Non-destructive testing (NDT) techniques

NDT of both the plate and finished vessel is important to safety. In the analysis of fracture hazards, it is
important to know the size of the flaws that may be present in the completed vessel.

The four most widely used methods of examination are

1. The liquid dye penetrant method

2. The ultrasonic method
3. The fluorescent magnetic particle inspection method
4. The radiographic method
1. The liquid dye penetrant method is effective on surface cracks.
2. The ultrasonic method uses vibrations with a frequency between 0.5 and 20MHz
transmitted to the metal surface by a transducer. The instrument sends out a series of
pulses. These show on a cathode ray screen as they are sent out and again when they return
after being reflected from the opposite side of the member. If there is a crack or an
inclusion along the way, it will reflect part of the beam. The initial pulse and its reflection
from the back of the member are separated on the screen by a distance which represents
the thickness. The reflection from a flaw will fall between these signals and indicate its
magnitude and position. Ultrasonic examination can be used for almost any thickness of
material. Its use is dependent upon the shape of the body because irregular surfaces may
cause confusing reflections. Ultrasonic transducers can transmit pulses normal to the
surface or at an angle. Transducers transmitting pulses that are oblique to the surface can
solve a number of special inspection problems.
3. The fluorescent magnetic particle inspection method is used only on magnetic materials.
Magnetic flux is passed through the part in a path parallel to the surface. Fine magnetic iron
particles, when dusted over the surface, will concentrate near the edges of a crack. The
sensitivity of magnetic particle examination is proportional to the sine of the angle between
the direction of the magnetic flux and the direction of the crack.
The method is effective on surface cracks.
4. Radiography - Radiographic examination is either by x-rays or by ɣ-radiation. X-rays have
greater penetrating power , while ɣ-radiation is more portable. Few x-ray machines can
penetrate beyond 300 mm ( 12 inches) thickness.

OTHER AVAILABLE NDT TECHNIQUES

5. The eddy current technique
It involves an alternating current coil along and close to the surface being examined. The
electrical impedance of the coil is affected by flaws in the structure or changes in the
composition. Commercially the principal use of the eddy-current testing method is for
examination of tubing.
6. The electrical resistance method
It involves passing an electric current through the structure and exploring the surface with
voltage probes. Flaws, cracks or inclusions will cause a disturbance in the voltage gradient

1
 on the surface. Railroads have used this method for many years to locate transverse cracks
in rails.
7. The hydrostatic test
This is a method of testing the integrity of a vessel above all in order to comply with theb
requirements of the Pressure Vessel Regulations under the Factories and Works Act.
The hydrostatic test can reveal gross flaws, inadequate design, and flange leaks. A vessel
that has undergone hydrostatic pressure testing is relatively reliable. A hydrostatically
tested vessel can still fail in service, even on the next application of pressure. Care in
material selection, NDT examination and fabrication do more to guarantee vessel integrity
than hydrostatic test per se.
The ASME codes recommend that the hydrostatic tests be done at a temperature that is
above the nil-ductility temperature of the material. This is in effect a pressure-temperature
treatment of the vessel.

A VAPOUR CLOUD EXPLOSION

For many years it was believed that a cloud of flammable vapour, mixed with air, would not
explode in the open air. It was believed that such a cloud would only flash, without a
damaging blast wave.
However, in 1974, the vapour cloud explosion at Flixborough in the UK taught us a different
lesson. The control room of the plant was demolished by the blast, killing 26 people inside.
Most of the plant itself was badly damaged by both the blast and the subsequent fires.

The typical sequence of events leading to a vapour cloud explosion (VCE) are as follows:
1. A leak develops in a liquefied flammable gas, or a flammable liquid held at pressure at a
temperature above its atmospheric-pressure boiling point. A proportion of the escaping
liquid flashes instantaneously into vapour, and much of the resulting spray of the
unvapourised material absorbs sensitive heat from the air and also evaporates
effectively at once.
2. The vapour drifts with the breeze, mixing with the surrounding air and the total mass of
flammable vapour present in the cloud increases as the leak continues.
3. The vapour –air cloud reaches an ignition source, and in due course the concentration of
the vapour rises above the lower flammable limit.
4. The cloud ignites
5. The flammable front in the cloud accelerates………….to near sonic velocity, and
generates a percussive shock wave.

2
 NOTES
 In general, an unconfined and unobstructed flammable vapour mixed with
air will not explode no matter how large.
 Obstacles cause explosive rates of combustion in their vicinity: obstacles
create turbulence which greatly increases the surface area of the flame front,
and hence the mass rate of combustion and the rate of expansion of the
burning cloud.

Energy released in the shock wave = power of the explosion

Although the pressure developed by a vapour cloud explosion in the open air does not usually rise
sufficiently to be lethal to people directly , vapour cloud explosions cause fatalities indirectly in the
following ways:

 By projecting missiles at people

 By throwing people against solid objects
 By collapsing buildings
 By enveloping people in the burning cloud.

TNT Equivalent Method Used to Calculate the Effect of an Unconfined Vapour Cloud Explosion(UVCE)

The mass of material in the cloud is converted to an equivalent mass of TNT, and the effect of the
explosion determined from data compiled from extensive testing of TNT.

The main limitation of the TNT Equivalent Method is that although it is a very satisfactory method for
assessing the effects of a solid explosive, the behavior of an exploding gas cloud is very different, and
the TNT Equivalent Method is very reliable in the near field.

The steps are as follows:

1. Calculate the likely mass of flammable vapour in the cloud in a confined or congested area:
 Calculate the mass of flashing liquid likely to escape, and
 Calculate the mass of vapour formed by flash or effectively by immediate evaporation of
that mass
2. Calculate the equivalent mass of TNT
3. By reference to a graph of overpressure for TNT, determine the explosive overpressure at the
required radius
4. From empirically determined tables of the effects of overpressure, determine the likely effect.

3
To calculate the mass of liquid that escapes

In the event of catastrophic failure of a vessel (rare), escape of the entire contents would probably
be assumed.

In the event of a leak from a hole in a pipeline or a vessel, the rate of escape would be calculated
using the usual formula for single-phase liquid flow:

GL = Cd . A(2𝜌.𝚫P)1/2

Where GL = mass flow rate ( kg /sec)

Cd = discharge coefficient (0.8 for smooth circular hole; 0.6 for irregular hole)

A = area of hole ( m2 )

𝜌 = liquid density ( kg/m3 )

𝚫 = pressure difference across the hole (Pa, or kPa)