Reproductive Failure

General Causes
1. Anatomical  A. Inherited B. Injury
2. Physiological
3. Psychological
4. Infectious Disease

I. Anatomical
1. Freemartinism
A. Abnormality in female development  Mullerian duct does not
develop; Permanent
B. Usually occurs with Male/Female Twin Combinations 
a. Especially Cattle;
b. Share blood supply (chorioallantoic membranes combine);
c. Hormonal virilization of female
i. MIF--Major player
ii. Testosterone may also be involved --Exposure can be
measured by anogenital distance --Females from
predominant male litters have lowered reproduction
d. Canalization of reproductive ducts does not occur --Blind pouch at
end of vagina

Prepared by: JE PEPITO-May '09

Reproductive Failure

I. Anatomical
2. Infantile Reproductive System
A. Underdeveloped reproductive structures  Ovary, Uterus, Vagina
B. Most frequently found in underfed animals Treat by increasing energy
intake
C. Hormonal treatment can also induce ovarian function  PMSG
D. Sometimes it is genetic  Not treatable

3. Incomplete Structures  Oviduct, Uterus, or Vagina

A. Types  a. Incomplete oviducts b. Malformed uterus c. Blind cervixes
d. Blind vaginas e. etc.
B. Usually permanent  Difficult to detect without slaughter
C. Ovaries function normally  Animals come into estrus, but do not
conceive; Sperm and Egg can not meet
D. Birth defect  May be heritable ( Amplified by inbreeding) ; 3.9% of
infertility in heifers

Prepared by: JE PEPITO-May '09

Reproductive Failure

I. Anatomical
4. Hermaphrodite
A. Have male and female sexual characteristics
B. Types
a. True hermaphrodite  Contain both testis and ovary ; Can be
combined--ovo-testis
b. Pseudohermaphrodite  Has either a testis or ovary; Remainder of
reproductive tract have parts representing both sexes
c. Both seen in farm animals  Most frequent in goats and pigs ;
Pseudo- more common than True
C. Pseudohermaphrodite caused by a developmental defect
a. Genetic and Gonadal Sex normal
b. Phenotypic Sex occurs with a discrepancy in differentiation of the
Wolffian and/or Mullerian duct, urogenital sinus, or external
genitalia
c. Gonad does not produce sex steroid or target tissues do not respond.

Prepared by: JE PEPITO-May '09

Reproductive Failure

I. Anatomical

5. Cryptorchid
A. Testes fail to pass through the inguinal canal into the scrotum
B. Unilateral  Involves one testis; Fertile, but could be impaired
C. Bilateral  Involves both testis; Infertile (Spermatogenesis can not occur
at body temp)
D. Treatment  Surgery  Must be done before puberty or damage is
permanent
 Androgen Treatment  Sometimes works to complete testicular
descent
E. Heritable trait a. Most common in Stallions
F. Leydig cells develop normally  Produce Androgens;Secondary sexual
characteristics still occur

Prepared by: JE PEPITO-May '09

Reproductive Failure

I. Anatomical

6. Prolapse of Vagina and Uterus

A. Inversion of the Vagina and/or Uterus from vulva
B. Slight Vaginal Prolapse not uncommon late in gestation  Usually older
cows and ewes; Excessive relaxation of pelvic ligament by relaxin; Not
a serious problem

C. Uterine Prolapse 
a. Occurs shortly after parturition
b. More frequent in cows and ewes than sows and mares
c. Often associated with dystocia or retained placenta  Excessive
straining
d. Sometimes caused by grazing on estrogenic pastures
i. Usually ewes
ii. Causative phytoestrogens highest in Red clover

D. Treatment  Sanitize surface and push back in; Suture lips of vulva
together until healed

Prepared by: JE PEPITO-May '09

Reproductive Failure

I. Anatomical

7. Injuries
A. Some occur spontaneously, but most are man-made causes
B. Spontaneous 
a. Most common occur during parturition  Fetus tear of uterus or
vagina
b. Mating (Vaginal tearing)  Too vigorous; Penis too large for vagina
(Most common in Thoroughbred horses)
C. Man-Made
a. Damage to the ovary or oviduct during palpation  Squeeze C.L., or
Cystic ovary
b. Manual removal of offspring during dystocia or retained placenta 
Tear of uterus or vagina
c. Broken penis  Excessive angle during mating or semen collection;
Usually permanent
d. Penis amputated by Artificial Vagina rubber bands

Prepared by: JE PEPITO-May '09

Reproductive Failure

II. Physiological
1. Usually caused by a disturbance in the Endocrine system
2. Cystic Ovaries
A. General
a. Persistent anovulatory follicular structures on the ovary
b. Different etiologies  Difficult to treat
c. Types  Follicular Cysts (Thin-Walled); Luteal Cysts (Thick-
Walled)
d. Other anovulatory follicles  Follicles luteinize without ovulation
and regress during estrous cycle; More common in horses and
swine than ruminants

B. Follicular Cysts
a. Incidence (70 % of all ovarian cysts)  Dairy cows -- 10 to 15%,
may be as high as 30%; Women -- 0.6 to 4.3%; Sows -- 6%;
Rare in Beef Cattle, Sheep and Horses
b. May produce high levels of estrogen  May lead to nymphomania
c. Cause unknown  Breakdown in hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian
axis; Feedback systems do not work properly; No LH surge, no
ovulation

Prepared by: JE PEPITO-May '09

Reproductive Failure

II. Physiological
2. Cystic Ovaries
B. Follicular Cysts
d. Associated with  High milk production; Genetics; Nutrition (Higher
nutrition); Season of year (winter months); Obesity in women --
Hirsutism --Produce high levels of androgens
e. Treatments  GnRH (cysterelin); hCG or LH --May lead to antibody
formation; Many follow GnRH with PGF2alpha 10-14 days later
C. Luteal Cysts
a. Thicker walled due to luteinization of the follicular cells
b. Multiple cysts are common
c. Produce high levels of progesterone  Usually causes anestrus
d. Treatments  GnRH followed by PGF2alpha 10-14 days later;
PGF2 only
D. Cystic Corpus Luteum
a. Similar in looks to Luteal Cyst
b. Fluid filled C.L.
c. May lead to early embryonic mortality
d. Not enough progesterone produced to maintain pregnancy?
Prepared by: JE PEPITO-May '09
Reproductive Failure

II. Physiological
3. Retained (Persistent) Corpus Luteum
A. A form of Pseudopregnancy
B. Causes: Embryonic loss after maternal recognition of pregnancy;
Pyometra -- Pus in uterus; Mummified fetus

4. Anestrus
A. Periods of no estrous cycles
B. Natural Causes  Pregnancy; Nursing; Season of year
C. Reproductive Failure
a. Nutrition  Poor nutrition reduces reproduction
b. Pathology  Uterine infection; Persistent corpus luteum;
Mummified fetus; Ovarian cysts

5. Irregular Estrous Cycles

A. Endocrine disruption  Cystic Ovary; Persistent C.L.; Estrogenic
Feeds
B. Infectious diseases

Prepared by: JE PEPITO-May '09

Reproductive Failure

II. Physiological
6. Quiet Ovulation
A. 18.6% of ovulations in cattle  Usually first after parturition
B. Some may be due to improper estrus detection

7. Age
A. Female Fertility increases for a few years after puberty, reaches a
maximum, and then decreases slowly.
a. Pregnancy rate maximums  3 to 4 years in sows; 4 to 6 years in
ewes; 5 to 7 years in cows
b. Maximum litter size in pigs  Pregnancy 3,4,5 and then declines
c. Twinning  Increases after pregnancy 5 in cows; Increases up to 6-7
years in ewes, then declines; Increase after 35 years of age in
women
d. Ovulation and Fertilization decreases only slightly in aged animals
e. Embryonic mortality, stillbirth, and postpartum losses increase 
Poor egg quality?; Uterus worn-out – Can not keep up with fetal
demands

Prepared by: JE PEPITO-May '09

Reproductive Failure

II. Physiological
7. Age
A. Female Fertility

f. Menopause  Reproductive senescence occurs eventually --

Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Ovarian Axis breaks down --Probably starts
at ovary (no ova); Most farm animals are slaughtered before this
time; Occurs around age 50 in women.

B. Male Fertility and Aging  Sperm production continues throughout life;

Sperm counts only fall slightly with age

Prepared by: JE PEPITO-May '09

Reproductive Failure

III. Psychological Disturbances

1. Females
A. Cows
a. Nervous or Traumatized animals have lower reproduction 
Epinephrine inhibits uterine/oviduct motility; Cortisol inhibits
estrus and other reproductive events
b. Isolation  Isolated animals during estrus have lower conception;
However, isolation can also prevent injury

B. Sows and Gilts

a. Boars must be in close proximity for good reproduction
b. Estrus is shortened in confinement  Can be lengthened by
moving gilts or sows to another pen or pasture
c. Trauma  Same as cows

2. Males  Avoid stress, pain, and/or discomfort

Prepared by: JE PEPITO-May '09

Reproductive Failure
IV. Infectious Diseases
1. Bacterial Diseases

A. Vibriosis
a. Affected Species  Cattle & Sheep
b. Causative Organism  Campylobacter sp.
c. Effects on reproduction  Cattle -- Embryonic mortality -- Early
Abortion; Sheep -- Last trimester abortion
d. Method of Transmission Sexual contact; Contaminated semen;
Contaminated feed or water
e. Control Measure  Vaccination; Breed A.I.

B. Leptospirosis
a. Affected Species  Cattle, Swine, and Horses
b. Causative Organism  Leptospira sp.
c. Effects on reproduction  Late abortion; Weak offspring; Infertility
d. Method of Transmission  Urine contaminated feed, water, or air ii.
Contaminated semen; Wildlife
e. Control Measure  Annual Vaccination; Antibiotic therapy;
Sanitation

Prepared by: JE PEPITO-May '09

Reproductive Failure
IV. Infectious Diseases
1. Bacterial Diseases
C. Brucellosis
a. Affected Species  Cattle, Sheep, Goats, Swine
b. Causative Organism  Brucella sp.
c. Effects on reproduction  Cattle -- Premature birth, Abortion, Weak
calves, Retained Placenta, Reduced Breeding Efficiency
 Sheep & Goats – Abortion
 Swine – Abortion; Weak piglets
d. Method of Transmission  Contaminated Feed and Water from
aborted material; Contaminated semen
e. Control Measure  Calfhood vaccine; Breed A.I.; Test and Slaughter

D. Listeriosis
a. Affected Species  Cattle and Sheep
b. Causative Organism  Listeria monocytogenes
c. Effects on reproduction Late abortion; Retained placenta; Metritis
d. Method of Transmission Contaminated environment; Poor quality
silage
e. Control Measure Sanitation, Antibiotic Therapy

Prepared by: JE PEPITO-May '09

Reproductive Failure
IV. Infectious Diseases
1. Bacterial Diseases
E. Nonspecific Uterine Infections
a. Affected Species  Most species
b. Causative Organism  Variety of Bacterial Organisms; Many
already found in reproductive tract
c. Effects on reproduction  Extended anestrus; Reduced Breeding
Efficiency
d. Method of Transmission Contaminated Environment; Introduced
with treatment; Retained Placenta
e. Control Measure  Sanitation; Antibiotic treatment

F. Contagious Equine Metritis

a. Affected Species  Horses
b. Causative Organism  Taylorella equigenitalis
c. Effects on reproduction  Endometritis, Cervicitis, Vaginitis
d. Method of Transmission  Sexual contact, Contaminated Equipment
e. Control Measure  Sanitation; Antibiotic Therapy

Prepared by: JE PEPITO-May '09

Reproductive Failure
IV. Infectious Diseases
2. Protozoan Diseases

A. Bovine Tichomoniasis
a. Affected Species  Cattle
b. Causative Organism  Trichamonas fetus
c. Effects on reproduction  Early abortion; Pyometra; Sterility
d. Method of Transmission  Sexual Contact
e. Control Measure  Sexual rest; Breed AI; Slaughter infected bulls;
Vaccination

B. Toxoplasmosis
a. Affected Species Sheep, Cattle, Swine
b. Causative Organism  Toxoplasma gondi
c. Effects on reproduction  Late abortions; Weak young; Stillbirths;
Retained placenta
d. Method of Transmission  Ingested oocysts from environment
e. Control Measure  Prevent ingestion

Prepared by: JE PEPITO-May '09

Reproductive Failure
IV. Infectious Diseases
3. Viral Diseases

A. Bovine Viral Diarrhea (BVD)

a. Affected Species  Cattle
b. Causative Organism  BVD virus
c. Effects on reproduction  Abortion; Fetal abnormalities
d. Method of Transmission  Contaminated environment; Through
mucous membranes; Infected semen
e. Control Measure  Vaccination

B. Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis-Infectious Pustular Vulvovaginitis (IBR-

IPV)
a. Affected Species  Cattle
b. Causative Organism  IBR-IPV virus
c. Effects on reproduction  Abortion; Temporary infertility
d. Method of Transmission Same as BVD
e. Control Measure  Vaccination

Prepared by: JE PEPITO-May '09

Reproductive Failure
IV. Infectious Diseases
3. Viral Diseases

C. Equine Viral Rhinopneumonitis

a. Affected Species Horses
b. Causative Organism  Equine herpes virus I
c. Effects on reproduction Late abortion
d. Method of Transmission Mucous membrane via aerosol
e. Control Measure  Vaccination

D. Equine viral Arteritis

a. Affected Species  Horses
b. Causative Organism  Equine arteritis virus
c. Effects on reproduction  Abortion
d. Method of Transmission  Mucous membrane via aerosol; Infected
semen
e. Control Measure  Isolation of infected mares; Do not use infected
stallions

Prepared by: JE PEPITO-May '09

Reproductive Failure
IV. Infectious Diseases
3. Viral Diseases

E. Bluetongue
a. Affected Species  Cattle, and Sheep
b. Causative Organism  Bluetongue virus
c. Effects on reproduction  Damage to central nervous system of
fetus
d. Method of Transmission  Culicoides gnat, sheep ked ; Infected
semen
e. Control Measure  Vaccination of non-pregnant animals

F. Pseudorabies
a. Affected Species Swine
b. Causative Organism  Pseudorabies virus
c. Effects on reproduction  Embryonic mortality; Mummified fetuses;
Abortion; Stillbirth
d. Method of Transmission  Mucous membranes; Oral exposure
e. Control Measure  Vaccination; Test and slaughter

Prepared by: JE PEPITO-May '09

Reproductive Failure
IV. Infectious Diseases
3. Viral Diseases

G. Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome

a. Affected Species  Swine
b. Causative Organism Pseudorabies virus
c. Effects on reproduction  Weakborn; Mummified fetuses; Abortion;
Stillbirth; Preweaning mortality
d. Method of Transmission  Mucous membranes; Oral exposure;
Semen
e. Control Measure  Vaccination; Quarantine of incoming pigs; Get
rid of infected breeding herd

4. Mycoses  Fungal Diseases (Aspergillus sp. a common causative

organism)
a. Affected species  Cattle
b. Effects on Reproduction  Abortion
c. Method of Transmission  Inhaled spores from moldy feeds
d. Control Measures  Sanitation and care in feed storage

Prepared by: JE PEPITO-May '09