative or verbal words then, the data
that is obtained from the two instruments will support each other, and triangulation is used to
validate the data.
2. Research Subject
To specify the sample of this study, the researcher used saturation sampling or total
sampling. Sugiyono (2007) said that saturation sampling or total sampling is a sample that
taken from a number of the population. This is usually done if the population is considered
small or less than 100. Where, the population is 53 which is the total of the population will be
used as a sample to provide more accurate data to investigate students' challenges in essay
writing and in order to avoid mistakes in generalizing, the researcher used all students in class
A and class B. Because of the researcher using two instruments; essay writing sample and
instrument guide then, the researcher divided the population into two parts; 30 samples for
essay writing sample and 23 samples for the interview to be studied.
3. Data Collection Technique
The data of this study has been collected through several procedure, as follows:
First, the researcher asked permission from the head of English Department to do the
research at second-semester in English Department of Widya Gama Mahakam Samarinda
University.
Second, the researcher asked permission to the lecturer who teach the subject of
Introduction to Essay Writing to conduct a research about students’ challenges in essay
writing. Also, the researcher asked to analyze the essay writing assignment as the samples
and to interview the students in class A and class B.
Third, the researcher made an appointment with the class leader at second-semester of
class A and class B to do a research about students’ challenges in essay writing.
Fourth, the researcher explained the topic of the research and how to take the data of the
research to the students. Furthermore, the researcher interviewed them (one by one) which
are assisted by fellows of the researcher.
Fifth, the researcher transcribed all interviews that had been recorded with a mobile
recorder.
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Sixth, the researcher analyzed and interpreted the data that accordance with the
research objectives. Then, the result of the interview is used to answer the research problem
and to support the data from essay writing sample.
4. Data Analysis Technique
a. Analysis Data for Essay Sample
Analysis data that refers to a systematical process to search and arrange the data
sources that have been collected to enable the researcher to come up with finding and
discussion. In this research, the data that have been found in essay writing sample will be
counted to get and describe in the percentage.
There were steps in applying “students’ challenges in essay writing” in analyzing the
data. These following steps are based on the procedure used by Rahayu (2006) the steps
meant explained below:
1. Identification.
The researcher attempt to identify the writing challenges in essay writing which
students made in essay writing sample.
2. Classification.
After they have been identified, the next step is to classify them which have been
found through the identification.
3. Tabulating.
The researcher tries to count the writing challenges in essay writing. For example;
how many grammatical error, mechanics of writing, plagiarism, word chooses,
lacking of description.
4. Explaining.
The researcher tried to describe the data and conclude it. The researcher provided
the frequency and distribution with the formula that was explained in the following
steps.
𝑆
𝑅= × 100 %
𝑁
Where: R = Percentage
S = Total parts of writing challenges for each types
N = Total from all writing challenges.
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The description was displayed in percentage that eventually showed the frequency of
each type that appeared. These frequency percentage will determine the most dominant
writing challenges that encountered by students.
b. Analysis Data for Interview
According to Miles and Huberman (1994), analysis is an activity of sorting data in
accordance with the range of problems, organizing and in formations, categories or units of
certain matters in accordance with the anticipation of the research, the interpretation of
research with regard to the significance of the items or units of data to be obtained, and
research on items or data units so that conclusions can be drawn.
Data analysis technique that used in this study is interactive as proposed by Miles and
Huberman (1994) which consist of three aspects, namely;
1. Data Reduction
The data collected from interview will be sorted out by the researcher, which data
is considered necessary and supports research and which is not needed. The Data that
deemed necessary will be stored and the data that is not needed will be discarded. In
this process, the researcher will do a selection of the data obtained to reinforce, to
shorten, to focus, and to discard the unimportant results of the research.
2. Data Display
Data presentation is a number of information structures and systematic research

results. The data presentation is more likely leading to simplification of data. So, the
data that has been selected and processed by the researcher will be presented in the
form of narrative text.
3. Data Conclusion
To find out the accuracy of the research, conclusions are very important to do.
Also, the data conclusion must also be able to answer the question in this study. So,
the final result will be obtained information about students' challenges in essay
writing.
5. Triangulation
Triangulation is the most common method used to increase validity in qualitative

research. In the name of trustworthiness of data then, the researcher used triangulation where,
triangulation is a practice of viewing things from more than one perspective’ which is the
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results that the researcher has investigated from interview has be seen from three different
angles (Denscombe, 2007).
However, Given (2008) explored that there are four type of triangulation, as follows;
1. Theory triangulation
Theory triangulation consists of the use of multiple theories or several perceptions

to interpret the data. The result will not get optimal, if the theory or the perspective is
written only one.
2. Data triangulation
Data triangulation is the use of more than one data collection method in a single
case.
3. Methodological triangulation
Methodological triangulation is the use of multiple methods for studying a single

topic or a single case.
4. Observer triangulation
Observer triangulation is the use of more than one observer in a single case in
order to get an inter-subjective agreement between observers. In making observations,
sometimes a lot of observers are needed because some things, like the separate
situation, separate subjects, different subjects but, it must be done at the same time in
relation to a single case.
In this study, the researcher will only use the theory triangulation to validate the
researcher’s theory that has drawn from previous studies in order to avoid an early
perspective of the researcher and helps to reduce the mistakes.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

1. Findings
This study is purposed to know the challenges that might encountered by second
semester students’ of Widya Gama Mahakam Samarinda academic year 2017-2018 during
writing an essay in 5 types of challenges, as follows; Grammatical error, Mechanics of
writing, Spelling, Word choice, and Plagiarism. Then, to investigate the data, the researcher
attempted to analyze it with two instruments, such as; 1) Essay writing sample and 2)
Interview guide.
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Furthermore, to answer the research problem of this study, the researcher will
describe the challenges that have been found by the researcher with two ways as follows; a)
Analysis on Students’ Challenges from Essay Writing Sample and b) Analysis on Students’
Challenges from Interview.
a. Analysis on Students’ Challenges from Essay Writing
Based on the findings, from 5 types of writing challenges in their thirty essay samples of
the study got total mistakes was 546 that has been identify in this study. With the mostly
challenges that has been counted in their essay writing was mechanics of writing which is
178, grammatical error was 118, spelling was 127, plagiarism was 78, and the lowest
challenges which is has been found was word choice with only 45 data. Furthermore, to make
percentage of this data then, the formula mentioned in previous chapter should be used and
put in the next table.
Table 4.1 Frequency Distribution and Rate Percentage of Common Challenges in Essay Writing Sample
No Challenges in Essay Writing Frequency Percentage
1 Grammatical error 118 21,61%
2 Mechanics of writing 178 32,60%
3 Spelling 127 23,26%
4 Word Choice 45 8,24%
5 Plagiarism 78 14,28%
Source: Research Result of 2018
Based on the table of interpretation that the highest percentage in writing challenges
with 32,60% was mechanics of writing, 22,61% was grammatical error, 23,26% was spelling,
14,28% was plagiarism, and the lowest writing challenges was word choice with 8,24%.
14,28%
8,24% 21,61%
Grammatical Error
Mechanics of Writing
23,26%
Spelling
32,60%
Word Choice
Plagiarism
Figure 4.1 Students’ Challenges in Essay Writing Sample
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b. Analysis on Students’ Challenges from Interview

In this part, to identify the data that support the first data from essay writing sample,
the researcher interviewed twenty-three students at second semester in university of Widya
Gama Mahakam Samarinda academic year 2017-2018. In this finding, the researcher will
display the data that only focus on the question about challenges.
“Are there factors that make you feel challenged when you compose or write an essay
in English?”
Moreover through interview guide, the researcher found that students had been
challenges in grammar, word choice, plagiarism, and lack of description.
Grammar
Five out of twenty-three of students that have been interviewed by the researcher have
been said that grammar is challenging in writing an essay. They thought that grammar is
challenging because they have to compose and build the words in a good sentence. Then, the
sentence which has been made, it has to be matched with tenses while they translating the
essay into English, it must be in accordance with grammar.
The following is an excerpt of an interview about students’ opinion on grammar:
I: In making an essay, are there factors or aspects that make you challenged?
P6: Aspects or factors that made me challenged when writing an essay is the problem
with grammar.(P6.L29-32)
I: Are there factors or aspects that make you challenged when, making an essay?
P9: The challenge that I faced was how to compose the words into the good and the
right sentences.(P9.L34-38)
P15: What makes me feel challenged is in the writing section, how to make a sentence
arrangement that matches with tenses.(P15.L31-34)
P 21: Translating essays into English and must be in accordance with grammar.
That's what makes me feel challenged.(P21.L31-34)
P23: Yes, there are.
I : Can you mention it?
P23: I feel challenge in grammar, when we have to arrange and build the word in a
good sentence.(P23.L34-39)
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Grammar
21,73%
78,26%
Figure 4.2 Students’ Challenges in Grammar

The pie chart above shows that five participants or 21,73% answered that grammar is
a challenge in writing an essay while eighteen participants or 78,26% answered with the other
challenges.
Word Choice
The four students from twenty-three students in the academic writing class who had
been interviewed by the researcher stated that word choice is challenging. It can be seen from
the students’ statement when in the process writing of an essay they find it difficult and
obstacle. The students said that when they write an essay, they have to use words and
sentences that are in accordance with the academic language. Meanwhile, the selection of
words also must be appropriate for use and they are also expected to not be able often to
repeat a word where in writing an essay, there are words that can be repeated and some are
not.
Here are the excerpts of interviews about students’ opinion about word choice;
Can you mention it?
P2: In making an essay we must use academic language, like that. So the most
difficult obstacle is when we adjust the academic words to use in an essay.(P2.L62-
67)
P13: There are many.
I: Can you mention it?
P13: The first is to look for ideas that are anti-mainstream because ideas that are
familiar to who know before will make them be lazy to read. The second is how to
write in academic because if you write according to grammar it is normal, writing
that is accordance with the academic is very difficult.(P13.L37-45)
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P17: Firstly, on the grammar then, the second is in the selection of words where there
are words that can be repeated but some are not.(P17.L34-40)
P20: It is more to ideas and words that are right to use. Because in the essay, there
are words that must not often be repeated.(P20.L29-32)
Word Choice
17,39%
82,60%
Figure 4.3 Students’ Challenges in Word Choice

The pie chart above indicates that four participants or 17,39% answered that word
choice is challenging where nineteen participants or 82,60% said with the other challenges.
Plagiarism
Three of the twenty-three students in the academic writing class who have been
interviewed by the researcher said that plagiarism is challenging and cannot be avoided. They
thought that in writing an essay, they must compose the ideas and explain the point from
paragraph introduction until paragraph conclusion that it must be from own thoughts. Also,
they cannot copy paste from the internet and it is also not permitted.
The following is an excerpt of an interview about students’ opinion on plagiarism:
I: Are there factors or aspects that make you challenged when, you write an essay?
P16: For me the challenge is like the explanation in the body paragraph must be in
accordance with the theme that is raised and cannot copy paste from the
internet.(P16.L27-31)
P18: What makes me challenged is that we are not permitted to copy paste from the
internet, the problem is that the lecturer ever said to us, it was possible to search in
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the internet but not copy paste. So, it should only be limited to
enlightenment.(P18.L33-38)
P19: From making the selecting word or sentences, it must be from own thoughts. The
development of the idea in the introduction until the conclusion is also must be from
own thoughts.(P19.L30-36)
Plagiarism
13,04%
86,95%
Figure 4.4 Students’ Challenges in plagiarism

The pie chart above indicates that three participants or 13,04 answered that plagiarism
is challenging whether twenty participants or 86,95% answered with the other challenges.
Lack of Description
Based on eleven students that have been interviewed by the researcher, they stated
that lack of description is challenging that cannot be avoided. The challenge can be indicated
in their statements. They have to explain some parts or one aspect, describe the important
points that relate to the topic, and how the topic happened or how the topic will be poured.
Then, they found that to write a paragraph introduction is also challenging because they have
to organize the ideas because of the title and ideas are the determinant from the beginning to
the end of an essay which has to develop.
Here are excerpt from interviews about students’ opinions about lack of description;
P1: What does it mean?
I: What I mean with "Challenge" here is a condition where there are obstacles,
problem, or difficulties that you encountered in making an essay.
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P1: The challenge that I faced was like the idea that I had imagined in my mind,
suddenly deviated from what I want to write before. So, I need self-control and good
arrangements.(P1.L28-36)
I: Are there factors or aspects that make you challenged when, making an essay?
P3: The title or the idea. The problem is from the beginning of the title or idea, the
title and idea are decisive until the end of an essay. So, if we are wrong in taking
steps, it can be complicated. But, if you are right in taking steps, I think, it will be
easy.(P3.L45-51)
P4: First, thinking about the title, Sis. Because the title is the most important thing.
Then after the title, we also need to determine eee..., what is?! Mmmm…, From the
topic sentence and the parts that we have to explain, yes it is also a
challenge.(P4.L41-46)
I: Are there factors or aspects that make you challenged when, writing an essay?
P5: What makes me feel challenged in writing an essay is how to explain one aspect
according to what I choose because sometimes quoting words carelessly and
preoccupation can make what I write is not appropriate from the topic that I have
chosen.(P5.L30-36)
I: Are there factors or aspects that make you challenged when you wrote an essay?
P7: I think the challenge is in writing paragraph introduction, because making an
essay is not easy. We must think about the idea first.(P7.L32-36)
Can you mention it?
P8: Yes there are.
Like yesterday I made an essay with type of cause/effect. To get the cause is easy but
if you look for some effects and explain it, I think is very difficult.(P8.L34-40)
P10: Actually I don't like writing but, in here we have to require writing an essay and
brainstorm. So, the challenge is in determining the topic and explaining the important
points.(P10.L26-30)
P11: The challenge I faced when I determined the topic and explained the points that
relate to the topic that I’m going to write.(P11.L23-27)
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I: Are there factors or aspects that make you challenged when you write an essay?
P12: The challenge is the thought of the topic happen and the thought that’s how the
topic will be poured.(P12.L35-38)
P14: Actually, I'm still lacking in knowledge because in making an essay we must
have extensive knowledge. For me, the challenge lies in how to find ideas and develop
them into paragraphs.(P14.L32-37)
P22: I find it difficult in the body paragraph.
I: Why?
P22: Especially in classification essays, for example, part of a group has to be
divided into categories and how to develop it.(P22.L30-35)
Lack of Description
47,82%
57,17%
Figure 4.5 Students’ Challenges in lack of description

The pie chart above shows that eleven participants or 47,82% answered that lack of
description is challenging while twelve participants or 57,17% answered with the other
challenges.
2. Discussion
Based on the data analysis of in this study, the researcher discovered some facts that
second-semester students’ of Widya Gama Mahakam Samarinda on Academic Year 2017-
2018 encountered some challenges during writing an essay. These challenges are investigated
by the researcher through two ways such as; essay writing sample and interview.
At first, the researcher used their essay writing sample to investigate the challenges.
Then from essay writing sample, the researcher identified five challenges namely;
grammatical error, mechanics of writing, spelling, word choice, and plagiarism. Secondly, the
researcher applied interview to know more about their challenges in writing an essay. After
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that, the researcher indicated four challenges as follows; grammar, word choice, plagiarism,
and lack of description.
Furthermore, grammar is the first data that has been analyzed by the researcher. The
researcher found that grammar is challenging because some students made several mistakes
in their writing such as; verb form, article, misuse of preposition, and etc in their English
writing. This finding is supported by Ravichandran (2012), Murshidi (2014), and Farooq &
Uzail-ul-hasan (2012). They said that a lot of students who learned English as foreign
language often faced problems in grammar.
Moreover, mechanics of writing is the second data that have been discovered by the
researcher and the most appeared in their essay writing. The researcher saw that mechanics of
writing is challenging because they always misplaced the punctuation, incorrectly used
capitalization, and made contraction, and so on. This finding is accordance with Al-seyabi &
Tuzlukova (2014), in their finding some writing problems is indicated by majority students’
at school and university. The students have struggling with lexical and content aspect of
writing.
In addition, spelling is the third data that has been found by the researcher. The
students faced difficulties in writing some words. This is accordance with the finding that
identified by Farooq & Uzail-ul-hasan (2012). They said that lack of vocabulary, poor
spelling, L1 interference, and poor understanding of grammatical structure is the parts of
difficulties in writing English.
One of the most aspects in writing challenges is word choice. As the fourth data that
has been analyzed by the researcher, word choice is challenging because the researcher found
that in their essay writing sample, there are some words which is not appropriate in a
sentence. This is also supported by Muhammed (2015), he said that redundancy and
repetition is challenging because once the students have lots of mixed ideas in one paragraph,
the possibility of having many extra words, unnecessary information and repetition is high.
Plagiarism is the fifth challenge in student’s essay writing samples that have been
discovered by the researcher. Because of the lack of knowledge and the laziness, most of
students do this act to shorten the time. This is accordance with Ravichandran (2017), he said
that plagiarism is a serious issue and should be avoided.
Meanwhile through interview, the researcher indicated several challenges as follows;
grammar, word choice, plagiarism, and lack of description. Three out of four challenges
which identified by the researcher as same as in the finding that had been discovered in their
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essay writing samples, but the most challenges such as mechanics of writing which is not
indicated in their opinion because most of the students answered lack of description as the
challenge. This is supported by Muhammed (2015), he said that lack of description is
challenging when the writer did not provide one reason or examples, this may offer evidence
that the writer is thinking critically. Similarly with Ravichandran (2017), he stated that
critical thinking and lack of understanding of how to express original ideas were particularly
challenging.
Finally, from the discussion above the researcher found that the most difficulty that
discovered in their essay writing sample is not accordance with the most difficulty that
indicated through interview.
CONCLUSION
From the result of data analysis that had been discussed on the previous chapter, the
researcher concluded that:
Firstly, students’ challenges in essay writing through students’ essay writing sample
of Widya Gama Mahakam Samarinda on academic year 2017-2018 for each types that had
been found by the researcher were grammatical error, mechanics of writing, spelling, word
choice, and plagiarism. The mostly appeared in students’ essay writing was mechanics of
writing with 178 data or 32,60%.
Secondly, students’ challenges in essay writing through students’ opinion from
twenty-three students of Widya Gama Mahakam Samarinda on academic year 2017-2018 that
have been interviewed by the researcher. Investigating and finding that there are several
challenges such as grammar, word choice, plagiarism, and lack of description. The mostly
occurred that the students experienced was lack of description with eleven participants or
47,82%.
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Students' Challenges in Essay Writing at Second Semester Students' of Widya Gama Mahakam University On Academic Year 2017-2018

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Students’ Challenges In Essay Writing At Second Semester Students’ Of

Keywords: Writing Challenges, Essay, and Student

Data presentation is a number of information structures and systematic research

Triangulation is the most common method used to increase validity in qualitative

Theory triangulation consists of the use of multiple theories or several perceptions

Methodological triangulation is the use of multiple methods for studying a single

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

put in the next table.

Figure 4.1 Students’ Challenges in Essay Writing Sample

b. Analysis on Students’ Challenges from Interview

Figure 4.2 Students’ Challenges in Grammar

Figure 4.3 Students’ Challenges in Word Choice

Figure 4.4 Students’ Challenges in plagiarism

Figure 4.5 Students’ Challenges in lack of description

View project. The Study of Revision as a Writing Process and as a Learning-To-Write of

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