Electrons

Basic science Electron shells

A knowledge of basic physics is essential to understanding
how radiation originates and behaves. This chapter works The number of electron shells
through what an atom is; what keeps it stable vs. radioactive orbiting the nucleus is different
and unstable; and if it is unstable, how radioactivity is depending upon the atom. A very
released. simplistic model is that each shell has
a letter symbol and a maximum
number of electrons it can hold.
Atomic structure
2
The maximum number of electrons a shell can hold is 2n
The Rutherford-Bohr model of an atom
n = shell number

Shell number Letter symbol Maximum
number of
electrons
2
1 K 2 x 1 = 2
2
2 L 2 x 2 = 8
2
3 M 2 x 3 = 18

Types of Electrons
Electrons are either bound or free.

Bound Electrons: These are the electrons that are held in
orbit around the nucleus in the electron shells by the
attractive force of the positive nucleus. The binding energy
Atoms consist of:
is the positive energy required to overcome the pull of the
• Nucleus: contains positive protons (p) and neutral nucleus and release the electron from the shell. This is of the
neutrons (n) same magnitude as the actual (negative) energy of the
• Electrons: circling the nucleus within energy electron that is released if the electron is freed.
"shells"
Free Electrons: These are electrons that are not bound in an
electron shell around a nucleus. They have a kinetic energy
Describing an Atom of:
Atoms are displayed in the format shown where:
Kinetic energy = 1/2 mv2 Where: m = mass
A = mass number (p + n) v = velocity
Z = atomic number (protons)
X = chemical symbol of the atom
The actual and binding energy of electrons is expressed in
The neutrons and protons (collectively called nucleons) give
electron volts (eV) or keV (1keV = 1000 eV)
the atom its mass. This isn't the actual mass but that relative
to other atoms. 1 eV = 1.6022 x 1019 Joules
1 atomic mass unit (amu) = 1/12 the mass of a carbon-12 Key points:
atom.
Increased atomic number =
The amu's of different components of atoms are shown in • Increase in binding energy of electrons (more
the table below. protons and, therefore, more energy is
needed to release the electrons of the greater
Relative Charge Symbol positive pull.
mass
Increased distance from the nucleus of the electron =
Neutron 1 0 n • Decrease in binding energy (decrease in the
positive pull of the protons)
Proton 1 +1 p

Electron 0 (1/2000) -1 e-

Nuclear Stability Electromagnetic radiation
The nucleus is composed of protons and neutrons. The Electromagnetic waves
protons repel each other (electrostatic force) but the
nucleus is kept held together by the strong nuclear force.
Electromagnetic (EM) radiation arises from oscillating
Strong Nuclear Force (aka strong interaction): There is a electric and magnetic fields. It can be considered either as a
strong force of attraction at distances between nucleons of stream of quanta (photons, particles) or waves.
<10-15m which changes to a repulsive force at <10-16m. The
Concerning the wave aspect, they can be considered to be
nucleons are kept apart at a distance of ~5 x 10-16m, the
sinusoidally varying electric and magnetic field vectors
distance at which there is the greatest attraction.
pointing at right angles to one another and to the direction
Electrostatic Force (aka coulomb force): This is the force of of the travel of the wave.
repulsion between protons. At a distance of 10-15 to 10-16
m the strong attractive interaction (strong nuclear force) is
much greater than the repulsive electrostatic force and the
nucleus is held together.

Segrè Chart
As the atomic number
increases (i.e. the number of
protons) more neutrons are
required to prevent the
electrostatic forces pushing
the protons apart and to
keep the nucleus stable. The
Segrè chart shows the
proportion of neutrons needed
to keep the nucleus stable as
the number of protons increases (the "line of stability").

If an atom has too many or too few neutrons and does not
lie upon the "line of stability", it becomes unstable and
decays to a more stable form. This is the basis of radioactivity Amplitude (A): corresponding to the peak field strength
and is discussed later in the "Electromagnetic Radiation" Wavelength (λ): distance between successive peaks. Units =
chapter. m (metres)
Frequency (f): the number of peaks passing a given point in
Summary one second, f = 1/T. Units = s-1 (per second) or Hz (hertz)
Velocity (c): the distance travelled by a peak in one second.
• An atom is composed of neutrons, protons and velocity = frequency x wavelength
electrons c = fλ
• Neutrons and protons form the nucleus and,
collectively, are called nucleons Quantum Aspects
• A neutron has a mass of 1 and a charge of 0
• A proton has a mass of 1 and a charge of +1 When considering EM radiation as particles, the particles are
• An electron has a mass of 0 and a charge of -1 small packets, or quanta, of energy called photons that
• The mass number (A) of an atom is the number protons travel in straight lines. The energy of the photon packets is
and neutrons measured in joules, but this is inconveniently small when
• The atomic number (Z) is the number of protons describing EM radiation so the unit of electron-volt is used
• Electrons are held in electron shells which each hold a (1 ev = 1.6 x 10-19 J).
maximum number of electrons (max no. electrons per
shell = 2n2 where n=shell number) Intensity
• Electrons have a binding energy that is the same as their
The intensity (i.e. photon energy or field strength) is related
actual negative energy – binding energy = the positive
to the characteristics of the wave by Planck's constant.
energy required to release the electron from its shell =
negative energy released by electron when it is freed E = hf Key: E = photon energy
• The further away from the nucleus the electron is, the h = Planck's constant
smaller its binding energy f = frequency
• The larger the atom, the greater the binding energy

Rearranging the earlier equation of velocity = fλ and Putting the two equations together gives:
assuming that the velocity is fixed (1) gives you:
Intensity ∝ 1 / d2
f = 1 / λ
This relationship between the distance from the beam and
i.e. the frequency is inversely proportional to the the energy of the beam is the inverse square law as the
wavelength. Substituting this into the Planck's constant intensity is inversely proportional to the distance from the
equation give you: beam squared.

E = h / λ However, this law only strictly applies if:

i.e. the photon energy is inversely proportional to the • Beam coming from point source
wavelength. • No scatter or absorption of the beam

From these equations we now know that:

Summary
• As the frequency increases, so does the energy of
the wave (directly proportional) • Radiation is both a wave and particles
• As the wavelength increases, the energy of the • An electromagnetic wave is sinusoidal perpendicular to
wave decreases (inversely proportional) time and distance
• Frequency = 1 / period (units = s-1 or Hz)
Definitions • Velocity = f x λ
• Intensity proportional to frequency
• Intensity inversely proportional to wavelength
• Inverse square law states intensity is inversely
proportional to the distance squared but only if:
• Beam comes from point source
• No scatter or absorption of the beam

Radioactive decay
Radioactive decay generally involves the emission of a
The diagram represents a beam emanating from a point charged particle or the capture of an electron by the nucleus
source (S). As the beam moves further from the source, it to form stable nuclides. The amount of decay = the
spreads (area B is larger than area A). radioactivity = the number of nuclear transformations per
second.
Photon fluence = number of photons per unit area at a given
time and given cross-section of beam (e.g. number of
photons in square B)
Nomenclature

Energy fluence = total amount of energy of different Nuclide nuclear species with specific number of
photons at a given time at a given cross-section of the beam neutrons and protons that exists in a
per unit area (total energy of photons in square B) defined nuclear energy state (e.g. 99mTc
is a different nuclide to 99Tc)
Energy fluence rate = total energy per unit area passing Radionuclide radioactive nuclide
through a cross section per unit time (watts/mm2) (e.g. total
energy of photons in square B per second). Aka beam Metastable a radionuclide that exists for a long time
intensity. in a higher energy state before falling to
ground state (e.g. 99mTc)
Inverse Square Law Isomer long lived excited state of a nuclide e.g.
99mTc is an isomer of 99Tc
As the beam moves further from the source, the area of the
beam increases. The area of the beam is the distance Isotone nuclides with the same number of
squared. neutrons (isotone) but with a different
number of protons
A ∝ d2 Key: A = area Isotope nuclides with the same number of
d = distance protons (isotope) but with a different
number of neutrons
This means the same number of photons are spread over a
larger area and the strength of the beam decreases (the N.B. the number of protons determines the element of an
intensity is inversely proportional to the area). atom. You can change the number of neutrons (and,
therefore, the mass number) and the atom will still be the
Intensity ∝ 1 / A same element.

Nuclear stability 2. Beta particles

the chapter on • Symbol: β

"Atomic structure" • Electrons emitted from radioactive nuclei
we covered nuclear • Carry negative charge
stability and referred • Split into β- (negatron) and an antimatter
to the Segré chart. equivalent β+ (positron)
What the line of • Lighter and smaller than α
stability shows is
that as the number 3. Gamma particles
of protons increases,
the proportion of • Symbol: γ
neutrons needed to • Identical to x-rays except for the origin (x-rays
keep the nucleus originate from electron bombardment, gamma
stable increases. When the nuclide doesn't lie on the line of particles from radioactive atoms)
stability it becomes unstable and radioactive. • Result of transition between nuclear energy levels
• Very high energy
Decay model of Nuclides
4. Others
• X-rays
• Internal conversion: γ ray energy transferred to
inner shell electron which is then emitted from the
nucleus
• Auger electron: ejected from electron shells as a
result of same radioactive decay processes that
create electron shell vacancies. Competes with
emission of x-rays.
• Neutrinos and anti-neutrinos: electrically neutral
The decay model of nuclides above includes all nuclides; particles with very little mass emitted from atomic
stable and radioactive. The area the nuclide lies in nuclei during β+ and β- decay respectively
determines the type of radioactivity the nuclide goes • Spontaneous fission: very heavy nuclides are so
through to become stable and is discussed later. unstable they split into two smaller nuclides
emitting neutrons in the process
Radioactive decay
Decay models
The decay of a nuclide is exponential i.e. it theoretically
never reaches zero. There are several ways in which a nuclide can decay to its
more stable form. These are:
The S.I. unit of radioactivity is the Becquerel (Bq):
1. Alpha decay
1 Bq = 1 transformation per second 2. β- decay
3. β+ decay (aka positron emission)
Types of radiation 4. Electron capture
5. Isomeric transition
When a nuclide undergoes radioactive decay it breaks down
6. Gamma decay
to fall into a lower energy state expending the excess energy
as radiation. The radioactivity released can be:
1. Alpha (α) decay
• Alpha particles
This occurs in heavier nuclides with too many nucleons. The
• Beta particles
parent nuclide emits a helium atom (α particle). This type of
• Gamma particles (or photons) decay occurs in the nuclides in the yellow section of
• Others the decay model graph in the nuclides that are very heavy.
1. Alpha particles 2. Beta minus (β-) decay
• Symbol: α This occurs in nuclides in the green area of the decay
• Formed of 2 protons and 2 neutrons (i.e. a helium model graph as they have too many neutrons. The neutral
atom) neutron decays into a negative electron, a positive proton
• Positively charged and an electron antineutrino (i.e. the charge on both sides
• Relatively heavy of the equation remains the same)
• Short range of travel
3. Beta plus (β+) decay aka positron emission • What is released and the method of decay depends
on the characteristics of the radionuclide
This occurs in the nuclides in the red area of the decay
model graph as these have too few neutrons. The extra Type of Occurs in … Produces Daughter
proton decays into a neutron, a positron (β+ or e) and an decay nuclide
electron neutrino (ve). This form of radioactivity with the
production of a positron is important in PET imaging. Alpha Heavy Helium atom A minus 4
decay nuclei (2p and 2n)
Z minus 2
4. Electron capture
b- decay Too many n → p + e- + v-e A equal
This competes with β+ decay as it occurs in proton rich
neutrons
nuclei. If the energy difference between the parent and Neutron Z minus 1
daughter nuclides is too low for positron emission an inner becomes
shell electron is captured by the nucleus converting a proton proton and
into a neutron (i.e. positive + negative = neutral) electron
5. Isomeric transition b+ decay Too few p → n + β+ + v- A equal
neutrons e
A radionuclide in a metastable excited state decays to its Z minus 1
ground state by isomeric transition and the number of Too many Proton
protons and neutrons remain the same. The energy protons becomes
difference (energy released) is emitted as γ radiation. The Z neutron and
and A remain unchanged. positron (b+)
e.g. Tc-99m → Tc-99 + 140 kev γ rays Electron Too few
-
p + e → n A equal
capture neutrons
6. Gamma (γ) decay but not Electron Z minus 1
enough captured and
Released by hyperexcited nucleus to move to lower energy combines
energy for
state after β or α decay. with proton to
b+ decay
form neutrons
Points to help understanding
Isomeric Metastable γ radiation A equal
1. The charge on both sides of the equation must
transition excited
remain the same Z equal
nuclides
2. Simplistically speaking, a neutron is made of a
proton and an electron
n = p +e
n = +ve + -ve
• This means:
• A neutron will decay into a proton
and an electron (b- decay)
• A proton and an electron will join to
form a neutron (electron capture)
3. Simplistically speaking (again) a proton is made of
a neutron and a positron (b+) (b+ decay)
p = n + b+
+ve = n + +ve
4. The mass (A) remains the same except for alpha
decay

Summary
• The number of protons in an atom determines its
element
• Radionuclides transform to a more stable nuclide
by releasing energy in the form of radiation
• Radioactivity is measured in Becquerels (Bq). 1 Bq =
1 transformation / second
• Radiation can be alpha, beta or gamma particles