Book 22 Module 11A

WHEELS TYRES BRAKES

ANTI-SKID & AUTO-BRAKE

Licence By Post

For best examination

results always use latest
issue number.

Licence By Post © Copyright B1.1 EASA 66 11A.13 ISSUE 05 1211

© Licence By Post
No part of this study book may be re-produced or distributed in any form or by any means, or
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from Licence By Post.

Books in the LBP series are regularly up-dated/re-written to keep pace with the changing
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AUTHORITY

It is IMPORTANT to note that the information in this book is for study/training

purposes only.

When carrying out a procedure/work on aircraft/aircraft equipment you MUST

always refer to the relevant aircraft maintenance manual or equipment
manufacturer’s handbook.

You should also follow the requirements of your national regulatory authority
(the CAA in the UK) and laid down company policy as regards local
procedures, recording, report writing, documentation etc.

For health and safety in the workplace you should follow the regulations/
guidelines as specified by the equipment manufacturer, your company,
national safety authorities and national governments.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

With special thanks to:

AIRBUS INDUSTRIE
UK CAA

for permission to reproduce drawings.

CONTENTS

Page

Tyres 1
Construction 1
Tread patterns 4
Tyre wear 5
Tyre markings 8
Tyre pressures 9
Conductivity 10
Tyre creep 11
Carcass vents 11
In-situ tyre maintenance 11
Tyre bay maintenance 15
Remoulding tyres 18
Inner tubes 18
Tube repairs 19
Storage – tyres and tubes 20
Wheels 21
Tubeless wheels 25
General 27
Wheel maintenance 27
General 30
Wheel repairs 30
Mounting procedures (assembling tyre to wheel) 33
Assembling tubeless tyre to split wheel 33
Assembling tubed tyre to split wheel 34
Assembly instructions – general 34
Dismantling procedures 38
The wheel change 38
Wheel/tyre assembly balancing 39
General precautions 39
Brakes 40
Drum brakes 42
Disc brakes 45
Single disc brake unit 45
Multi disc brake unit 46
Carbon brakes 50
Disc brake hydraulic circuits 51
Brake temperature monitoring 53
Anti-skid systems 54
Mechanical system 54
Axle mounted unit 58
Electronic anti-skid systems 60
The A320 system 63
The B757 system 64
HOW TO TACKLE THIS BOOK

This book deals with:

* Tyres
* Tubes
* Wheels
* Brake units
* Brake systems
* Anti skid systems
* Auto-brake systems

The important thing to remember about aircraft tyres is that each tyre manufacturer
produce their own designs with different tread patterns, wear patterns, wear limits
etc, and in some cases, different names for the same parts of the tyre.

Each manufacturer also produce their own tyre maintenance manuals – in many
cases in glossy colour - which should be consulted when dealing with their tyres. It
will state limits of wear, damage allowance and any repair methods.

The same applies to tubes (though not in common use with modern aircraft) and
aircraft wheels.

If there is any discrepancy between the AMM and the tyre manufacturer’s manuals
the AMM is to be taken as authority. (Author’s comment. I would contact the tyre
manufacture and get them to clarify the situation with the aircraft manufacturer.)

With all the above components/systems the CAA would expect you to have a thorough
knowledge of the components/systems and be able to describe any defects and fault
rectification procedures.

You should look at the tyres on your aircraft noting the markings and ensuring you
know what they mean. Check the type of tread and check any wear limiter indicators
fitted.

If you can, spend a little time in a tyre bay noting how the wheel assemblies are
stripped and reassembled. If you pay a visit to your local tyre service centre (getting
the tyres changed on the car for example) and if there is an observation window into
the workshop, then do take the opportunity to see how the tyre is removed from, and
refitted to, the wheel. Take note of any wheel balancing that is carried out.

Anti-skid/auto brake has been dealt with in three sections: a general section; a
section dealing with the A320 system and a description of the B757 system. We may
have gone ‘over the top’ in the detail of the A320/757 systems in the back of the book
and there should be no need to commit the details to memory but you should read
and understand how the systems work.

When studying the section on anti-skid systems you are advised to read the book on
aircraft hydraulics (brake systems), or at least have some knowledge of how they
work.
Written for the B1.1 engineer to cover those subjects listed in the CAA EASA Part 66
syllabus and, as usual, most of the examples are taken from jet-engined aircraft.

CAP747 GR 16 states that tyres must be inflated with nitrogen or other inert gas with
an oxygen content of not greater than 5% by volume. Applies to all UK registered
aircraft with an MTWA exceeding 5700kg with retractable landing gear. This reduces
the possibility of fire if a stowed (retracted) tyre bursts in flight. This can happen
when the heat from the brakes gets into the wheel and tyre after the landing gear is
retracted. It will increase the pressure of the tyre but more importantly will cause
deterioration in the strength of the tyre. After a certain ‘soaking’ time in the landing
gear bay the tyre could burst with disastrous consequences.

Note. Drawings from CAP562 may no longer be available in that publication due to
amendment action by the CAA.

Reference is made in the book to overhaul of wheels and tyres. Some operators will
have a wheel and tyre bay/maintenance facility and carry out most of their own
detailed wheel and tyre maintenance. Other operators will send the wheel and tyre
unit away for overhaul.
 TYRES

Originally most tyres were of cross ply construction but most tyres used today are
radials.

The cross-ply tyre is made up of plies of weftless nylon fabric, each ply laid on the
bias and at 90° to the previous ply. The radial tyre is made up of weftless plies all laid
radially across the tyre one upon the other.

Each end of the plies is wrapped around high tensile steel wires and the outside is
then covered with rubber – as a wearing surface in the Crown Region and as weather
proofing elsewhere.

EASA CS 25 and CS 23 states the requirements that a tyre has to meet, in particular
the downward and forward loads in terms of ‘g’ and applies to main wheels, nose
wheels and single and multi wheeled units. Tyres must have an approved speed and
load rating and have sufficient clearance when retracted to allow for tyre growth
(when spinning and when the ambient pressure drops). Tyre growth is the increase in
size of the tyre due to centrifugal forces at high speed.

CONSTRUCTION

Tread. Made of natural rubber, compounded to give a high coefficient of friction (for
braking) and to be tough and durable. The tread pattern is designed in accordance
with aircraft operational requirements. The circumferential ribbed tread is widely
used. The tread provides a wearing surface in contact with the ground. This
area of the tyre is called the Crown Region (figures 1 and 2).

Sidewall. A protective layer of flexible, weather-resistance natural rubber covering

the outer carcass ply of the tyre, extending from the tread edge to the bead area. The
area immediately between the side wall proper and the tread is called the Shoulder.

Tread Reinforcement. Fitted to some tyres in the crown region and consists of one or
more additional layers of nylon fabric that strengthen and stabilise the thread area for
high-speed operation. Also serves as a reference for the buffing process during any re-
treading.

Breakers. Reinforcing plies of nylon or Aramid fibre placed under the tread rubber
to protect the carcass plies and strengthen and stabilise the tread area. They are
considered an integral part of the carcass construction.

Plies. Alternate layers of rubber-coated nylon fabric (running at 90° to one

another on cross ply tyres) provide the strength of the tyre. Completely
encompassing the tyre body, the carcass plies are wrapped around the high
tensile steel wire beads and back against the tyre sidewalls (ply turn-ups).

Beads. High tensile copper-coated steel wires embedded in rubber, the beads
anchor the carcass plies and provide a firm-mounting surface to the wheel. The
strongest part of the tyre. This area is known as the Bead Region and is further
divided into Base, Heel and Toe regions.

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 Fig. 1 CROSS SECTION OF A TYRE

Apex Strip. A wedge of rubber affixed to the top of the bead bundle, serving as a
filler.

Flippers. These layers of rubberised fabric help anchor the bead wires to the
carcass and improve the durability of the tyre.

Chafers. Protective layer of rubber and/or fabric located between the carcass plies
and the wheel to help prevent chafing.

Fitting Lines. Lines moulded around the lower sidewall to check for concentricity of
tyre to wheel.

Inner Liner. In tubeless tyres, this inner layer of low permeability (air proof)
rubber acts as a built-in tube and prevents air from seeping through the casing
plies. This liner covers the whole of the inside of the tyre carcass from just
before the heel area one side to just after the heel area on the other. For tubed
type tyres a thinner liner is used to prevent tube chafing against the inside ply
layer but this is not air proof.

Chines. An extended rubber section running around the outside of the tyre at the
shoulder/sidewall area of some tyres. Designed to deflect water outwards
away from the tyre when the aircraft is travelling at speed on a water logged
runway. Used on some aircraft nose wheels to deflect standing water away from
rear mounted jet engines.

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 Fig. 2 CROSS PLY TYRE

Sidewall Valve. Not shown in figures 1 or 2. Some tubeless tyres are fitted with an
inflation valve fitted in the sidewall of the tyre. In fact it is a small self sealing insert.
When inflating the tyre a hollow inflation needle is pushed into the insert and
inflation can then proceed.

Note. Ensure the needle is clean and lubricated with the lubricant supplied. Insert,
and remove carefully, without bending and with a twisting action.

Fig. 3 CHINED TYRES

Radial Construction

The basic difference between a cross-ply tyre and a radial tyre is the lay of the plies
within the tyre carcass. As stated previously, the plies are laid radially across the tyre,
but the remainder of the tyre is very similar in construction to a cross-ply tyre.

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Radial tyres have a rigid belt around the tread and a flexible sidewall carcass,
providing an increase in the number of landings and a reduction in rolling resistance.

Fig. 4 RADIAL PLY TYRE

Tubeless Tyres

These provide a 7% reduction in weight; increased number of landings; cooler running

temperatures (about 10° C cooler); reduced permeability losses (air seepage through
the tube); no tube troubles; reduced probability of deflation due to punctures; less
maintenance and no valve damage due to tyre creep.

The tyre has an inner air-proof lining which remains un-stretched during inflation
which means there is a reduced chance of a blow-out should there be foreign object
penetration of the tyre carcass.

Tubeless tyres can only be fitted to wheels specially designed to take them and never
to wheel-based wheels because of the difficulty of fitting and the possibility of damage
to the bead area. This would adversely affect the sealing between the tyre and wheel.

TREAD PATTERNS

The tread pattern is designed to suit specific operating conditions: runways; grass
strips; aircraft weights; aircraft take-off and landing speeds etc.

Ribbed (ie circumferentially grooved) treaded tyres are probably used more than any
other and there are a number of variations on the basic pattern such as the number
of ribs and the width of grooves. A ribbed tread provides a good combination of long
tread wear and good traction and directional stability, particularly on hard surfaced
runways.

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Diamond pattern (or ‘all-weather’) tyres are also used and give good performance on
all types of surfaces. They are particularly suitable for unpaved (eg turf or packed
earth) airfields, though do tend to throw up clods of earth.

The plain tread (smooth tyre) was common at one time, particularly on British
aircraft, but has been replaced by ribbed and diamond pattern treads. It is, however,
still used on some older aircraft.

Water dispersing treads, which have many small holes incorporated in the crown and
shoulder rubber, are used on some fixed wing aircraft. This type of tread helps to
reduce aquaplaning.

QUESTION Describe aquaplaning. (5 mins)

ANSWER At slower speeds with a tyre moving over a wet surface the tread pattern
of the tyre acts as a sort of ‘squeezy’ and moves the water out of the way
allowing rubber to surface contact. With a tyre travelling fast along a wet
runway the water has not got time to move out of the way by the tyre’s
‘squeezy’ action. This means that a thin film of water gets in-between the
runway surface and the tyre reducing the grip so much that the effect is
similar to being on sheet ice and is called aquaplaning. Aquaplaning is a
function of speed, standing water depth, aircraft weight and tyre tread
pattern (a smooth tyre aquaplanes at a slower speed than a patterned
tyre).

Twin contact tyres are fitted to some (older) aircraft. Fitted to the nose wheels to help
reduce the possibility of nose wheel shimmy. The tyre runs on two raised rubber
treads either side of the crown.

TYRE WEAR

BCARs require that, for the certification of new aircraft, the minimum tread depth
should be specified. This minimum is that, below which, the braking on a wet runway
would be impaired. The tyre should be so designed as to allow this depth to be
ascertained whilst the aircraft is in service.

Airworthiness Notice 5 (transferred to CAP 562 in 2009), applies to public transport

aircraft above 5700kg. It states that in the event that data is not available from the
aircraft manufacturer as to the minimum tread depth, then the tyre should be
withdrawn from service if:

(a) Any groove is worn to less than 2mm deep for more than 25% of its
circumference, or,

(b) The grooves are worn to less then 2mm deep across the whole width of
the tyre in contact with the runway.

Some variations may be allowed, eg if one groove is less than 2mm and the others are
3mm or more.

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Note that different manufacturers may have different wear indicators and wear limits.
Reference must always be made to the specific manufacturer’s manuals/AMM for
actual wear limits and maintenance details. If the tyre manufacturer’s manual and
the AMM do not agree then the AMM is to be taken as authority. What follows are
typical examples.

Patterned or Treaded Tyres

May be used until the tread is worn to the depth of the pattern (but check with the
AMM/manufacturer’s literature.

Ribbed Tyres with Marker Tie-Bars

Some rib pattern tyres embody equispaced marker tie-bars in the groove designated
for use as a wear indicator. The limit of wear is reached when the tyre is worn to the
top of the tie-bars.

Fig. 5 MARKER TIE BAR

Ribbed Tyres Without Marker Tie Bars

Assessment is based on using the centre groove as a wear-indicating groove. If the

tread pattern does not incorporate a centre groove, use the grooves outside the centre
rib. The tyre is worn to its limit when the tread is worn to within 2mm of the bottom
of the indicator groove/grooves.

Fig. 6 TYPICAL WEAR INDICATOR GROOVES

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Tyres with Tread Reinforcement

Identified by the letters DRR in the Code Panel and the words REINFORCED TREAD
on the sidewall. They may or may not have marker tie-bars. The limit of the wear is
reached when the depth of the wear-indicating groove is reduced to 2mm. If the wear
is not even, the tyre must be discarded when a total of 25% of the groove
circumference is reduced to 2mm depth, irrespective of the depth of the remainder of
the groove. Tyres thus worn must be withdrawn from service for possible remoulding.

Twin Contact Tyres

Can remain in service until the centre of the crown shows signs of having been in
contact with the ground. (The centre of the tyre between the contacts can be as high
as 25mm [1in] from the ground on a new tyre).

Fig. 7 TYRE MARKINGS – GOODYEAR

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Plain, Smooth or No-Tread Tyres

Removed if the grey cushion rubber becomes exposed or the shape of the casing plies
can be seen through the crown rubber.

Note. Tyres with re-enforced tread rubber (where several layers of fabric are moulded
into the tread rubber) will show signs of frayed fabric at early stages of wear. This
visible fabric wear is not to be confused with casing cords. If any of the casing cords
become visible then the tyre is scrapped.

Chines

Inspect the side of the tyre for cracking along the chine/sidewall area and remove
from service if there are any cracks deeper than 0.4mm and longer than 25.4mm.
Also remove the tyre if any crack is deeper than 2.3mm at any point.

TYRE MARKINGS

All commercial aircraft tyres approved under FAA Test Requirement TSO-C62c (AN 93
refers [now deleted] – aircraft certified in the transport category) must be marked
clearly with the following minimum information:

* Manufacturer’s name.
* Size.
* Load Rating/Ply Rating.
* Speed Rating. (AN 93 states high speed tyres as rated as those operating
at 160mph or above. AN 93 deleted Oct 2003).
* Skid Depth.
* Manufacturer’s Part Number.
* Serial Number.
* Manufacturer plant identification along with the TSO marking.
* Date of manufacture.
* Whether tubed or tubeless.
* Type and number of retreads carried out.

In addition, tyres are marked with other markings as required by airframe

manufacturers or other organisations. Military tyres carry markings required by the
appropriate military specification.

In addition, the Association of European Airlines (AEA) requires an AEA code which
defines both tyre carcass and tread construction.

All retread tyres carry the symbol ‘R’ or the word ‘RETREAD’. It also indicates the
number of times the tyre has been re-treaded (Some tyres are re-treaded many times
– even for large commercial airliners).

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Size. Tyre sizes are usually identified by three dimensions, eg 26 x 7.55 – 13. The
markings are in inches but the inch mark is not shown. If the size is in millimetres
then the symbol mm is used.

26 - equals overall diameter of inflated tyre.

7.55 - equals the cross-sectional width of the inflated tyre.
13 - equals the bead diameter of the bead seat on the wheel.

NOTE. When only two figures are given it is the first figure, the overall diameter of
the tyre that is omitted.

Part Number. Is a unique number/letter identifier for that type of tyre. Must always
be used when ordering another tyre/replacing a tyre on a wheel.

Serial Number. Moulded into the tyre wall to identify a particular tyre. Each tyre will
have its own unique serial number to identify it against its records. Some
organisations will have their own tyre serialisation system and will paint (with a
special paint) their own serial number on the side of the tyre.

Date of Manufacturer. Moulded into the tyre wall.

Ply Rating. Quoted on the side of the tyre as a number, eg: 15 PLY RATING or 15PR. It
is an index of tyre strength not necessarily the actual number of plies.

Speed Rating. Imprinted on the side of the tyre to indicate its maximum speed, eg:
200mph. May be incorporated into the part number coding.

Retread Markings. Will include such things as retreader’s name, date, number of
retreads and if the sidewalls are covered the re-establishment of the original
markings.

TYRE PRESSURES

Range from 25 to 350psi (pounds per square inch) gauge pressure. Always consult the
AMM and always used a calibrated certified pressure gauge. Pressures may be given
in psi, bar or kPa and should be read from a cool tyre. Tyres with greater than 100psi
pressure are considered to be high-pressure tyres.

Notes

1. Gauge pressure is the pressure that is indicated on a gauge. For

absolute pressure the ambient atmospheric pressure must be added to
the gauge pressure. So at sea level using ICAO standard atmosphere
conditions, add 14.7psi or 1.03bar to the gauge reading to obtain the
absolute pressure. In general all tyre pressures are given in gauge so
normally the problem does not arise – this note is included as the CAA
are known to ask questions re absolute and gauge pressures.

2. Conversion factors: 14.5psi = 1bar. 6894Pa = 1psi. (Pa = Pascal)

-9-
 Fig. 8 MICHELIN TYRE MARKINGS

CONDUCTIVITY

Some tyres are manufactured with tread rubber with conducting compounds to
permit earthing of static charges from the aircraft to ground on landing. Usually nose
and tail wheel tyres are conducting and have markings to indicate this, such as a
lightening strike symbol or the word ‘conducting’.

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TYRE CREEP

There is some initial radial movement of tyre to wheel caused by the landing
(dependent on tyre load, inflation pressure, degree of braking, etc) and subsequent
movement of the tyre around the wheel takes place at a reduced rate. If allowed to
continue beyond a certain limit, this creep can, on a tyre and tube combination,
result in the valve stem being torn from the tube – and total deflation to occur.

Hence creep marks are painted in white on the sidewall of a newly fitted tyre and over
onto the wheel flange. The width of the mark represents the maximum permissible
tyre creep and when the paint marks on the tyre and the wheel flange become
misaligned by the full width of the painted mark, the wheel must be removed from the
aircraft for bay servicing. Width of creep marks are:

Wheels Outside Diameter (in/mm) Width of Creep Mark (in/mm)

Up to 24 (609.6) 1.0 (25.4)

Over 24 (609.6) 1.5 (38.1)
Tubeless 3 inches

CARCASS VENTS

All tubeless tyres are vented in the lower sidewall area (and sometimes the crown and
shoulder regions) during manufacture. These vents are created manually by partial
piecing of the carcass rubber by the use of an awl. The awl is a sharp instrument
about 1.5mm diameter with a screw-driver like handle. These vents prevent ply
separation and tyre damage by relieving air pressure trapped between the carcass
plies and the sidewall rubber. These vent holes (marked by green coloured dots or
circles) will not cause undue air loss. Covering them with water or a soap solution
may show an intermittent bubbling, which is normal.

Tubed tyres are vented right through the casing in the bead area.

Sometimes called awl holes or awl hole vents.

IN-SITU TYRE MAINTENANCE

Tyres (and wheels and brakes) should be inspected after each landing and before each
take-off for general condition and correct tyre inflation. At the times laid down in the
aircraft maintenance schedule the tyre and wheel assembly should be given a more
thorough inspection. With all aircraft, after a heavy landing, the wheel and tyre
assembly should be removed and sent to the tyre bay for overhaul.

Tread Wear

Tyres should be removed when the tread has worn to the base of any groove at any
spot, or to the minimum depth as specified in the AMM or tyre manufacturer’s
manual (see the previous paragraph headed ‘Tyre Wear’. Tyres worn to fabric (chord
fabric) in the tread area should be removed regardless of the tread remaining.

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If tread wear is excessive on one side, the tyre can be removed from the wheel (in the
tyre bay) and turned around, providing there is no exposed ply fabric. Gear
misalignment causing this condition should be investigated and corrected.

Any embedded stones etc should be removed and the area checked for damage and
cuts.

Cuts

Inspect treads and sidewalls for cuts and remove if:

1. There are any cuts into the fabric.

2. Cuts extending across more than 50% of the width of a rib.

To check for depth of a cut use a probe something like a blunt ice-pick. This requires
considerable sideways force to prize the rubber to one side to see the bottom of the
cut. Once the bottom of the cut can be seen the plies can be checked for damaged and
the area can be checked for foreign objects.

WARNING. Deflate the tyre before this procedure is carried out.

Small cuts can be filled with a tyre dough compound (check AMM/manufacturer’s
literature.

Bulges

Bulges in any part of tyre tread, sidewall or bead area, can indicate a separation of
the plies or an internally damaged tyre. Mark the area with a crayon and remove the
wheel/tyre assembly to the tyre bay.

Fabric Fraying/Groove Cracking

Tyres should be removed from service if groove cracking exposes fabric or if cracking
undercuts the tread ribs.

Sponginess

Usually caused by fuel, oil, etc coming into contact with the rubber. Wipe clean and if
the sponginess is slight then the tyre can remain in service. Otherwise remove to the
tyre bay.

Flat Spots

May be caused by skids due to excessive braking – ‘skid flats’, and those (on Nylon
corded tyres) caused by the tyre standing too long in one position and the tyre taking
on a ‘deformed flat’.

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Skid flats have the same limit of wear as previously described, though the wheel and
tyre assembly may have to be removed from the aircraft for balancing if excessive
vibration is reported.

Deformed flats (as opposed to wear flats), should work themselves out during the
early stages of taxiing. If it does not and excessive unbalance results then remove the
wheel/tyre assembly for overhaul.

Deformed flat-spotting is more severe and more difficult to work out during cold
weather. Moving a stationary aircraft regularly will lessen the probability of deformed
flat-spotting. If possible, an aircraft parked for long periods (30 days or more) should
be jacked up to remove the weight from the tyres. Alternatively move the aircraft
regularly or fit scrap tyres (MARK THEM IN RED PAINT THAT THEY ARE SCRAP AND
ENTER DETAILS IN THE TECH LOG).

Beads

Inspect bead areas next to the wheel flanges for damage due to excessive heat –
especially if brake drag (brakes not going completely off when selected) or severe
braking has been reported during ground taxi or take-off.

Creep

Check for creep. See previous paragraph on Creep.

Tyre Pressures

Always keep tyres at their correct inflation pressure. Under-inflation produces uneven
tread wear and shortens tyre life due to excessive flex heating and allows excessive
creep. Over inflation can cause uneven tread wear (in the centre of the crown),
reduced traction, makes the tread more susceptible to cutting and increases stress on
the wheels.

It is important to keep tyres on the same axle at the (same) correct pressure to ensure
both tyres experience the same load and to keep stresses in the landing gear to a
minimum.

Tyre pressures should be checked with an accurate (certified) gauge on a daily basis.
Ideally, pressures should be checked before each flight (check AMM and maintenance
schedule). Check only cool tyres. Gauges should be checked periodically and re-
calibrated as necessary.

The rated inflation pressure is stated in the AMM for each tyre. It normally applies to
unloaded cold tyres.

When a tyre is under load, the air chamber volume is reduced due to tyre deflection.
Therefore if unloaded pressure has been specified, that pressure should be increased
by about 4% to obtain the equivalent loaded inflation pressure.

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Adjusting Pressure for Temperature Change. When tyres are subjected to ground
temperature changes to rise in excess of 80°F (27°C) - for example, flights to a warmer
climate, inflation pressures should be adjusted for the worst case scenario prior to
take-off.

When adjusting the pressure at the warmer climate it is important to remember that
the pressure must not be below the minimum pressure at the cooler climate end of the
flight. Allowance must be made for the pressure drop in the cooler climate. An
ambient temperature change of 5°F (3°C) produces about a 1% tyre pressure change.

The following recommendations apply to cold inflation pressure settings:

1. Minimum pressure the cold inflation pressure necessary to support the

operational loads as determined by the formula under ‘Unloaded Inflation’
or as specified in the AMM.
2. The loaded inflation pressure must be specified (usually about 4% higher
than the unloaded inflation pressure). Check the AMM.
3. A tolerance of minus zero to plus 5 to 10% of the minimum pressure is the
recommended operating range.
4. If tyre-in-service cold pressure is checked and found to be less than the
minimum pressure, the following table should be consulted (or as specified
in the AMM/tyre manufacturer’s manual). In-service is defined as an
aircraft taxiing, taking off or landing but does not include hangared aircraft.

COLD TYRES – PRESSURE RECOMMENDED ACTION

100 to 95% correct pressure Inflate to correct pressure.

94 to 90% correct pressure Inflate to correct pressure. If still low at next daily
check replace wheel/tyre unit.

89% or less Remove wheel/tyre unit for overhaul together with

same axle unit.

Flat tyre Remove wheel/tyre unit together with axle mate for
overhaul if deflated whilst stationary. If deflated
whilst aircraft was moving, tyre and axle mate tyre
must be scrapped. If two or more tyres are run whilst
flat on a multi wheeled bogie unit then all tyres on
that unit must be scrapped.

HOT TYRES

When checking hot tyres, just after landing for

example, all pressures on the same bogie should be
the same. Any tyre pressure up to 90% of the highest
tyre pressure on the unit should be inflated to the
pressure of the highest tyre and checked on the next
daily check. If still low the wheel/tyre unit should be
changed. For bigger reductions follow the guide lines
as stated above.

TABLE 1 LOW TYRE PRESSURE – ACTION

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Notes

1. Excess inflation pressure should never be bled off from hot tyres. All
adjustments to inflation pressure (except those stated in the table above)
should be performed on tyres cooled to ambient temperature. Never
under-inflate.

2. Any tyre removed because of low inflation pressure should be inspected

by an authorised re-treader/approved overhaul facility to verify that it
has not sustained internal damage. If it has, the tyre must be scrapped.

Mounted Tubed Tyres. A tube-type tyre that has been freshly mounted and
installed should be monitored during the first week of operation, ideally
before every take-off. Air trapped between the tyre and the tube at the time of
mounting could seep out under the beads, through sidewall vents or around the
valve stem, resulting in an under-inflated assembly.

Mounted Tubeless Tyres. A slight amount of air diffusion through the carcass in
tubeless tyres is normal. The sidewalls are purposely vented in the lower sidewall area
to bleed off trapped air, preventing separation or blisters. A tyre can lose as much as
5% of the initial inflation pressure in a 24-hour period and still be considered normal.

Nylon Stretch. The initial stretch or growth of a new nylon tyre results in a pressure
drop after mounting. Consequently, nylon tyres should not be placed in service until
they have been inflated a minimum of 12 hours, the pressures re-checked and tyres
re-inflated as necessary.

Overheating

If the tyre shows signs of overheating due to excessive braking or brake rubbing then
the tyre should be scrapped. Signs of overheating include wheel paint flaking, melting
of fusible plugs and tackiness of rubber in the bead area.

TYRE BAY MAINTENANCE

This part of the book deals with maintenance of the tyre after it has been removed
from the aircraft (together with the wheel).

Here we will consider work that can be carried out by a local tyre-bay. The operator
must have a tyre-bay with properly qualified personnel and correct equipment to do
this work. If there are no such facilities then the wheel/tyre unit must be sent away
for overhaul.

Removal/replacement from the aircraft is recorded in the aircraft Log Book together
with the serial numbers of the wheel/tyre unit removed and the serial numbers of the
wheel/tyre unit fitted. The aircraft details should be recorded on the transport labels
(together with landings of the removed wheel/tyre unit) so the tyre bay can up-date its
records. The wheel/tyre bay will keep records on all tyres and wheels.

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Tyre Inspection

Once the unit is received in the tyre-bay and its documentation checked the unit is
dismantled (see later chapters) and the tyre is given a thorough inspection (as is the
wheel and tube – see later paragraphs). Some damage to the tyre can be repaired
locally provided the necessary equipment and qualified personnel are available.

Small cuts, minor damage and wear as specified in the tyre manufacturer’s manual
can be classified as negligible with no further action needed. If these limits are
exceeded, however, then the unit must be removed from the aircraft and sent to the
tyre-bay/overhaul facility/manufacturer for repair.

Repairs are carried out in accordance with the tyre manufacture’s repair manual after
first classifying the damage. Damage classification is mainly based on whether there
is ply damage and how much.

The tyre should be inspected both inside and outside to see if there is any visible
damage, cuts etc. Cuts should be inspected by using a steel probe to prize the rubber
apart to ascertain the depth of the cut and if any plies are exposed/damaged. Any
damage found is marked with chalk.

Damage Classification (always check the tyre manufacturer’s manual)

1. Minor Damage. Damage to crown and sidewall rubber up to 38mm in length

not exposing the casing plies. The tyre may have several damaged areas in this
category and still be repairable locally.

2. Damage involving cut cords in the tread area. A maximum of 20% of the
cord layers can be damaged or a maximum of 4 cords.

If the damage is above these limits then the tyre must be returned to the
manufacturer for assessment.

Typical Repair

All repairs are carried out with the tyre mounted on the wheel (or dummy wheel) and
inflated to 20 to 30psi (140 to 210kPa) for crown and shoulder repairs and 10 to 20psi
(70 to 140kPa) for sidewall repairs. All repairs are carried out at the manufacturer’s or
in at an approved type maintenance facility.

In general the procedure is as follows:

1. Refer to the repair manual for maximum size and number of repairs, per
tyre and in what area and the actual method to use.
2. Remove the rubber from around the damage using a rotary powered
rasp, hollow powered drill or special knife. (Author’s comment: ‘Not an
easy task’). Do not cut any cords. Bevel the edges to 45° (figure 9b).
3. Where any cords have been damaged coat both ends of each cord with
repair solution and apply tyre repair compound. Roll well down.
4. Roughen the bevelled sides with a powered rotary wire brush. Ensure all
cords are exposed.

- 16 -
5. Apply two coats of repair solution, working the first well into the cords.
6. Apply successive layers of repair compound, rolling each layer down
firmly. Build up to above the surrounding rubber (figure 9c) and trim
surplus compound away with a sharp knife using water as a lubricant
(figure 9d). Clean and dust area with French chalk.
7. Fit suitably shaped base plate to vulcanising unit and pre-heat (normal
temperature is 150°C). These units are not too unlike an electric iron in
principle in that they are electrically heated with thermostatic
temperature control.
8. Strap vulcanising unit to tyre and allow to cure repair compound for the
time stated – in a table, supplied with the machine. The times are
related to repair compound thickness. Figure 9e shows the vulcanising
unit fitted in position but with straps not shown for clarity.

Fig. 9 TYRE REPAIR

9. Remove unit and test the repair compound. A pencil pressed into the
rubber should spring back out and not leave an indent. If it does, the
vulcanising unit should be strapped back on for a further 15 minutes.
10. Re-cut the tyre tread using a sharp knife or hollow drill (again, not an
easy task). Figure 9f.
11. Inspect repair – both inside and outside the tyre, after removing tyre
from wheel. Record details of repair on the tyre record card (or computer
records).
12. Balance tyre on balancing machine. Mark light spot on tyre.

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REMOULDING TYRES

The strength of the tyre is in the carcass plies and the rubber surrounding it mainly
provides a wearing and water-proof covering. So when the tread becomes worn the
tyre can have its life extended by having it replaced with new rubber.

Before a brand new type of tyre can be remoulded it is put through a ‘life survey,
where its structural condition is monitored. If a first remould is allowed, the survey
continues until the second remould and so on. At the end of the survey a maximum
optimum number of remoulds will be established for the tyre/aircraft combination
(some as many as 10 times).

Replacing the carcass rubber is carried out by the manufacturer or an approved

specialist company and can be one of two methods:

Retread. This term applies when the crown and shoulder rubber is replaced and
cured in a special mould without affecting the sidewalls.

Remould. This term is used to describe the same process but the tyre is put into its
original mould and the crown and shoulder are cured and the sidewall is
re-cured.

The process briefly:

1. An examination is carried out by a qualified inspector to ascertain the

suitability of the strength of the carcass.
2. The old tread/rubber is buffed off and the carcass inspected again.
3. The area is treated with adhesive compound and a layer of un-cured
rubber is rolled on around the tyre.
4. The tyre is placed in the appropriate mould. A special reinforced tube is
inflated inside (to create the mould pressure) and the mould heated.
After the appropriate time the new rubber is vulcanised. The tube is
deflated, removed, and the tyre removed from the mould.
5. The tyre is inspected, marked with its remould number and balanced.
6. Its record card is up-dated.

INNER-TUBES

Not so common as they once used to be as most wheel/tyre arrangements use

tubeless tyres..

The inner-tube is the inner sack of the tyre that contains the air/nitrogen. It is
stretched slightly when pressurised, has little strength and is usually not 100% leak-
proof.

It is manufacturer by an extrusion process which forces a compound of hot rubber

through a circular die, thus producing a continuous length of rubber tubing. The
requisite length, according to the size of the tube required, is cut off, the ends are
then butt ‘welded’ together and a valve is fitted. The tube is placed in a mould,
inflated and vulcanised, so producing a finished tube to the required dimensions with
all the markings on. The size indicated on the tube is the same size as indicated on
the tyre.

- 18 -
During braking heat is generated which will tend to conduct to the outer parts of the
wheel and then to the tube and tyre. On some wheels this can be high enough to
cause damage to the standard tube. Thus some tubes are manufactured with a
thickened or reinforced base.

Fig. 10 TYPES OF INNER TUBE

Balance Mark

A red line or red dots indicates the heavy spot of the tube. Otherwise the valve is
assumed to be the heavy spot.

Tube Inspection

Tubes and tube base supports may be cleaned with a warm soapy wash prior to
examination and dried thoroughly. Slight creasing or surface cracking on the tube
may be disregarded. On fabric-based tubes, small splits in the reinforcement area or
minor blisters in the rubber covering around the base of the valve stem, and small
pinholes may be ignored provided the tube maintains strength and pressure. The tube
rubber may deteriorate with age indicated by hardening of the rubber.

A method used in examination of tubes requires the marking of two parallel lines, one
inch apart, anywhere in the crown area of the tube and stretching the tube until the
lines are approximately two inches apart. The stretched surface of the rubber can
then be examined.

If there are no signs of cracking on the surface of the rubber and if, when released,
the tube assumes its original condition without evidence of permanent set, then the
tube can be considered serviceable.

NOTE. Tubes which have been subjected to excessive heat are scrapped.

TUBE REPAIRS

Carried out as laid down by the tube manufacturer, and, typically may include repairs
to holes away from the inflation valve area where no repairs are allowed. Maximum
hole sizes and total number of repairs per tube are specified. Examples:

Inflation Valve Stem Damage. Damaged threads may be re-tapped otherwise the tube
has to be scrapped. The inflation valve core may be replaced.

Small Holes. May be plugged with tube repair compound and vulcanised.

- 19 -
Larger Holes. The hole is cut to a round shape using scissors and the sides bevelled.
The sides are roughened, cleaned, treated with repair solution and layers of repair
compound applied (similar to tyre repairs but with fewer layers). The area is
vulcanised using a flat base plate. The repair is prevented from being vulcanised to
the opposite side of the tube by first inserting a piece of paper inside the tube through
the hole to lay between the repair and the other side of the tube.

STORAGE – TYRES & TUBES

Whenever possible, tyres should be stored vertically on tyre racks and kept in their
original wrappings, if wrapped. The surface of the tyre against which the weight of the
tyre rests should be flat and, if possible, 3 to 4” (76mm to 102mm) wide to minimise
tyre distortion.

If stored vertically the tyre should be turned every 2 to 3 months to reduce any
possible distortion (flats).

Stacking of tubed tyres horizontally is permissible, however, care must be taken to

prevent distortion of the tyres on the bottom of the stack. The maximum
recommended stacking height is 4 tyres. Do not stack tubeless tyres horizontally. This
may cause their width to decrease which may prevent inflation when fitted to the
wheel.

Tubes should be stored in their original cartons whenever possible. If stored without
their cartons, in bins or on shelves, they should be dusted with talcum powder and
wrapped in heavy paper.

Tubes can also be stored in matching tyres. Tyres should be clean and dusted with
talcum powder with tubes inflated just enough to round them out.

Under no circumstances should tubes be hung over fittings, pegs or over any object
that might form a crease in the tube. Such a crease will eventually produce a crack in
the rubber.

Tyres and tubes should be stored in a cool, dry place out of direct sunlight and
temperatures should be between 50°F (10°C) and 80°F (27°C).

The store-room should not have any fluorescent lights, electric motors, battery
charges, electric welding equipment, electric generators or similar equipment. They
create ozone (O3), which has a deteriorating effect on rubber.

Tyres and tubes should be stored on a ‘first in first out’ basis and records should be
kept detailing each item’s part number, serial number, wheel fitted to, tube fitted,
aircraft fitted to, number of previous landings before going on the aircraft, number of
landings coming off the aircraft etc. Records should cross-refer to other documents
such as aircraft log books, EASA form 1, etc.

Care should be taken that tyres do not come in contact with oil, gasoline, jet fuel,
hydraulic fluids or similar hydrocarbons. Rubber is attacked by these in varying
degrees. Be particularly careful not to stand or lay tyres on floors that are covered
with these contaminants.

- 20 -
All tyres and tubes should be inspected immediately upon receipt for shipping and
handling damage and correct referencing to EASA form 1.

Storage pressures for assembled wheels and tyres are given by the tyre manufacturer.
Sometimes quoted as 20 to 30psi (140 to 210kPa). Michelin state 25% of normal
pressure and the CAA state 20% of unloaded pressure.

It is recommended that storage life (shelf life) be limited to 4 years but at the most 7.
After this time the tyre/tube should be returned to the manufacturer for assessment.

WHEELS

Aircraft wheels for transport category aircraft must comply with design standard TSO
C26c.

While there are many different designs of wheel, and sizes and weights vary, the
classification of wheels falls into four main headings:

1. Well Based. The well-based wheel is in one piece and has a deep well in
the centre of the hub. Car, motorbike and bicycle wheels are of this type.
Usually only fitted to light aircraft and used with tubed tyres.

2. Divided Wheel. The divided wheel comprises of either two half hubs
bolted together (two piece divided wheel) (common) or a centrepiece with
a half hub bolted either side (three piece divided wheel).

3. Loose Flange. The loose flange wheel has a single flange retained by a
lock-ring, either round, wedge shaped or a three-piece flange with the
pieces bolted together.

4. Detachable Flange. The detachable flange is bolted onto the wheel hub.

As with motor vehicles it is important to keep the weight (mass) of wheels and brakes
as low as possible (low un-sprung weight). This means that aircraft wheels are made
of low density metal such as aluminium alloy (Al alloy) (2.8 kg/m3) or magnesium
alloy (1.7 kg/m3). Magnesium alloy is less dense (lighter) and casts well though it can
burn under certain circumstances.

The wheels are usually cast and the wheel base areas are impregnated with a bakelite
solution to prevent air permeating through the porous metal (for tubeless wheels).
Most wheels these days are made from aluminium alloy. Brake drive blocks are either
made integral with the wheel or fitted after casting. The centre of the wheel is
machined to take the wheel bearings and some machining is carried out for any other
fitments.

The standard anti-corrosive treatment for aluminium alloy is anodising and for
magnesium alloy it is chromate immersion. Wheels are usually painted a silver colour
which is s good colour to reflect heat.

- 21 -
The Well Base Wheel (figure 11)

The centre of the bead seat area is recessed to allow fitment and removal of the tyre.
When easing the bead of the tyre over the flange of the wheel (say at the 12 o’clock
position) the bead of the tyre is at the 6 o’clock position positioned in the wheel well.

As anyone who has ever changed a tyre will know – it is not easy. It is difficult to
change on a bicycle tyre let alone a car tyre or an aeroplane tyre.

Fig. 11 WELL BASED WHEEL

The tyre bead coils are made of high tensile steel wire and wound around many times,
so they will not stretch and forcing the bead over the wheel flange is a difficult task.
This is why many wheels have provision to remove the flange and bolt it back on once
the new tyre has been fitted.

With reference to figure 11 note the bearings (ball races). Note also the bi-metallic
brake drum secured to the wheel. It is normally mounted so there is an air gap
between it and the wheel. This allows for cooling air between drum and wheel and
helps reduce brake drum heat from passing into the wheel and then into the tyre. Any
heat to the tyre will cause a pressure rise.

Note also the knurling on the wheel flange which grips the tyre and helps prevent tyre
creep.

The Divided Wheel (figure 12)

Consists of two half wheels matched up and connected by bolts which pass through
the two halves. The bolts are fitted with self-locking nuts. There is a seal between the
two halves on tubeless wheels to prevent air leakage between the halves. The wheel
may not be exactly in two halves and one side might be bigger than the other (both
the same diameter of course).

- 22 -
In figure 12 note:

* The roller bearings.

* The wheel mounted valve and seal, indicating the wheel is designed for a
tubeless tyre.
* The bolts holding the two halves together.
* The drive blocks (inner and outer) to drive the plate brakes.

Fig. 12 DIVIDED TYPE WHEEL

Loose and Detachable Flange Wheels

Wheels of this type are made with one flange integral with the wheel body and the
other a loose flange and machined to fit over the wheel rim on the other side. The
difference between the loose and detachable flange type is the method by which the
removable flange is secured.

The loose flange (figures 13 and 14) is retained by a locking device (similar to a large
circlip) on the wheel rim and the detachable flange (figure 15) is secured to the wheel
body by studs/bolts and nuts. The loose flange type may have a flange that is a single
piece, or consist of two or three pieces bolted together.

The loose flange is secured by a lock-ring (similar to a circlip), which is fitted in a

groove in the wheel rim. When assembling the wheel and tyre, the tyre is fitted over
the wheel and the loose flange is fitted and pushed down on the tyre. The lock-ring is
snapped into its groove, the downward pressure is removed from the loose flange and
the tyre pushes it up so as to cover the lock ring.

When the tyre is inflated, it forces the loose flange even harder to cover the lock-ring,
thus trapping it in the groove. This prevents disengagement of the ring, which is
locked to the flange and wheel rim by the side pressure of the tyre. For additional
security some lock-rings are joined at the ends by a lock plate and screws after fitting
(figure 13).

- 23 -
Figure 14 shows details of two different types of lock ring, with the lower one being
more streamlined. The pictures show the position of the loose flange in the ‘tyre
inflated’ position.

To prevent rotation of the loose flange on the wheel rim, a locating collar on the lock-
ring engages in a recess in both the wheel rim and the flange, so they are all locked
radially together.

Fig. 13 LOOSE FLANGE WHEEL

Fig. 14 LOOSE FLANGE DETAIL

Note the fusible plug in figure 13. Used on fixed wing aircraft tubeless wheels to allow
rapid (and full) deflation of the tyre should it become over pressurised, and weakened,
by excessive brake heat. Prevents the tyre from ‘exploding’ when retracted in the
wheel well (more of this later).

- 24 -
The loose flange wheel has had problems in relation to the correct (or more accurately
the incorrect locking of the lock-ring and in some cases there has been disengagement
during service with serious consequences. To help get round this problem a multi-
piece flange was designed.

The multi-piece flange may consist of two or three pieces, each bossed to
accommodate securing bolts. Each piece has a beading of semi-circular section on its
inner face. This engages in a corresponding groove in the wheel rim.

In general, detachable flanges are preferred for safety reasons.

The detachable flange (figure 15) is positioned on the wheel and bolted into position
using studs and self-locking nuts.

Note in figure 15 the tapered bead seat. This ensures a ‘tight’ fit of the tyre when it is
inflated. As the tyre in inflated so the tyre bead is pushed outwards and rides up the
taper, ensuring a firm grip on the wheel. This helps prevent Creep (more of this later).

Tapered bead seats are common to all wheels.

Fig. 15 DETACHABLE FLANGE DETAIL

TUBELESS WHEELS

The main differences between wheels designed for tubeless tyres and wheels designed
for tubed tyres are that a wheel designed for a tubeless tyre will have:

* An inflation valve fitted to the wheel.

* The area in contact with the pressure air/nitrogen is impregnated with
an air-tight sealant (eg bakelite).
* There is no knurling (see figure 11) on the wheel flanges – allows better
sealing between tyre and wheel.
* Fitted with fusible alloy plugs.
* Rubber ‘O’ rings fitted between wheel halves/detachable/loose flanges.
* Fitted with an over pressurising valve (on some wheels).

- 25 -
Fusible Alloy Plugs (Tubeless Wheels on Fixed Wing Aircraft)

When the landing gear is retracted in the wheel-well the heat from the brakes will
transfer by conduction to the wheel and then into the tyre. This will increase the
pressure in the tyre, but more importantly it will start to ‘cook’ the rubber. This
‘cooking’ process changes the properties of the rubber and weakens the tyre. This
could lead to an explosive disintegration of the tyre. To avoid this, fusible plugs are
fitted – usually several per wheel.

The plug (figure 16) consists of a rubber air seal supported by a piston all held in
place by a screwed-in fusible plug. When the fusible plug melts (at about 150°C), the
piston and air seal will be blown out and the tyre will deflate – quickly but safely.

Fig. 16 FUSIBLE ALLOY PLUG

If the aircraft has a Rejected Take-Off (RTO) late in the take-off run then considerable
heat is generated by the brakes and it is quite common for the fusible plugs to blow.
In this case wheels must be returned to the manufacturer for inspection and the tyres
scrapped.

When-ever the fusible plug assembly is changed it is important to fit the correct
replacement using the item part number and the IPC (Illustrated Parts Catalogue) for
reference. Plugs are designed to blow at specific temperatures – related to the wheel
and the aircraft it is fitted to.

Pressure Release Valves

Some tubeless wheels are fitted with a Pressure Release Valve. This prevents the tyre
from accidental over-inflation. Some are fitted with a Pressure Release Plug that
ruptures when over pressurised.

- 26 -
GENERAL

Creep

In service the tyre has a tendency to rotate (creep) around the wheel on fixed wing
aircraft. Caused by the sudden rotational acceleration of the tyre as the aircraft
touches down – the tyre moves circumferentially a fraction of an inch on each
landing. The total creep over many landings can cause damage to the tyre bead region
and tear out the inflation valve (on tubed wheels) causing tyre deflation.

Creep can be kept to a minimum by correct inflation, and design methods can include
the following:

* Knurled flange. The inner face of the wheel flange is milled so that the
side pressure on the tyre locks the bead to the knurled surface of the
flange. Not on tubeless wheels.

* Tapered bead seat. The wheel base is tapered to increase its diameter
towards the flange. As the tyre is inflated and the bead moves outwards
towards the flange it forms a tight fit on the wheel.

Protective Treatments

All wheels are given a primary anti corrosive treatment followed by a paint treatment.
Other treatments are applied but the most popular primary treatments are:

Magnesium alloy wheels - chromate treatment.

Aluminium alloy wheels - anodic treatment.

WHEEL MAINTENANCE

Some wheel maintenance can be carried out in-situ, but some will require the
specialist equipment and personnel found in a maintenance bay/at the
manufacturers. Some of what follows comes into the latter category.

Check wheels for damage. Wheels that are cracked or damaged beyond limits should
be taken out of service for repair or replacement in accordance with the
manufacturer’s instructions.

Minor damage may be blended out and an anti corrosive treatment applied. There is
generally no damage allowed to the wheel area in contact with the tyre.

Valves

Before deflating and removing the tyre from the wheel, check the valve. Put a drop of
water on the end of the valve and watch for bubbles indicating escaping gas. Tighten
valve core if loose. Replace valve core if defective and repeat leak test. Check the valve
stem and its mounting for leaks with a soap solution.

- 27 -
If the valve stem threads are damaged, stems can usually be re-threaded inside or
outside by the use of a valve repair tool without demounting the tyre. Fit a valve cap
to prevent ingress of any moisture or debris.

Pressure Release Valves

Check for serviceability and check for leaks. If defective the valve may be changed in
the tyre bay. Ensure correct replacement.

Fusible Plugs

Use a soap solution to check fusible plugs for leaks before removing the tyre from the
wheel. Leaks can usually be pinpointed to a poor fit between the plug seal and the
plug body, or to the ‘O’ ring seal. Check (in the tyre bay) that they are correctly fitted
and are the correct specification.

If excessive heat has caused a fusible plug to blow, the tyre is scrapped, and the
wheel almost certainly damaged. The unit must be replaced.

After a fusible plug blows, the wheel must be inspected to ensure there is no
mechanical damage (using NDT equipment as appropriate) in accordance with the
manufacturer’s instructions. This will include bearings and all wheel fitments. All
rubber parts of the wheel such as ‘O’ ring seals must be replaced.

All wheels on the same bogie/axle must be removed from the aircraft for the same
(tyre-bay/manufacturer) inspection.

Bead Seat Areas

Check for leaks from the porous base or fitting attachment areas using an immersion
test.

A porous wheel base is sealed by painting or by an impregnation process. Leakage

around holes drilled into the wheel base for mounting purposes are rectified in
accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions.

Cracks cannot be repaired and reference must be made to the manual.

The ‘O’ Ring Seal

A defective seal between the wheel halves can usually be detected in an immersion
test. Check to see that wheel bolts are properly torqued. A leaking ‘O’ ring must be
changed.

- 28 -
Beads and Flanges

Check the bead and flange areas of a wheel/tyre for leaks before demounting. This
can be done either by immersion or by using a soap solution. Any of the following
factors can cause air loss:

1. Cracks or scratches in wheel bead edge or flange area.

2. Dirty or corroded surface on wheel bead seating surfaces.
3. Damaged or improperly seated tyre bead.

Bead ‘Stick’

When the wheel and tyre have been in service the tyre bead will tend to ‘bond’ to the
wheel flange and this is called ‘Bead Stick’. It is not easy to break this ‘stick’.

Tyre levers may be used on wheels equipped with a tyre and tube combination only
when no tyre removal machine is available or when the design/size of the wheel and
tyre make the use of the machine impossible. Tyre levers MUST NOT be used on
wheels designed for tubeless tyres if the sealing between the wheel and the tyre are to
remain unimpaired. Tubeless tyres must only be freed from the wheel bead seats
using a tyre removal machine.

Flanges, Brake Drums and Drive Blocks

As always, refer to the manual for the particular type of wheel. In general the
procedure is as follows:

1. Clean metal parts with trichloroethane and dry with compressed air.
Ensure bead seat areas are free from grease, oil and foreign matter, eg
rubber smears.
2. Clean roller bearings with white spirit, thinners or trichloroethane.
Bearings corrode rapidly if left un-greased. Clean, examination and re-
grease within 30 mins. Alternatively, coat bearing with light oil (eg
DTD585) until required for assembly, then clean and re-grease.
3. Examine wheel flanges for chips, dents and flats. Such damage may be
dressed out with a smooth file and emery cloth, blending out any sharp
edges. Dressing must be kept within permitted limits for negligible
damage (refer to the relevant wheel publication). This damage must not
be of sufficient extent to break into the surface of the tyre from where it
contacts the flange. Examine the lock-ring (if fitted) and groove for
damage and corrosion.
4. Brake drums must be inspected in position in the wheel. Removal
following inspection will depend on type of brake drum and extent of
damage. Heat may cause excessive distortion and the appropriate gauge
must be used to check the internal diameter of the drum at several
points for ovality and irregular wear, iaw the specified limits. Examine
for excessive scoring and also for transverse fissures caused by ‘crazing’,
a condition liable to occur in bimetal brake drums, due to the effects of
differing temperatures at the inner and outer periphery of the drum
when the brakes are applied. Wheels designed for disc brakes have only
drive blocks fitted and no other brake components fitted – usually.

- 29 -
 5. Check the drive blocks for wear, security, damage and corrosion.

After any repair or inspection of a wheel or its parts, particular care must be taken to
restore any protective finish.

Record any work done on the wheel record card, or on the computer records if
computerised.

Wheel Bearing End-Float

Tapered roller bearings fitted to aircraft wheels require careful adjustment when the
wheel is fitted to the aircraft axle. The predetermined clearance end-float ensures the
bearing is free running and the bearing takes up its normal path. It also allows for
expansion because of heat generated by the brakes.

GENERAL

An inflated tyre is a potentially ‘explosive’ device. Mounting and demounting of tyres

to/from the wheel is a specialised job that is best done with the correct equipment
and properly trained personnel. The following precautions should be observed when
working on wheel/tyre units:

* Prior to removing the wheel/tyre assembly from the aircraft deflate the
tyre with a deflation cap. When all pressure has been relieved, remove
the valve core. Valve cores under pressure can be ejected like a bullet, so
be careful. If you suspect the wheel or tyre could fail structurally,
approach the tyre from the front or rear, not from the side (facing the
wheel).

* Take special care when encountering difficulty in freeing tyre beads from
wheel flanges. Trying to pry beads free incorrectly may cause an
accident. Even with special tyre removal tools, care must be taken to
prevent damage to beads or wheel flanges. On small tyres, successive
pressing with a two-foot length of wood close to the bead or tapping with
a rubber mallet is generally sufficient. On large tyres, a hydraulic or
mechanical bead-breaking press may be required.

WHEEL REPAIRS

For large organisations this will be carried out in the wheel maintenance bay after
removal of the tyre and the wheel dismantling. For smaller firms the wheel will have
to be sent away for overhaul.

Always refer to the AMM, wheel manufacturer’s repair manual etc.

- 30 -
Corrosion Removal

The procedure to be used when removing corrosion from a particular wheel would be
laid down in the relevant servicing manual. The following is an example of a typical
procedure. Slight damage or corrosion may be removed by using a solvent or polishing
out with a smooth hone or grade 00 carborundum cloth.

More serious corrosion on Al alloy wheels can be removed using aluminium wool and
on magnesium alloys use 10% chromic acid and 0.1% sulphuric acid in distilled
water, rinse with water and dry. Restore the protective finish.

Blending Out Slight Damage

This can be affected by careful use of a smooth file, hone or carborundum cloth.
Lightly polish away the damage taking care to stay strictly within the limits laid down
in the manual.

Restore Surface Finish

Certain chemical pre-treatment processes may be applied where surface finish has
been removed locally by dressing or chemical stripping, eg ALOCHROM 1200, an
acidified chromate, is used extensively for the pre-treatment of aluminium and
magnesium alloys. It produces a chromate film which increases corrosion resistance
and provides an ideal surface for subsequent painting. It is not suitable for use prior
to etch priming.

NOTE. Before commencing any pre-treatment process, all non-metallic items and
fusible alloy plugs must be removed.

Strict adherence to the correct procedures and precautions when using Alochrom
1200 is of the utmost importance (please see EASA modules 6/7 books for more
detailed information).

Replacing Bearings and Seals

Replacement of bearings and seals must be carried out in accordance with the wheel
manual. Details of the pressing and removal tools for a particular wheel will be given.
A typical example procedure for pressing in an outer race is as follows:

1. Grease the bearing housing in the liner, steel sleeve or hub with the
approved lubricant.
2. Set up the wheel on the hydraulic press table with press tools in
position.
3. Position the distance piece over the mandrel, then place the hub over
the mandrel.
4. Position the outer race on the lip of the bearing housing with the smaller
diameter of the sleeve in the outer race. Locate the collar over the
mandrel.
5. Ensure the head of the mandrel is central beneath the jack. Apply the
minimum of hydraulic pressure necessary to push the outer race into its
housing.

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 Fig. 17 BEARING PRESS

Warning. It is important that no excessive pressure is applied to the outer race during
this operation. Investigate the cause if the outer race will not seat correctly. Failure to
adhere to this warning could result in irreparable damage to the wheel structure.

Remove the press tools and check with a feeler gauge on the gap between the base of
the outer race and the wheel seating. It should be zero or nearly so (the manual will
specify the maximum gap). If the gap is too big, set up the wheel press and tools as
before and apply further pressure.

The inner race would normally be placed in position by hand after being lubricated
and will be retained, with the seal in its housing, by a circlip.

Replacing Fusible Plugs

The following is an example of the procedure to be followed when fitting new fusible
plugs:

1. Smear the new seals and new ‘O’ rings with the type of silicone grease laid
down in the servicing manual. Insert the seals into the fusible plug casings
and fit the ‘O’ rings around the casings.
2. Grease the threads of the plugs with the same grease type used on the seals
and screw into the wheel to a torque loading of 16lbin (or as laid down).
Secure plugs with locking wire to adjacent lock screws.

Bead Lubrication in Mounting Both Tubeless and Tube Type Tyres

It is often desirable to lubricate the toes of the inner edges of the beads. This is done
with an approved talcum powder only. This will facilitate mounting and seating of the
beads against the wheel flanges. Care must be used with tubeless tyres, however, to
ensure that none of the talc gets on the sealing area of the bead.

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 MOUNTING PROCEDURES (ASSEMBLING TYRE TO WHEEL)

Safety Precautions

Deflate all tyres before wheel/tyre disassembly. A clip-on inflation adapter, an

extension hose and a safety cage must be used for first inflation after wheel and tyre
assembly. A direct reading or dial type pressure gauge should be used. Use of
excessive gas pressure to seat beads can cause wheel failure and result in serious
injury.

ASSEMBLING TUBELESS TYRE TO SPLIT WHEEL

1. Check manufacturer’s manual.

2. Check for word ‘Tubeless’ on tyre sidewall.
3. Make sure tyre is clean inside.
4. Ensure wheel is of the tubeless type and correct for the tyre to be fitted.
Inspect the wheel halves for damage and corrosion. Fit new rubber seals
and check for security. Inspect all fittings for security – inflation valve,
drive blocks, fusible plugs, bearings etc. Make sure that the ‘halves’ of
the wheel are the correct halves and fit correctly oriented to each other.
5. Inspect the tyre. Check that it is undamaged and within the wear limits
if a used tyre. Check that it is the correct tyre and is the correct size.
6. Clean the bead base with a cloth dampened with denatured alcohol.
7. Lubricate bead region with approved talcum powder.
8. Align red balance mark (light spot) on tyre with wheel valve or wheel
heavy spot. Lower the tyre onto the first halve of the wheel.
9. Ensure that tyre fits first halve of wheel correctly and place second halve
on the top of the first – ensuring they mate correctly.
10. Correctly torque wheel bolts (dry torque or wet torque – check manual)
as per the wheel manufacturer’s instructions. Existing self locking nuts
can be used provided they still maintain their minimum torque, though
many manufacturers recommend new nuts anyway. Nuts are tightened
progressively diagonally (12 o’clock, 6 o’clock, 1 o’clock, 7 o’clock etc.)
11. Place assembly in inflation safety cage.
12. With inflation valve core removed to permit maximum inflation rate,
inflate tyre. Maximum inflation airflow is required to ‘blow’ the tyre sides
out to make a contact air seal of bead to wheel rim, thus allowing
inflation to occur. As soon as tyre bead seats on wheel rim cease
inflation.
13. Remove inflation line (releasing pressure). Fit valve core and re-inflate
tyre to rated pressure slowly using inflation gauge and correct inflation
medium (eg nitrogen).
14. Check concentricity of fitting lines.
15. Check for any obvious signs of leakage, particularly from the valve.
16. After a 12-hour stretch period check pressure. If pressure loss is more
than 10% reject unit. If pressure loss is less than 10%, top up to correct
pressure.
17. After 12 hours check pressure again. If pressure drops more than 2½%
reject unit, if less, it is considered serviceable.
18. Record serial number of tyre and wheel onto tyre bay records. Record
details of assembly, date and sign. Label wheel/tyre assembly.

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ASSEMBLING TUBED TYRE TO SPLIT WHEEL

1. Check the mating tyre and tube are as specified and correct for the
wheel-tyre assembly (size etc). Check the manufacturer’s manual. If in
doubt as to tube condition fit new one.
2. Inspect the wheel and tyre as for tubeless tyres. Inspect the tube also.
3. Clean inside of tyre and dust lightly with talcum powder/French chalk.
4. Place fully deflated tube inside tyre and inflate slightly to round out the
tube in the tyre.
5. Align the yellow (or red) stripe on the tube (heavy spot) with red balance
circles on the tyre heel region (light spot). Assume the tube valve is the
heavy spot if no painted stripe on the tube.
6. Move your hand around the inside of the tyre between tyre and tube to
ensure there are no creases in the tube. If there are it will soon develop a
leak.
7. Lower tyre and tube assembly onto first half of wheel (placed on a
rubber mat), ensuring valve stem lowers into wheel valve slot.
8. Align second half of wheel with first half and lower into position.
9. Fit wheel bolts and nuts and torque to wheel manufacturers’
instructions/AMM before inflating.
10. Inflate tyre slowly to rated pressure using safety cage. Take 2 minutes to
inflate to 20psi and a further 4 minutes to get to correct pressure. This
reduces the possibility of trapping air between tube and tyre.
11. Deflate to equalise stretch in the tube.
12. Re-inflate to rated pressure using the same procedure as at 10.
13. Check concentricity of tyre fitting lines with wheel rim.
14. Check for obvious signs of leakage particularly the inflation valve.
15. Carry out an air retention check as described above.
16. Carry out similar documentation as before.

Notes 1. If time is short, an air retention check may be carried out by an

immersion test using a large container of water. For tubeless tyres it is
carried out 20 minutes after inflation to allow for first stage venting.

2. Venting in tubeless tyres is air venting out of the awl holes. It is

considered to vent in 3 stages.

First stage. The venting of air from the casing. Complete in about 20
minutes.

Second stage. Slow seepage of casing air lasting up to several hours.

Third stage. Continuous permeation of air through the ‘air proof’

membrane. Usually very slight.

ASSEMBLY INSTRUCTIONS – GENERAL

Below are listed general points with regard to assembling wheels and tyres. These
include variations in the procedures as applied to well based wheels and to
loose/detachable flange wheels.

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‘O’ Ring Seal

Ensure that the sealing ring (fitted between the two halves of wheels and between
loose/detachable flanges and the wheel to prevent leakage on tubeless wheels) is free
from deformation, ageing and general damage. Lightly grease the sealing ring with
silicone grease before assembly.

Stretch the sealing ‘O’ ring evenly on to the wheel and ensure that it seats correctly
into its groove. Ensure that the tyre beads do not become contaminated with the
grease from the sealing ring.

On divided type wheels, tighten diametrically opposite nuts alternately to avoid

misalignment of the sealing ring and distortion of the half hubs. For the same reason,
ensure that the flange on loose flange wheels is pushed evenly into position using this
method. Remember – nuts and bolts may be dry or wet assembled – but check with
the wheel/aircraft manual. THIS IS MOST IMPORTANT.

Assembling Well Based Wheel & Tyre

Proceed as for items 1. to 3. for tubed tyre and split wheel above. Fit lower bead of
tyre to wheel using the wheel well. Take small ‘bites’ of the bead until all of lower bead
is fitted to wheel. With tube placed on top of the tyre, rotate to align valve stem with
valve stem hole in wheel. Rotate tyre to align tyre light spot with tube heavy spot
(valve if nun indicated). Fit tube inside the tyre and locate valve stem into wheel hole
and fit valve stem knurled locking collar. Inflate tube slowly just enough to round out
the tube. Using the hand ensure tube fits smoothly inside the tyre. Fit top bead of tyre
to wheel using the wheel well ensuring that the tube does not become trapped. Inflate
tyre similar to procedures 10. to 16. above.

Loose/Detachable Flange Wheels

For tubeless wheels proceed as for items 1. to 8. assembling a tubeless tyre & split
wheel above. With item 8 the tyre is lowered onto the wheel and the loose
flange/detachable flange is lowered into position. 9. The tyre is pushed down so the
loose flange can be pushed down far enough the allow location of the locking ring. The
loose flange is allowed to be pushed back up by the tyre so trapping the locking ring
in position. The ends of the lock ring are bolted together. If the flange is a detachable
flange it is secured in position, tightening nuts diagonally.

For a tubed wheel follow items 1. to 7. assembling a tubed tyre & split wheel above
then proceed as for item 9. above.

Inflation After Assembly

Use a safety cage. Any incorrectly fitted flange or an insecurely attached inflation
adaptor could be the cause of serious injury if it were to fail and fly off. It is essential
for the operator to stand away from the loose flange side of the wheel during inflation
and to use a clip-on or screw-on type connector. A screw-on type should be used
when high-pressure inflation is involved.

- 35 -
Checks must be made both before and during the early stages of inflation to
determine the correct location of the flange and on tubed tyres, the valve. If any defect
is discovered during the inflation, the tyre must be deflated before any rectification is
attempted. For tubeless tyres:

1. Remove the valve core to permit maximum airflow for rapid inflation. Rapid
inflation is required to get the tyre beads to move out and start to form a
seal against the wheel flanges.

2. Connect a suitable nitrogen* pressure supply to the valve and inflate

rapidly to spread the tyre walls against the flanges. Stop pressurising once
this condition is achieved.

If a seal cannot be affected, stand the assembly vertically and apply a

circumferential load around the crown. Use a rope tied around the tyre
circumference and pull it tight to cause the tyre to compress and force the
beads outwards.

* Tyres inflated with air and subject to excessive heating due to braking
action can experience a chemical reaction releasing volatile gases. In the
presence of oxygen this can cause an explosion.

AN 70 (now transferred to CAP 747 GR 16) applies to UK registered aircraft

with an MTWA exceeding 5700kg. It requires that tyres on aeroplanes with
retractable landing gear should be inflated with a suitable inert gas with
oxygen levels no greater than 5% by volume. Nitrogen is widely used.

For smaller aircraft, if air is used, it must be dry air with a moisture content
less than 0.02g/m3.

3. Disconnect the pressure line, allow to deflate and fit the appropriate valve
core using the correct torque spanner.

4. For assemblies requiring inflation up to 175psi (12.06 bars) inflate to the

required pressure as slowly as practicable and fit the valve cap.

5. For assemblies requiring pressures greater than 175psi, inflate the tyre to a
pressure of 140psi (10.33 bars) slowly then deflate completely. Check that
the tyre beads are properly seated on the wheel flanges. If not, re-inflate to
150psi and deflate completely. Finally, if the beads are correctly seated,
inflate the tyre slowly to working pressure and fit the valve cap.

6. After a period of time, the pressure may decrease due to tyre stretch, and
up to 10% can be regarded as normal.

Tyre and Tube Combinations

With tyre and tube combinations, tread separation and blistering can be caused by
incorrect inflation procedures. This is due to air being trapped between the tube and
the tyre. This condition is normally caused by inflating the tube too quickly.

- 36 -
Any trapped air will find its way through the tyre casing and finally build up between
the outer casing and the tread or sidewall. The resultant blister is easily detected on
the sidewall but not on the tread.

A leaking tube can cause the same kind of defect. If a blister does appear as a result
of trapped air, it will usually occur during the first 48 hours after inflation. If the
blister is located in the lower half of the sidewall and does not exceed 1in (25.4mm) in
diameter, relieve the pressure in the blister by puncturing the rubber with a sharp
instrument (called an awl) held parallel to the sidewall. If it is greater than 1.0in or is
located in the upper half of the tyre (shoulder crown), the tyre must be removed.

Small ridges are moulded on all high-pressure tubes to facilitate the escape of the
trapped air and tubes without such vent ridges must never be fitted in high-pressure
tyres.

Types up to 175psi

After fitting the tube, tyre and wheel together as described above proceed as follows:

1. Inflate tyre slowly to position beads fully on flanges.

2. Fully deflate to relieve local stretching and creasing of tube.
3. Check that the tube inflation valve is lined up, not under stress and seated
correctly.

After servicing operations that involve tyre deflation, wheel assemblies must be tested
iaw the relevant instructions.

These tests include a duration pressure test, when the assembly is allowed to stand
inflated for a period of 12 hours during which period checks are made on the
pressure. An immersion test (in water) can be carried out when time does not permit
the duration test. (The wheel bearings must not be submerged).

(Tyre pressures are given for cold tyres based on ambient conditions of 20°C [63°F]. A
temperature rise to 3°C will increase the pressure by about 1%.

Air Retention Test

When no leaks can be found on the previous checks, an air retention test must be
carried out. The tyre should be inflated to normal pressure and kept for at least 12
hours before starting the test.

This allows sufficient time for the casing to stretch, but can result in apparent air
loss. The tyre must be re-inflated after the stretch period to normal pressure.

Allow the tyre to stand at constant temperature for 24 hours and re-check
the pressure. If the pressure has dropped more than 10% the reason should be
investigated and rectified.

- 37 -
DISMANTLING PROCEDURES

Not too unlike the reverse of the assembling procedures described above. It is
important that the manufacture’s procedures are followed and that the tyre is fully
deflated before any work is carried out.

THE WHEEL CHANGE

Always consult the AMM, but the following points should be noted:

1. Jack aircraft with wheels clear of the ground using a bottle jack under
the landing gear of the wheel to be changed or use conventional jacking
(if outside on firm level ground if wind speeds permit).
2. Deflate the tyre.
3. For a multi disc brake assembly lock brake rotors in position by
applying parking brake or adjusting the brake pack assembly to fully
ON. This will clamp rotors and stators together so that drive block
alignment with the new wheel will be easier.
4. Remove cooling fan, axle nut locking device, axle nut and any tyre
pressure transducers, temperature transducers etc.
5. Fit thread protector.
6. For large wheels place wheel transportation trolley in position.
7. Slide wheel off axle. Retrieve bearings.
8. Send wheel/tyre assembly to tyre bay correctly labelled with details of
number of landings, aircraft removed from and reason for removal.
9. Inspect all areas where access previously was difficult. Inspect brake
pipes for damage, security, locking and leaks. Inspect the brake
assembly for wear, damage and security. Inspect the landing gear leg
and axle for wear, corrosion, damage and security. Check cables and
equipment relating to tyre pressure indicators, transducers etc.
10. The fitting of a wheel is similar to removal with the addition of greasing
the bearings and checking the wheel/tyre for general serviceability. Also
check any documentation (EASA form 1 etc) that it has the correct data
recorded.
11. After fitting, checks should be made on:

(a) Freedom of wheel rotation.

(b) Wheel clearance with landing leg, landing gear doors, structure
(allow for tyre growth during high speed rotation), etc.
(c) Wheel end float.
(d) Brake operation.
(e) Cockpit tyre pressure and brake temperature indication – if fitted.
(f) Ensure that new/retreaded replacement tyres have the same
diameter as the partner/s on the same axle/same bogie unit.

12. Complete aircraft documentation and sign for the work done.
Documentation should include the serial numbers of the wheel and tyre
and any previous landings of the tyre. Inform the tyre bay of the aircraft
to which the wheel/tyre was fitted so they can keep their records up-to-
date.

- 38 -
 WHEEL/TYRE ASSEMBLY BALANCING

Wheel halves, whole wheels, and tyres are balanced at manufacture. Wheels can have
weights added and tyres can have rubber patches added.

During service, balance can be affected by: improperly torqued axle nut; improperly
fitted tube; improperly assembled wheel/tyre; out of balance wheel halves; poor gear
alignment; worn or loose gear components; flat spotted tyre; worn bearings. In
addition, twin tyre landing gear where the inflation of each tyre is not equal or the
tyre diameters do not match can cause an unbalanced condition.

Balance marks are placed on many tubes to indicate the heavy spot of the tube. These
marks are often paint stripes about ½ inch (12mm) wide by 2 inches (50mm) long.
When a tube is installed this balance mark must be aligned with the ‘light spot’
balance mark of the tyre (red dot). Where there is no balance mark assume the valve
to be the heavy spot.

When mounting tubeless tyres, the balance mark on the tyre is aligned with the wheel
valve, unless otherwise specified by the manufacturer. With some split wheels, the
light spot of the wheel halves is indicated with an ‘L’ stamped on the flange. In
assembling these wheels, position the two ‘L’s 180° apart. If additional dynamic or
static balancing is required after tyre mounting, many wheels have provision for
attaching accessory balance weights around the circumference of the flanges. This
procedure is normally carried out by specialist personnel using special powered
balancing equipment.

Ensure the wheels are balanced according to instructions specified by the aircraft or
wheel manufacturer. For fixed wing aircraft they will normally be statically and
dynamically balanced, ie balanced in two planes.

Portable balancers are available where the wheel/tyre assembly is mounted on the
balancer and then spun-up to speed. Transducers in the balancer will indicate where
masses are to be fixed around the wheel rim and whether they are to be fixed on the
inboard rim or the outboard rim.

Poorly balanced wheels can cause vibration, bearing wear, tyre wear, landing gear
fatigue and make taxiing uncomfortable for passengers and crew.

GENERAL PRECAUTIONS

* Use new O-ring seals on wheels, properly lubricated and installed.

* Use an accurate certified dial type, or digital, pressure gauge.
* Ensure wheel bolts are properly torqued. It is important that they are torqued
wet or dry as specified in the AMM/wheel manufacturer’s instructions.
* For aircraft parked outside in the cold for 1 hour or more, the tyre pressures
should be checked and adjusted accordingly. Tyres will have taken on a nylon
‘set’ and experience a pressure drop.
* After a turn has been completed the aircraft should be taxied/towed forward in
a straight line for at least one revolution of the wheels to relieve stresses set up
in the tyre.
* Remember that for every 5°F (3°C) change in temperature there will be a
corresponding 1% change in tyre pressure.

- 39 -
Tyres subjected to above normal braking during an RTO (Rejected Take-off) should be
removed and scrapped. Even though visual inspection may not show any apparent
damage, tyres may have sustained internal structural damage that could result in
premature failure. Also, all wheels must be checked in accordance with the applicable
Wheel Overhaul manual or AMM after an RTO.

When new and/or re-treaded tyres are installed on the same landing gear axle, the
diameters should be matched within the Tyre and Rim Association inflated
dimensional tolerances for new and grown tyres.

It is recommended that tyres mounted on dual wheels have similar inflated outside
diameters to ensure that each tyre will carry an equal share of the load.

Tyres should be kept clean and free of contaminants such as oil, brake fluid, grease,
tar and degreasing agents which have a deteriorating effect on rubber.
Contaminants should be wiped off with alcohol, then tyres washed with soap and
water immediately. When aircraft are being serviced, tyres should be covered.

Aircraft tyres, like all natural rubber products, are affected by sunlight and extremes
of weather. Tyre covers should be used and these covers (ideally with a light colour or
aluminised surface to reflect sunlight) should be placed over the tyres when the
aircraft is kept outside for any length of time.

Keep runways, taxi strips, grassed areas, ramps, hangar floors and other paved areas
on the airfield in good condition with all debris and foreign objects removed.

BRAKES

Brakes are designed to convert the horizontal kinetic energy of the moving aircraft
into heat energy by friction (figure 18). The kinetic horizontal energy of a modern
airliner on landing can be considerable and the brakes must produce enough friction
and have enough heat capacity for the mass of the aircraft. The brakes must also be
able to dissipate the heat generated.

Many aircraft use reverse thrust on landing, which helps braking. Some military
aircraft use a drag chute, but the majority of the work is still done by the wheel
brakes.

EASA CS 25 (large aircraft) and 23 (small aircraft) specify the braking standards to be
met.

In the case of an RTO (rejected take-off) when the aircraft weight and speed is high
and conditions are much more severe the brakes are tested to their absolute
maximum limit.

In the early days drum brakes were used, operated by air supplied by a compressor,
or the aircraft engine. These brakes suffered from brake fade and distortion due to
heat and were soon replaced by disc brakes.

- 40 -
 Fig. 18 TEMPERATURE & POWER CURVES

The disc brake can operate at higher temperatures and the early discs were made of
copper (to dissipate the heat and allow a more even temperature around the disc) and
coated with nickel-chrome to provide a hard wearing surface. As brake design
developed the copper discs were replaced with steel discs and brake units became
multi disc (segmented) brakes. These are often called Heat Packs. These consist of a
torque plate housing the hydraulic pistons, which act on the pressure plate which in
turn forces the stators and rotors together, with the reaction force being applied by
the thrust plate. More of these later.

Figure 19 shows 3 brake units. The top left hand one is the pneumatic drum brake
unit. The top right hand one is the hydraulic drum brake unit. Drum brakes are fitted
to older aircraft. The bottom unit is the heat pack disc unit fitted to later aircraft.

All brake units are designed to convert the kinetic energy of the aircraft into heat
energy by the use of friction, so the greater the friction produced the better.

Friction

The amount of friction developed in a brake will vary depending on many factors but
in general the amount of friction generated between two surfaces is given by the
equation:

F = µ RN

where F = Friction generated.

µ = a coefficient (a number) specified for the two surfaces in contact.

RN = Reaction Normal. The force pushing the brake pad against

the disc or drum.

So the greater the force (RN) the greater the friction. One of the reasons why discs are
better than drums as a braking system is that the drum distorts with the high radial
forces created by the brake pads or shoes as they are pushed outwards. With a disc
brake, greater RN can be applied without fear of distortion of the disc. Also with
modern heat packs the total surface friction area is greater than with a comparable
sized drum brake. This provides a greater heat capacity.

- 41 -
 Fig. 19 EXAMPLE BRAKE UNITS

DRUM BRAKES

Pneumatically operated drum brakes may still be found in service on some older
aircraft and the construction, operation and maintenance of a typical brake unit is
described in the following paragraphs.

The main components of the brake unit are the back plate, expander tube (pressure
bag), brake linings, separators and brake drum (figure 20).

Back Plate. This unit is cylindrical in shape and is attached to a flange on the axle. It
supports the whole of the brake unit (expander tube, brake linings and pneumatic
connections) but not the brake drum which is attached to the wheel.

Expander Tube. This is a circular, reinforced rubber tube of flat cross-section and is
fitted around the back plate. It has a pneumatic connection leading through the back
plate to the aircraft pneumatic system. Its job is to expand when supplied with air
pressure and push outwards forcing the brake linings onto the rotating brake drum.

Brake Linings. The complete brake lining assembly is made up of a number of

segments of heat-resisting friction material which form a ring around the expander
tube and are shaped to conform to the inside radius of the brake drum.

- 42 -
Each segment is bonded or riveted to a metal fitting which protrudes through the
back plate and is secured by a spring clip. When pressure is applied to the expander
tube each brake lining is forced outwards against the spring pressure. When the
pneumatic pressure is released in the expander tube the springs pull in the brake
linings away from the drum.

DRAWING FROM CAP 562

Fig. 20 DRUM BRAKE - PNEUMATIC

Separators. Phosphor-bronze gauze separators are fitted between the ends of the
brake lining segments to reduce heat transfer to the expander tube and to exclude
carbon dust particles.

Brake Drum. This is a steel cylinder, attached to and rotating with the wheel and
against which the brake lining segments expand to produce the friction and braking
action. Usually of bimetallic construction to minimise heat distortion.

Normally fitted so there is an air gap between it and the wheel around its
circumference - allows for cooling and help prevents heat transfer to the wheel and
tyre (heat sink into the tyre will cause a pressure rise but more importantly can cause
deterioration of the tyre structure and possible tyre failure).

- 43 -
When the pilot’s brake control is operated, air pressure is applied to the inside of the
expander tube which expands and forces the brake linings out against the brake
drum. When air pressure is released the expander tube collapses and the brake
linings are withdrawn inwards from the brake drum by the action of the return
springs.

Removal/Installation

Before attempting to work on the brake system or to remove a wheel, it is important to

ensure that all air pressure is exhausted from the brake system.

In some pneumatic systems a pressure maintaining valve is used to safeguard the

brake pressure in case of a leak elsewhere or failure of the compressor, so that lack of
pressure in the brake system must be confirmed from the brake system pressure
gauge and not by reference to the general supply system pressure.

With brakes off remove the wheel together with the drum, leaving the brake linings
(shoes) and brake unit still on the under-carriage. This can be removed by
disconnecting and blanking the air pressure connection and removing the bolts
attaching the back plate to the axle flange.

CAUTION. If the aircraft has just landed the brakes will be very hot.

When installing a new brake drum to a wheel, the protective treatment applied for
storage should be removed with a suitable solvent such as methylated spirits. Petrol
or paraffin should not be used.

When installing the brake unit, care must be taken to ensure that oil or grease does
not come into contact with the linings. Also avoid handling the linings as the natural
oils from the skin will have an adverse effect. If brake linings do become
contaminated, they must be considered unserviceable and changed. No attempt
should be made to clean the surface with solvents.

Inspection

Drum brakes are not normally accessible for inspection when installed on the aircraft.
During a pre-flight inspection the back plate and wheel should be examined for signs
of overheating and the pneumatic hoses between brake units and landing gear should
be checked for damage, security and leaks. Operation of the brakes may be checked
by means of the brake pressure gauge and also by checking that air is discharged
from the brake control valve when the brakes are released.

At the times specified in the maintenance schedule and whenever unsatisfactory

operation is suspected, the brake unit should be removed for inspection and overhaul.
Disassembly is normally straight forward, but reference should be made to the
Maintenance Manual for details of any special procedures or tests required.

Brake segments should be examined for wear by measuring the thickness of the
remaining material, the minimum thickness permitted for replacing the linings being
laid down in the AMM. Any carbon deposits should be removed with a stiff bristle
brush.

- 44 -
Test After Reassembly

Following reassembly the complete brake unit should be installed in an appropriate

sized test brake drum and submitted to pressure tests as stated in the manual. No
leakage should occur and the linings should return to the ‘off’ position a soon as air
pressure is released.

For detecting a leak in the expander tube connection apply a solution of non-corrosive
soapy water and subsequently wash off with water.

DISC BRAKES

Used on most modern aircraft (and most road vehicles), disc brakes can be divided
into single disc brakes (small aircraft/helicopters) and multi disc brakes or heat
packs (large aircraft).

SINGLE DISC BRAKE UNIT

A simple single-disc brake unit is shown in figure 21. A single operating cylinder is
shown but two or three are often used for improved braking performance.

The brake unit consists of a light alloy torque plate shaped for attachment to the
landing gear leg or axle flange, housing a calliper type hydraulic jack unit and a pair
of friction pads. A solid steel disc or ventilated disc is slotted into the wheel and
rotates (with the wheel) in-between the friction pads.

DRAWING FROM CAP 562

Fig. 21 SINGLE DISC BRAKE UNIT

When the brakes are operated, fluid pressure is supplied to the cylinder and forces
the operating piston towards the disc, thus squeezing the disc between the operating
and fixed friction pads and thus creating friction. When the brakes are released the
piston moves back and the operating pad moves back from the disc. The disc is then
free to rotate between the friction pads.

- 45 -
Maintenance

The brake unit should be examined periodically for fluid leaks, damage or corrosion,
the friction pads for wear and the discs for scoring or pick-up of surface plating. The
disc is prone to corrosion and pitting and this will lead to rapid wear of the friction
pads. Discs in poor condition should be replaced or machined to give a clean surface
as appropriate.

Discs worn below their minimum width dimensions should be replaced. Replacement
of worn pads is normally a simple procedure once the wheel has been removed and
often does not necessitate dismantling the brake unit.

Protect brakes from contamination by fuel, oil, grease, paint remover and de-icing
fluid, etc. If the brake unit is contaminated then it should be changed.

MULTI DISC BRAKE UNIT

Made up of several discs constructed of interlocking segments (to prevent distortion).

These discs are called rotors and rotate within stationary stators. The rotors are
driven by tenons grooved into drive blocks in the wheel and the stators are held
stationary by being fixed to the torque tube. Fixed to the stators are the friction pads.
Braking is achieved by hydraulic pistons squeezing the whole lot together.

The friction pads may be made from sintered metal or more conventional brake pad
material.

A typical multi-disc brake unit is shown in figures 22 and 23. In this unit a torque
plate and torque tube assembly fits over the axle and is bolted to a flange on the axle;
alternative designs are often similarly mounted but prevented from rotating by means
of a torque arm attached to a suitable fixture on the landing gear leg or bogie. A
number of cylinders are spaced around the torque plate, connected to the hydraulic
brake system and house pistons which apply force to the pressure plate.

The disc pack contains alternate stationary and rotating discs, the stationary discs
being keyed to the torque tube and the rotating discs being keyed to drive blocks in
the wheel hub. In this unit the stationary discs house the brake pads and the rotating
discs are segmented to prevent head distortion and brake drag. Correct working
clearance in the disc pack is maintained by means of automatic wear adjusters. Pins
attached to the pressure plate and protruding through the torque plate on this brake
unit, indicate the amount of wear which has taken place in the disc pack.

A further type of multi-disc brake is known as a tri-metallic brake. Construction is

similar to the brake unit described except that the rotating discs have a metallic
compound sintered to their faces and steel segments, known as wear pads, are riveted
to the faces of the stationary discs. Alternatively, the faces of both sets of discs may
be sintered, or the stationary discs may be plain.

- 46 -
 DRAWING FROM CAP 562
Fig. 22 HEAT PACK ASSEMBLY

When the brakes are applied, hydraulic pressure is supplied to the operating
cylinders which move the operating pistons against the pressure plate (figure 23).

The pressure plate moves sideways pushing the stator together with the friction pads
onto the first rotor, this in turn also moves sideways onto the next set of friction pads
which also move sideways and so on. So while the rotors rotate they also move
laterally (by a small amount) under the influence of the hydraulic pistons.

All the rotors and stators are pushed up against the thrust ring/thrust plate causing
considerable friction, heat and braking.

The friction generated between the stators and rotors provide the braking action.
When the brakes are released, springs in the adjuster assemblies move the pressure
plate back to maintain a working clearance in the disc pack and permit free rotation
of the wheel.

- 47 -
 Fig. 23 SIMPLIFIED CROSS SECTION OF A HEAT PACK

Maintenance

Protect brakes from contamination by fuel, oil, grease, paint remover and de-icing
fluid, etc. If the brake unit is contaminated then it should be changed.

Installed units should be inspected for signs of fluid leakage, external damage,
corrosion, disc pack wear and overheating, and the associated hydraulic pipes for
security, distortion, chafing and leaks. Brake disc pack wear can be checked by
measuring wear pin protrusion. Check limits in the AMM.

In some installations a worn disc pack may be exchanged after removing the wheel
and thrust/back plate and without disconnecting the hydraulic connections, but in
order to carry out a detailed inspection the brake unit must be removed from the axle.

At the periods specified in the maintenance schedule the brake unit should be
removed for inspection and overhaul. Remove the wheel, then disconnect the
hydraulic pipe couplings and blank.

In some cases fluid will drain from these pipes and bleeding will be necessary after re-
connection, but in other cases connection is by self-sealing couplings. The brake unit
attachment bolts (and, where fitted, the torque link) should then be removed and the
unit withdrawn.

- 48 -
After removal, the brake unit should be dismantled, cleaned and inspected. All
metallic components should be thoroughly cleaned and dried; if chemical solvents are
used they must not be allowed to come into contact with the seals. Inspection will
include:

(a) Rotors should be checked for excessive scoring, corrosion, distortion and
wear. Light surface damage which would not cause excessive wear of the
friction pads may be acceptable, but deep scores or corrosion should be
ground out within prescribed limits specified by the manufacturer for
the disc to be re-used.
(b) Brake friction pads should be inspected for excessive wear (normally
checked by measuring individual pad thickness and weighing the
complete pack), burning, flaking, cracking, security of attachment to the
stator and contamination with oil or grease. If worn beyond limits or
contaminated the complete set should be changed. In some instances it
is also specified that the rotors should also be changed. If part-worn
pads are to be re-used they must be reassembled in their original
location.
(c) The torque plate, torque tube and thrust plate should be examined for
cracks, corrosion, distortion and damage, particular attention being paid
to bolt holes and other highly stressed areas. Cylinders and pistons
should be inspected for scores or other damage and springs inspected
for corrosion and given a load/compression test as specified by the
manufacturer.
(d) Operation of the self-adjusting mechanism should also be checked and
the friction force applied to the retraction pin measured.

Protective treatment should be applied to the metal components and the unit
reassembled and tested for leaks and correct operation. It is normally specified that
new seals, new gaskets and new self-locking nuts should be used for reassembly and
all fasteners torque loaded in accordance with the manufacturer’s manual. The unit
should be primed with hydraulic fluid and blanks fitted.

When re-installing the brake unit on the axle, ensure that brake fluid does not come
into contact with the disc pack. Jointing, sealing or anti-seize compounds should be
used where specified and all fasteners and pipe connections should be torque loaded
and locked.

Automatic Adjuster

A sectioned view of a typical adjuster is shown in figure 24. At least two adjuster
assemblies are fitted to the majority of disc brakes, their purpose being to maintain a
suitable ‘brakes-off’ clearance between the stators and rotors when the brakes are
released. In a single-disc brake assembly the retraction pin is often attached directly
to the operating pistons but on multi-disc brakes they are usually attached to the
pressure plate. In operation, when the brakes are applied the movement moves the
pressure plate in the direction shown in figure 24. This pulls on the friction bush
which causes the guide to be moved distance “b” to compress the adjuster spring and
move the guide until it abuts the torque plate.

- 49 -
When the brakes are released the adjuster spring pushes the guide back until it
contacts the spring housing, the clearance between the guide and torque plate being a
running clearance. As wear takes place on the disc, the pressure plate has to move
slightly further forward, thus pulling the retraction pin through the friction bush by
an amount equal to the disc wear, thus maintaining the design clearance when the
brakes are released.

On some brake units wear may be assessed by measuring the protrusion of the
retraction pin.

DRAWING FROM CAP 562

Fig. 24 AUTOMATIC WEAR ADJUSTER

On initial assembly a special tool is used to position the retraction pin at the position
of maximum protrusion through the friction bush. The pin takes up its initial
operating position when the brakes are first applied. So a brake test is carried out
after each fitment/adjustment.

Correct operation of the adjuster/s must be checked whenever the brakes are tested
and should result in free rotation of the wheel when brakes are released.

CARBON BRAKES

These are similar to the conventional multi-disc brake unit described above except the
rotors and stators are made of carbon and are of single piece construction. They are
lighter, run at higher temperatures and the unit is more efficient.

Figure 25 shows a typical carbon fibre brake unit. Note the drive slots in the rotors
(rotated by the wheel) and stators (held still by the landing gear) and note also the
braking drag developed (shown in imperial units).

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 Fig. 25 CARBON BRAKES

DISC BRAKE HYDRAULIC CIRCUITS

This section deals briefly with the brake operating system as hydraulic brake
operating systems are, in fact, in the hydraulic part of the syllabus. It is included here
to give the reader a more thorough knowledge of the overall system and how the disc
brake fits in with the rest of the system.

For more detailed information on hydraulically operated brake systems the reader is
directed to the book in this module 11 series entitled ‘Hydraulics’.

With reference to figure 26 note the following:

1. The ability of the pilot and co-pilot to operate the brakes independently
of each other and to operate them simultaneously and differentially
(inline braking and differential braking to go round corners should
power steering fail.
2. The parking brake. Cable operated. When applied will lock all brakes on.
3. The hydraulically operated brake control valve using toe pedal pressure
from the master cylinders to operate the slave cylinders.
4. The brakes are operated by hydraulic system pressure. There are a total
of 5 separate hydraulic systems in the drawing (4 toe pedal systems and
1 brake system). With most large aircraft there would be a duplicate
brake system.
5. The brake discs, pistons and cylinders.

Differential braking can be achieved by application of one toe pedal and in-line
braking can be achieved if both toe pedals are pushed.

Either pilot or co-pilot can operate the brakes. This is achieved by the use of the
linkage system at the slave units. Which-ever one operates the brakes that slave unit
will move and move the link to operate the brake control valve.

- 51 -
 Fig. 26 SIMPLIFIED BRAKE SYSTEM

Bleeding Brake Circuits

The method of bleeding the brakes will depend on the particular aircraft system and
reference should be made to the AMM. However, a general method of bleeding is to
pressurise the brake system, open the bleed screws fitted to the brake units and
apply the brakes from the flight-deck.

Allow hydraulic fluid to flow through until air free fluid is discharged; the bleed
screws are then closed and the brake operation tested. Bleed fluid should be piped to
a suitable container and must not be allowed to come into contact with the disc pack
and must not be re-used.

- 52 -
On low-pressure brake systems, as fitted to many small aircraft, the pressure is
generated by the pilot pushing the appropriate brake pedal down. On high-pressure
brake systems (as fitted to most large aircraft – figure 26), the associated hydraulic
accumulator is pressured and as the brake pedal is depressed, fluid is forced out of
the bleed screws under pressure.

In this type of system it is sometimes recommended that only a specified quantity of

fluid is discharged and it may be necessary to bleed other parts of the system such
as, where fitted, the servo system from the brake pedals to the slave units (four small
systems each with its own reservoir) and the normal and emergency accumulators,
before bleeding the brakes. After bleeding, the appropriate reservoir should be topped
up as necessary.

Testing

Check the AMM but brakes are normally tested after overhaul and after installation
on an aircraft, while the aircraft is still jacked up. The wheel is spun up by hand and
the brakes applied several times and released; there should be no leakage and the
brakes should stop the wheel when applied and allow wheel rotation when released.

Operation of the emergency and parking brake-system should also be tested.

BIT tests may also be called for depending on the system.

BRAKE TEMPERATURE MONITORING

On some aircraft a brake temperature monitoring system is fitted. A typical system

includes a temperature sensor at each wheel, which supplies information to the
central monitor and warning devices on the flight-deck. The central monitor contains
a temperature gauge and a selection button for each wheel. The gauge normally
records the temperature at the hottest brake and a button illuminates when the
associated brake temperature exceeds a predetermined amount. When the button is
pressed, the gauge records the temperature of the associated brake.

Aircraft with flat screen displays have brake temperatures (and tyre pressures)
presented in colour on the screen. This data comes from a computer.

For testing purposes, operation of a BIT test switch will cause system decals to
illuminate and gauge readings to move to the test signal range when all circuits are
serviceable.

Routine maintenance includes inspection of the sensors and associated wiring for
security and damage and functional tests of the system using the appropriate test
switches and BIT systems.

- 53 -
With the ‘Glass Cockpit’ type of aircraft such as the Boeing 747-400, B777 and Airbus
aircraft, flight deck indications are via CRTs/flat screens.

The flat screen Landing Gear page will show details such as:

* Brake temperatures
* Tyre pressures
* Landing gear and door positions, etc.

ANTI-SKID SYSTEMS

The braking systems of most modern aircraft are provided with a means of preventing
the wheels from skidding on wet or icy surfaces and of ensuring that optimum
braking can be maintained under all conditions. This is done by controlling the
hydraulic pressure to the brakes automatically. Anti-skid units/transducers sense
the rate of change of wheel deceleration, decreasing the hydraulic pressure applied to
the brakes when a high rate of increase in deceleration occurs (ie consistent with an
impending skid) and restoring the pressure to the brake as the wheel accelerates
again.

A modulator is often fitted in conjunction with the anti-skid unit, to restrict the flow
of fluid to the brakes after initial brake application and to conserve main system
pressure. There are basically two types of anti-skid system: the mechanically
controlled system and the electronically controlled system.

The mechanical system (older aircraft) can use either a wheel mounted anti skid unit
or an axial mounted unit.

The anti-skid control valve is automatic and positioned in the hydraulic brake line
between the brake control valve (controlled by the pilot) and the wheel brake unit
(figure 27). When the brakes are used normally or when auto-brake is selected the
fluid flows to the brakes via the anti-skid valve.

MECHANICAL SYSTEM

Fitted to older aircraft.

The anti-skid unit is mounted on the brake unit torque plate or within the axle bore
and is connected into the brake hydraulic circuit at the brake unit (figure 27). The
anti-skid unit consists of a valve assembly connected to a flywheel which is driven by
the landing gear wheel.

WHEEL RIM DRIVEN UNIT (MAXARET UNIT)

This unit (figure 28) is mounted either on the wheel brake unit or on the landing gear
strut so that the rubber tyre rests on and is rotated by the rim of the aircraft wheel.

The unit consists of two main parts: a hydraulic control valve (operated by the
flywheel); and the flywheel assembly. The flywheel is housed inside the rubber tyred
shell which is rotated by direct contact with the wheel rim.

- 54 -
 Fig. 27 MECHANICAL ANTI-SKID VALVE LOCATION (WHEEL RIM DRIVEN)

Fig. 28 MECHANICAL ANTI-SKID UNIT (WHEEL RIM DRIVEN)

The anti skid valve has four connections:

* Pressure supply – from the pilot’s brake control valve.

* Return – to the hydraulic reservoir.
* Brakes 1.
* Brakes 2.

NOTE. With this type of unit the main spring in the unit acts as a sort of memory –
when the wheel decelerates too quickly, as determined by the spring, then the valve is
caused to operate and reduce fluid pressure to the brake.

- 55 -
 Fig. 29 FLYWHEEL UNIT – EXPLODED VIEW

The drive (figure 29) from the rubber tyred shell is transmitted to the flywheel via a
drive ring, drive spring and drum. The drive pegs of the shell engage with the slots on
the drive ring to drive the drum through the spring. One end of the spring is
connected to the drive ring while the other is connected to the flywheel. The spring is
coiled in such a way that as the unit is being driven the spring expands and drives
the drum (and flywheel) by a positive friction drive.

The flywheel, mounted on the outside of the drum, is driven through its spoke by two
segmented bosses attached to the drum. A lightly loaded main spring links the
flywheel to the drum and tries to keep the flywheel spoke in contact with the driving
faces of the segmented bosses. Two thrust balls located in the flywheel spoke are kept
in contact with a cam on the drum by a thrust plate attached to the end of a spring-
loaded thrust rod. The thrust rod is connected via a system of levers to the hydraulic
control valve.

With the brakes applied and landing wheel starting to slow down too quickly – that is,
starting to skid – the rubber tyred shell slows down at the same rate, as does the
drum (because of the friction drive of the spring). But the flywheel, with its
momentum, does not slow down so quickly and starts to overrun its position against
the load of the main spring. This causes the flywheel spoke to make contact with the
faces of the two-segmented bosses, which will drive the drum against the frictional
resistance of the drive spring.

This relative rotational movement between the flywheel and drum causes the two
thrust balls to ride up the face of the cam and push the thrust rod axially (sideways)
to release the brake pressure.

Movement of the thrust rod will shut-off brake pressure supply and open the line
from the brakes to return.

- 56 -
 Fig. 30 SCHEMATIC OF THE UNIT

After the unit operates, the flywheel is slowed down by the drag of the drive spring
and with the brakes off the landing wheel regains speed. This will cause the drum to
begin to drive the flywheel again and the thrust balls and thrust rod will regain their
positions (with the aid of the return spring), and normal brake pressure will be re-
established. This process is continuous during a long braking run.

Should the wheel bounce clear of the ground during landing the wheel will stop
instantly (on next touch-down this could be serious). This will cause the anti-skid
valve to release the brake pressure completely and re-apply it some 4 seconds later,
which should be enough time to allow the wheel to make contact with the ground
again and spin back up to speed.

Installation

This will vary depending on the aircraft and reference should be made to the AMM for
details. The whole unit is spring-loaded, or the mountings shimmed, to maintain
driving contact with the aircraft wheel rim. The tyre loading is normally checked after
installation by measuring the flat produced on the rubber tyre at its point of contact
with the aircraft wheel.

- 57 -
AXLE MOUNTED UNIT

Not too unlike the unit previously described, as far as principal of operation is
concerned, but it is mounted within the wheel axle (figure 31).

It is driven by means of a shaft, which is splined into the anti-skid unit at one end
and into a drive housing bolted to the wheel hub, at the other. Units are marked with
the correct direction of rotation and this must be checked before installation.

It has components similar to those found in the rim driven type. Additionally the unit
includes a sun and planet gear assembly – to increase its speed ratio with the wheel
and a clutch to absorb sudden start-up loads.

If the landing wheel decelerates too quickly (an impending skid) then the flywheel will
run-on relative to the input and main shafts. This relative movement between the
main shaft and the drive ring will cause the two thrust bearings to ride up the cam
profile and move the thrust rod against its spring to open the control valve and
release the brake pressure (figure 32).

Fig. 31 AXLE MOUNTED ANTI SKID UNIT

Bleeding

Carried out when bleeding the main brake system but independent bleeding may be
necessary after installation. This is carried out by fitting a drainpipe at the exhaust
connection, rotating the drive smartly in the direction of rotation, then bringing it to
rest. Each time rotation is stopped, fluid will be discharged from the exhaust port and
bleeding should be continued until the discharged fluid is free from air, then the pipe
connections remade.

- 58 -
Inspection of Mechanical Anti Skid Units

At the periods specified in the maintenance schedule the unit should be inspected as
follows:

(a) The unit should be cleaned and inspected for security, signs of
corrosion, external damage and leaks (with brakes applied)
(b) The pipelines should be checked for damage, distortion and the
connections for security of attachment, and leaks.
(c) The driving tyre and wheel should be inspected for correct loading and
alignment and the tyre for excessive wear.
(d) With the brake ON the indicator rod should be approximately flush with
the surface of the unit.

Fig. 32 SCHEMATIC OF THE AXIAL MOUNTED UNIT

NOTE. It is possible to lock the spring-loaded type units out of contact with the
wheel track by inserting a pin in the mounting stud. This is done to allow wheel
removal. A red streamer should be attached to the pin as a visual reminder that
the anti-skid unit is out of operation.

- 59 -
 ELECTRONIC ANTI-SKID SYSTEMS

Modern aircraft have brakes controlled by a computer which uses ground speed
transducers, acceleration transducers, inputs from the pilot and data from position
and inertial reference computers, together with associated switching, BIT, check-out
and warning systems. The wheel speed unit supplies a dc or ac signal depending on
the system converted to a digital signal. Operation is similar to the mechanical system
but use is made of logic circuits in computers which enable faster control responses.

Further refinements such as strut oscillation damping circuits, touch-down

protection and locked wheel protection and auto brake may also be incorporated and
some systems automatically de-activate at low speed to prevent interference with
normal taxiing manoeuvres. Some aircraft, like the Airbus A380, have a Brake to
Vacate system which allows the autobrake system to slow the aircraft at the exact
rate so the aircraft can leave the runway at a particular exit.

Wheel skid control is achieved by sensing the wheel rate of change of speed by a
tachometer or generator. If the wheel slows down too quickly compared to some
parameter (eg IRS aircraft computed ground speed) then a signal is sent to the anti-
skid valve to reduce the pressure. If the wheel continues to slow down too quickly
(approaching a skid) then pressure is reduced still further. If this fails to prevent the
wheel from skidding then a further signal will cause all remaining brake fluid
pressure to return to the reservoir. Only when the wheel regains its speed will the
pressure be allowed to the brake (all this takes place in a fraction of a second).

A Signal Generator System

Figure 33 shows a voltage sensitive system, with the voltage being generated by an
axle-mounted generator. The generator is driven by drive bosses attached to the wheel
bearing cover plate and the output voltage is directly proportional to wheel speed.

Fig. 33 AXLE MOUNTED GENERATOR

- 60 -
When the wheel slows down the voltage drops. This information is used by a control
unit. If the rate of slowing down is too great (voltage drop too quick) then the control
unit will send a (dc) signal to a solenoid on the anti-skid valve. When energised this
will release the brake pressure. With the brakes off the wheel will regain its speed, the
generator voltage will be re-established, the control unit solenoid will be de-energised
and the brakes will be re-applied.

A Tacho Probe System

This consists of a tacho probe (a magnet around which is wound a coil) which is
caused to produce a pulsed dc (a sort of ac) output by being close to a wheel mounted
ferro magnetic exciter ring. The frequency of the output of the probe is dependent on
the speed of rotation of the exciter ring. This signal is sent to a comparator/computer
for processing.

Fig. 34 TACHO PROBE WHEEL SPEED SENSOR

The probe may be housed in the axle or fitted as shown in figure 34.

As the wheel starts to slow down so the frequency output of the probe drops. This rate
is compared by the control unit/computer with either a known maximum frequency
rate of reduction, or the actual rate of aircraft deceleration from the IRS.

If the deceleration rate is high enough then a signal will be sent to the anti-skid valve
solenoid to reduce/stop the pressure to the brakes.

- 61 -
If the wheel retardation rate is being compared to the aircraft retardation rate then
the wheel can be slowed at a rate which is a percentage of the aircraft slowing rate –
thus maintaining maximum braking efficiency.

This system is more sensitive than the others and therefore the brakes can be kept at
just the right level of braking for maximum efficiency.

Control units/computers normally contain circuits which provide warning of any

failure in the system and a self-test facility which enables the serviceability of the
various components to be checked. Controls for the operation and testing of the anti-
skid system are contained in the control unit/computer and on the flight-deck.

Fig. 35 SIMPLIFIED ELECTRONIC ANTI-SKID CONTROL SYSTEM

Maintenance

The inspection, testing and maintenance of any particular anti-skid system will vary
between aircraft and details should be obtained from the AMM.

However, the self-test facility normally enables complete testing of the system and the
test circuit is designed to facilitate location of faulty components. A visual inspection
of the system should include the following:

1. The various components should be examined for damage, security and where
appropriate, fluid leaks.
2. Pipelines should be examined for security, chafing and fluid leaks, particularly
at connections.
3. Electrical cables should be examined for security, chafing and damage by
fluids or heat.

- 62 -
The following is a general description of the A320 and B767 anti-skid systems. There
should be no need to remember the details of each system but the principles should
reinforce those already learnt.

THE A320 SYSTEM

The anti-skid system is based on the optimum aircraft deceleration rate as measured
by the ADIRU (Air Data and Inertial Reference Unit) computer. Maximum braking is
provided by maintaining the wheels at the limit of an impending skid.

Fig. 36 A320 SIMPLIFIED ANTI SKID SYSTEM

Figure 36 shows a simplified drawing of the system as fitted to the Airbus A320.
There are four braked wheels which have disc brakes operated hydraulically and their
deceleration rate is picked off electrically by a tachometer.

When the brakes are applied (from the green or yellow system) the brake unit is
caused to operate to slow to wheel. Brake release orders are sent to the normal (1)
and to the alternate servo valves (2) in figure 36 as well as to the ECAM (Electronic
Centralised Aircraft Monitor) system which displays the braking status in the flight-
deck. An ON/OFF switch in the flight-deck activates or deactivates the anti-skid
system and nose wheel power steering.

- 63 -
The speed of each main gear wheel (tachometer) is compared to the aircraft speed
(reference speed). When the speed of a wheel decreases below 0.87 times reference
speed, brake release orders are given to maintain the wheel slip at that value.

The reference speed is determined by a BSCU (Brake & Steering Control Unit)
computer from the longitudinal acceleration given by ADIRU 1 or ADIRU 3. If ADIRU 1
and ADIRU 3 are not valid, reference speed equals the maximum of the 4 main
landing gear wheel speeds. Deceleration is limited to 1.7m/s2.

THE BOEING B757 SYSTEM

Figure 37 shows a simplified schematic of the system and figures 38 and 39 show the
system in more detail. Study the drawings and note all the inputs/outputs to and
from the system and the relationship and control of the various valves – there should
be no need to commit specific details to memory but you should have sufficient
knowledge of anti-skid and auto-brake systems to be able to describe their operation.

The brakes are supplied from two independent hydraulic systems – left and right.
When braking under pilot control the normal brake control valve is used.

Anti-Skid Overview

The rate of wheel retardation is compared with the aircraft retardation rate (picked off
from the IRS) and should the wheel start to slow too much (approaching a skid) then
a signal is sent to the anti-skid valve to reduce the pressure to prevent wheel
skidding. Once wheel speed has been regained then the pressure signal is re-instated.
This process takes a few milliseconds.

The anti-skid can be switched off from the flight-deck. When off, a warning light is ON
in the flight-deck. The alternate system is similar to the main system and the supply
is fed in via shuttle valves. These are pressure operated automatically.

Auto-brake Overview

The pilot can select, prior to landing, 1 of 5 brake settings with deceleration rates
from 4.5ft/sec2 to 11ft/sec2. This allows for ‘feet-off’ automatic operation of the brakes
immediately on landing.

To operate the auto-brake the system has to:

* Have a no faults operational anti-skid system.

* Have IRS input.
* Be armed.
* Have all throttles not advanced.
* Have weight switches made for more the 0.2 seconds.
* Have correct spoiler lever position.
* Have wheel spin-up circuit activated. Activates when all wheels are 60kts or
greater and deactivates when average velocity drops below 30kts.

- 64 -
 Fig. 37 SIMPLIFIED SCHEMATIC B757 ANTISKID/AUTOBRAKE SYSTEM

The auto-brake supplies brake pressure to the brakes via the anti skid system
entering the system via shuttle valves and the systems are tested using BITE.

The anti-skid/auto-brake system consists of the following components:

* Transducers (8)
* Anti-skid module, normal system (2), alternate system (2)
* ANTISKID fault light on flight deck (1)
* Anti-skid shuttle valve module (2)
* ANTISKID ON/OFF switch on flight deck (1)
* Anti-skid/auto-brake control unit M102 (1)
* Auto-brake selector switch on (1)
* Auto-brake module (1)
* Auto-brake shuttle valve assembly (2)
* AUTOBRAKES light (1)

- 65 -
Anti Skid ON/OFF Switch

This provides 28v dc power to the control unit. An amber light with OFF legend on the
switch comes on when anti-skid system is off and a ANTISKID OFF advisory message
appears on the EICAS flat screen display (Engine Indication & Crew Alerting System).

Fig. 38 B757 ANTI SKID SYSTEM

Anti Skid Fault Light

An amber ANTISKID fault light illuminates to signal anti-skid system fault when any
of the following faults exists. At the same time the ANTISKID advisory message
appears on the EICAS display.

Faults:

* 28v/5v anti-skid control unit power supply out of tolerance.

* Anti-skid components wiring faults or unit failures.
* Parking brake valve not fully open when parking brake released.

- 66 -
Auto-brake Selector Switch

This is a rotary, magnetic-latching eight position switch. It functions include:

1. Provide 28v dc power to the anti-skid/auto-brake control unit.

2. Selects 1, 2, 3, 4 or MAX AUTO aircraft deceleration level.
3. Arms or disarms the system.
4. Turns on or turn off the AUTOBRAKES light.

Fig. 39 B767 AUTO BRAKE SYSTEM

Anti-skid/Auto-brake Control Unit

The control unit compares each wheel speed with the IRS ground speed for
touchdown and hydroplane protection. A change in speed causes a change in control
signal to increase or decrease hydraulic pressure to the brakes.

The unit contains control, BITE and display circuit cards and a front control/
display panel with alphanumeric readout and BITE test switches.

The unit and the circuit cards are LRUs. Data links in the unit provides means of
communication between cards. Power of 28v dc to the card supplies the 26v dc and
the regulated 5v dc source required for all logic circuits.

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Both wheel cards and auto-brake card contain self-test and status circuits. The
circuits check the system for fault and provide status to the BITE card. The BITE card
communicates with all other cards via the data link in the control unit. Its primary
function is to monitor the operation of the system.

The function includes analysing received data, examining analogue voltages,

performing tests required and providing fault signals to the memory. Logic circuits in
the card determine BITE test switch inputs required for test. The interface/display
card contains circuits for BITE and ANTISKID light functions.

Anti-skid Modules

There are two main 4-valve anti-skid modules and two alternate 2 valve anti-skid
modules used in the brake system. Each main module contains four identical anti-
skid valves, four hydraulic fuses, a shut-off valve, two inlet filters, a check valve and a
restrictor. The main module provides individual wheel control to each main gear. The
alternate module provides laterally paired wheel control to each main gear. Each
module is an LRU and the fuses, shutoff valve and inlet filters are separate
component LRUs. The valves and filters can be removed for inspection without
disconnecting hydraulic lines.

Anti-skid Valve

Each valve in the normal or alternate module consists of two stages. The first stage
(servo valve assembly) develops hydraulic pressure proportional to the input current.
The second stage (slide and sleeve assembly) repeats this pressure at the lower level
required for brake control.

The anti-skid valves in the normal hydraulic system operate in the unigain mode.
System pressure at 3000psi is supplied to the first stage providing a constant
pressure source by which the second stage is controlled. Through unigain operation,
the valve is able to maintain consistent braking, independent of applied brake
pressure.

The anti-skid valves in the alternate hydraulic system operate in the ultigain mode.
Pilot’s brake metered pressure is supplied to the first stage rather than system
pressure. As a result, the first stage output pressure is a function of both metered
pressure and valve current. Multigain valves are used in the alternate system to
simplify the system and reduce weight.

Hydraulic Fuse

Fitted to each brake line before the shuttle valve, it prevents hydraulic fluid loss from
the brake system should a line rupture downstream of the fuse. The fuse
automatically shuts-off all flow if the volume of fluid passing through it is too great. It
is reset by the engineer by rotating the reset knob. This equalises the pressure on
both sides of the fuse and allows the fuse to reset. A slit in the knob allows visual
verification of the bypass valve position.

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Anti-skid Shuttle Valve

The system contains four identical valves. Each valve is independent and pressure
operated. Each valve shuttles pressure between normal and alternate systems. The
valve consists of an LRU valve assembly and an LRU filter. The valve has a manual
override plug feature.

The shuttle valve consists of a normal (input) port, an alternate (input) port and a
brake (output) port. Under normal operation the normal port connects to the brake
port. If the hydraulic system switches from normal to alternate, a detented slide in the
valve moves to block the normal port. This slide shift allows fluid flow from the
alternate port to the brake port. In this manner, one input port always connects to the
brake port while the other is blocked.

Anti-skid Wheel Speed Transducer

This is a speed sensing device fitted to each main gear wheel and contains only one
moving part, a rotor which rotates inside a fixed stator. The stator attaches to a
support inside the main wheel axle. The rotor, using a four-arm dog rigidly attached
on the rotor shaft couples to the transducer drive in the hub cap. The drive,
consisting of a bellows-type coupling and related mounting hardware inside the hub
cap, turns the rotor when the wheel rotates.

The stator comprises a permanent magnet, a 150 tooth soft carbon steel pole piece
and a pickup coil. The magnet sets up a magnetic field around the coil, whereby the
mating 150 toothed rotor produces dynamic discontinuities when rotated. Turning of
the rotor provides field changes as the mating teeth come in and out of alignment to
produce a series of voltage pulses (150 times per rev). The voltage, related to the
speed of the wheel, provides the control unit with wheel speed data.

Auto-brake Module

The auto-brake module is connected to the normal brake lines and is located within
the wheel well. The module contains an Electro Hydraulic pressure control Servo
Valve (EHSV), an upstream three-way solenoid shut-off valve and two pressure
switches, located one each at the outputs of the solenoid valve and the servo valve.

The module is an LRU as are the valves and switches. Solenoid valve, pressure control
valve and pressure switches can be replaced without removing the module from the
aircraft.

The module develops brake pressure in response to selected deceleration for all auto-
brake functions. The solenoid valve provides on-off control of hydraulic power to the
valve module and the pressure control valve controls output pressure from the
module as commanded by the control unit. Pressure switches on the module monitor
the pressure outputs from the solenoid valve and the pressure control valve and
provide the logic to the control unit.

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Auto-brake Shuttle Valve

This consists of a valve and pressure-sensing switch. The three-way valve allows the
brakes to work by the manual or auto-brake system. Two valve assemblies are
located one each in the left and right wheel well. Both valves and switches are LRUs.

The valve has two input ports (one normal, one auto) and one output port (brake).
Under normal operation, the normal port connects to the brake port. When the auto-
brake system applies pressure, a detented slide located in the valve moves to block
the normal port. This slide shift allows fluid flow from the auto port to the brake port.

The pressure switch, connected to the normal input port, checks pressure
downstream of the normal brake metering valves. When manual braking effort
exceeds 750psi on either the left or right pedal, the switch opens to provide an input
to the control unit to disarm the auto-brake system.

THE ANTI-SKID SYSTEM

Circuit breakers provide 28v dc power through to the anti-skid ON/OFF switch to the
control unit. The unit compares IRS speed data with wheel speed. This results in a
control signal to the anti-skid valves, which limit hydraulic pressure to the brakes.
Two shuttle valve modules shuttle pressure between normal and alternate systems.

The auto-brake anti-skid test circuit breakers provide 28v dc power to the
interface/display card for BITE functions. A data bus provides all the tie-ins between
wheel cards, auto-brake card, BITE card and the interface/display card. The control
unit provides fault signal to the EICAS computers and the ANTISKID light.

Two IRS speed data inputs (L and R) provide aircraft speed signals to the wheel cards
in the control unit. If the left or right IRS input is not present, the captain and the
first officer can place the IRS select switch to the ALTN position. This allows L or R
IRS relays to energise to provide the alternate IRS speed data from the centre IRS
system.

The PSEU (Proximity Switch Electronics Unit) provides gear down signal to all wheel
cards for anti-skid system operation.

Individual Wheel Control

The microprocessor in each wheel card provides control for the fore and aft wheel
pair. The card receives and processes wheel speed signals, receives and decodes IRS
data, provides valve driver signals and communicates with the test and fault inputs
from the BITE card. A digital/analogue converter in the card provides the valve
command to drive the respective valve for each wheel.

Paired Wheel Control

The normal valve driver generates a second signal for the alternate valve driver. The
second signal is OR’d with the paired wheel signal from the mating wheel card. The
higher signal of the two drives the alternate valve for the laterally paired wheels.

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Valve Driver Logic

This compares the applied brake pressure in three modes: Proportional, Integral and
Derivative. The Proportional mode involves applied brake pressure with proportional
wheel speed as the brake pressure changes to maintain a deceleration rate short of a
skid. The Integral mode checks the past performance of wheel speed. The Derivative
mode checks rate of change of the wheel speed. The three modes provide the data
input required to produce a driving signal to the normal and alternate valve drivers.
An alternate brake selector valve determines which valve driver is used.

Locked Wheel Protection

This is a secondary anti-skid function which prevents lockup of individual wheels

during all braking above 25kt. The tandem pairing of lock wheels compares the wheel
speed of paired wheels. It provides a full brake release signal to the anti-skid valve
when the speed of the controlled wheel is less than 30% of the paired wheel.

Hydroplane/Touchdown Logic

Hydroplane protection provided to the aft wheels to protect against hydroplane-

induced wheel lockups and also provides touchdown protection. The unit compares
the IRS speed data with the wheel speed to generate a full brake release signal.

The signal goes to the respective anti-skid valve when the speed of the controlled
wheel is as least 50kt below the IRS ground speed. The hydroplane/touchdown
protection requires valid IRS inputs and that landing gear is down and locked. Loss
of IRS signal, however, does not affect other anti-skid functions.
Hydroplane/touchdown protection for the forward wheel is provided indirectly
through locked wheel protection.

Gear Retract Braking Logic

The gear-up signal (when the left and right landing gears are not down and locked)
inhibits the alternate valve drivers for about 12 seconds. This is to allow the alternate
system brake pressure (left system pressure) to stop the wheels rotating before gear is
retracted.

Low Speed Drop-out Logic

A low speed dropout at 7kt cuts-out the anti-skid system.

Anti-skid Hydraulic Operation

Brake pressure input of 260psi or more to the normal anti-skid module opens the
shut-off valve to allow system pressure supply to the anti-skid valves. The valve varies
the output pressure to the brakes using an electrical signal from the control unit to
the servo valve torque motor. The pressure flows through the fuses to the shuttle
valve module and then on to the brakes.

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Wheel speed signal from the wheel speed transducer provides speed data to the
control unit. The unit compares the wheel speed with the aircraft ground speed and
provides a control signal to the normal and alternate anti-skid valves. The valves limit
the pressure to the brakes depending on this signal.

THE AUTOBRAKE SYSTEM

The auto-brake circuit breakers provide 28v dc power to the auto-brake selector
switch to the control unit. The auto-brake card in the unit compares IRS deceleration
data inputs with the selected deceleration (encoded in the control unit). This results
in a pressure command to the auto-brake valve. The valve provides the pressure via
the normal anti-skid valves to the brakes. Two auto-brake shuttle valves shuttle
pressure between the normal brake metered pressure output (manual) and the auto-
brake pressure output. When the metered pressure > 750psi, either the left or right
shuttle valve pressure switch opens. This results in an open circuit signal to the
control unit to disarm the system.

Both circuit breakers simultaneously provide 28v dc power for the BITE functions.
The control unit provides a fault signal to the auto-brakes light and the EICAS display
via the EICAS computers.

Inputs to the control unit affecting auto-brake functions include IRS data, air/ground
signal and thrust lever and spoiler handle position signals. A working anti-skid
system is required for auto-brake operation.

A switch on the panel provides the pilot’s choice for auto-brake functions. Prior to
landing, the pilot arms the system by placing the switch at 1, 2, 3, 4 or MAX AUTO.
At touchdown, the brakes apply automatically.

Should a failure occur, the system disarms and the selector switch automatically
moves to DISARM. At DISARM, the system releases the auto-brake pressure, an
AUTOBRAKES light comes on and the EICAS display will show the AUTOBRAKES
advisory message. The pilot can turn off the AUTOBRAKES light and remove the
message by placing the switch to OFF.

Auto-brake deceleration level inputs selected by the pilot are:

Auto-brake Brake Deceleration

Selector Pressure Rate
Switch At (psi) (ft/sec/sec)
1 1500 4.5
2 1750 5.0
3 2000 6.3
4 2400 8.5
MAX AUTO 3000 11.0

TABLE 2 DECELERATION RATES

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Auto-brake Arming Logic

The system arms and latches with a magnetic latching switch within 100 milliseconds
when the following conditions are met:

1. A decel level (1, 2, 3, 4 or MAX AUTO) has been selected.

2. No auto-brake failures detected.
3. No anti-skid failure detected on the normal system except that failures
on a wheel whose indication has been deactivated will not prevent
arming.
4. All thrust lever switches show not advanced when weight switch signal
indicates aircraft on ground.
5. IRS signal available.
6. Brake pressure switches show low pressure.

When conditions 1 to 6 are met, hydraulic pressure is metered to the brakes

establishing an initial low-pressure level. The system then holds the brake pressure at
this level until the pitch angle of the aircraft is reduced to approximately one degree,
as measured by the IRS. As the aircraft de-rotates through the one degree reference
attitude, brake pressure is increased to achieve the chosen deceleration value.

If aircraft de-rotation is delayed, the system will still command brake application.
However, the system will pause before transition to the selected deceleration rate. For
the lower auto-brake settings, the system will transition to selected deceleration rate
after about 5 seconds, independent of aircraft pitch attitude. With the higher auto-
brake settings, transition to the selected deceleration rate will commence when 8.0
seconds have elapsed from main gear touchdown. In either case, the preceding time
delays will be overridden when the pitch attitude reaches one degree.

The control unit provides an arm hold signal to the switch magnetic latch to keep the
switch in the selected position when the above requirements are met. If the arm hold
signal is not present, the switch moves to DISARM.

The brakes will be applied if:

1. Auto-brake is armed.
2. All thrust levers are not advanced.
3. Aircraft on the ground (weight switch) continuously for 0.2 seconds.
4. Wheel spin-up circuit activated.

Loss of conditions 3 or 4 above after auto-brake application causes auto-braking to be

removed but not disarmed and the time delay resets.

Wheel spin-up circuit activates when the average velocity of all wheels is 60kt or
above and deactivates when the average velocity drops below 30kt.

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Auto-brake Disarm Logic

The auto-brake system is switched off if:

1. The system is selected off.

2. Either left or right metered pressure switch indicates pressure (manual
brake application) of 750psi.
3. Any thrust lever switch indicates advanced on the ground, except that
any thrust lever switch indicating advanced for up to 3 seconds after
touchdown will not disarm the system.
4. Auto-brake failure detected.
5. Anti-skid failure on normal system detected.
6. Spoilers stowed after having been deployed on the ground.
7. IRS signal not present or faulty.

SYSTEMS TESTING

Extensive BITE on the control unit provides for anti-skid and auto-brake system
testing both in-flight and on the ground. The BITE also provides system trouble
shooting at LRU level.

A BITE control and display panel and an instruction placard are on the front face of
the unit. The panel face consists of the following:

* One alphanumeric display – provides readout and identifies the failed

channel.
* One brake test rotary switch – allows selection of 1 to 8, normal system
operation test position and an A/B brake test position. In addition it
disables fault indication on a selected wheel. On aircraft dispatched with
one wheel deactivated, the switch inhibits the inputs to the related
channel, thus preventing the display of anti-skid EICAS messages and
the illumination of the ANTISKID light.
* Switches to enable system test/lamp test etc.
* A reset pushbutton to clear memory of stored fault data.

Three levels of BITE test are provided. These are system test, continuous monitor test
and brake operational test.

System Test

With both the ENABLE/VERIFY and VERIFY switches pressed and the BRAKE TEST
rotary switch in the NORM position, the control unit performs a complete system
electrical test and sends its results to the BITE. When a fault is detected the test
identifies the failed LRU on the display. When the VERIFY switch is pressed and
released again, subsequent faults will be shown until TEST END is shown, indicating
no remaining faults.

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Continuous Monitor Test

The control unit checks the valves and transducers for continuity and the control
circuit for correct function.

The control unit checks the anti-skid valves (normal and alternate) by monitoring a
small voltage, which it applies to the valve torque motor. This voltage causes the anti-
skid valve torque motor armature to be biased slightly, away from the hydraulic
return port.

With full system pressure available, the bias can be overcome and the return port
fully blocked. This allows full pressure to the brakes.

With only accumulator pressure available, pressure against the armature may not be
sufficient to overcome the bias and pressure losses to return could occur, degrading
brake performance. Therefore, without right or centre-system pressure, the BITE
monitor function of the anti-skid valves is suspended.

The test stores the detected faults in non-volatile memory for readout during ground
maintenance. The memory can store data for at least 250 hours without power.

Memory recall for fault readout requires placing the PRESS/TEST switch at BIT and
releasing; this shows the first fault. Subsequent BIT selections display any remaining
faults until TEST END is shown. The RESET switch clears memory of all fault data.

Brake Operation Test

The test checks the skid release feature and allows a brake check. The check is on a
single wheel for the normal system and on a wheel pair for the alternate system. The
test starts with the BRAKE TEST switch selected to one wheel and the
ENABLE/VERIFY switch pressed. Pressing and releasing the VERIFY switch causes a
one-time brake release and re-application for the selected wheel (normal hydraulics)
or wheel pair (alternate hydraulics).

With BRAKE TEST switch at NORM and ENABLE/VERIFY switch pressed, pressing
the VERIFY switch performs an anti-skid system check. The display reads TEST END
when:

* Transducers, valve circuit, associated aircraft wiring and power supply

voltage are valid.
* Parking brake control and parking brake valve are in agreement.
* Gear retract braking test (with landing gear lever in OFF) is valid.
* Cards in unit are operating normally.

With selector switch at 1, 2, 3, 4 or MAX AUTO, BRAKE TEST switch at A/B and
ENABLE/VERIFY switch pressed, pressing the VERIFY switch performs an auto-brake
system check. The display reads TEST END when:

(a) Air/ground sensing shows aircraft in ground mode.

(b) Brake pressure meets the selected deceleration level.
(c) Thrust levers are in retarded position.

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Anti-skid/Auto-brake BITE and Fault Annunciation

The interface/display card receives front panel rotary switch position discrete signals
to the panel switch input port. The display card also receives the auto-brake discrete
signals, the system fault signals, through the BITE/display port.

The display card processes the discrete and fault signal inputs into the
microprocessor.

The rotary switch position discrete signals allow the test initiation circuit to generate
request commands. The commands are appropriate to its mode of operation (test
level) to the wheel cards and auto-brake card. On receipt, each card responds with
the status information requested.

When a fault is detected, the card stores the fault in the memory and provides driving
signals to the display driver and the fault light driver. The display driver enables the
illumination of the display on the control unit. The fault light driver receives the
signal from the fault memory and turns on the ANTISKID light.

Anti-skid Wheel Card Signals

The BITE self-test circuit in each wheel card provides a complete electrical self-test to
the anti-skid system. The test includes component check for continuity and
impedance, driver check for circuit failure and a brake release test. Results of these
tests are passed on to the BITE card via the data link.

The BITE status test circuit in each wheel card provides a monitoring test on
completion of the self-test. The test monitors gear position, transducers, lights and
signal parity check.

The analogue signal inputs from the wheel card to the BITE card are the wheel speed
transducer voltages, the 26v dc and 5v dc regulated power source voltages and valve
voltages.

The BITE self-test circuit in the auto-brake card provides a compete electrical self-test
to the auto-brake system (aircraft in the air with the AUTOBRAKES selector switch at
1, 2, 3, 4 or MAX AUTO). The result of the test is passed on to the BITE card via the
data link.

The BITE status test circuit in the auto-brake card provides a monitoring test on
completion of the self-test. The test monitors deceleration selection, servo valve
electrical supplies, lights, throttle switch, weight on wheels switch and digital parity
checks.

””””””

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