Optimization of Heat Treatment Parameters of Al-Si Alloys

UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI
COLLEGE OF ARCHITECTURE AND ENGINEERING
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL AND MANUFACTURING

ENGINEERING
FME 561/562: FINAL YEAR PROJECT REPORT
CODE: TMO 01/2015
TITLE: OPTMIZATION OF HEAT TREATMENT PARAMETERS OF CAST

AL-SI ALLOYS.
PRESNTED BY:
OTIENO OWUOR NICK F18/1418/2010
WANYAMA WAFULA FRANCIS F18/1452/2010
PROJECT SUPERVISOR: DR. THOMAS MBUYA OCHUKU
Final year project submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the
degree of Bachelor of Science in Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering for the year
2014/2015.
DECLARATION
STUDENTS
We declare that this work submitted as our final year project is our original efforts and to the best of our
knowledge has never been presented anywhere before for academic purpose.
Signed………………………………………..Date……………………………
OTIENO OWUOR NICK
Signed………………………………………..Date……………………………
WANYAMA WAFULA FRANCIS
SUPERVISOR
This report has been submitted by the above students for examination with my approval as a university
lecture and a supervisor of the project.
Signed………………………………………..Date……………………………
Dr. T.M. OCHUKU
Optimization of Heat Treatment Parameters of Al-Si Alloys i

DEDICATION
To,
My parents Tobias and Zilpah Owuor, for the years of loving guidance and support towards my education.
Otieno Owuor Nick.
My parents Evans and Everlyne Wanyama for their tireless support towards my education.
Wanyama Wafula Francis.
Optimization of Heat Treatment Parameters of Al-Si Alloys ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like first to give our sincere gratitude to the Almighty God for guiding us through this project.
We also thank our families and friends who gave us physical, financial and emotional assistance in our project.
We appreciate the University of Nairobi through the Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing
Engineering for the financial and material resources availed unto us throughout our project.
Our special thanks goes to our project supervisor, Dr. T. M. Ochuku, without whose assistance and constant
supervision, this project would have not been completed.
Lastly, we want to thank Mr. John Aduol and Mr. Njue both of University of Nairobi for their technical
support. Mr. J. Obiko and Mr. Mwai both of Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture & Technology
(JKUAT) for their immense assistance in casting.
May God abundantly bless you.
Otieno O.N & Wanyama W.F
Optimization of Heat Treatment Parameters of Al-Si Alloys iii

ABBREVIATIONS
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
Fecrt Critical Fe level

OES Optical Emission Spectroscope
SDAS Secondary Dendrite Arm Spacing
SI Base alloy (Scrap Ingot)
SEM Scanning Electron Microscope
TEM Transmission Electron Microscope
UK United Kingdom
U.o.N University of Nairobi
VHN Vickers Hardness Number
EDX Energy Dispersive X-ray
LSM London & Scandinavian Metallurgical
Optimization of Heat Treatment Parameters of Al-Si Alloys iv

ABSTRACT
The objective of this study was to optimize the heat treatment parameters of a recycle-friendly Al-Si alloy
developed in a previous investigation for cylinder head application.
In this project, we investigated the effect of different solution treatment time (2, 4, 6 hours) at 490⁰C and
different aging time (0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 24 hours) at 170⁰C on the microstructure and hardness of the
specimen. The base alloy (SI) plus variants of the base alloy with 0.02%Sr, 0.38%Fe and 0.9%Fe+0.45%Mn
were observed using Optika-optical microscope B-353 MET and tested in the as-cast and heat treated
conditions using Leco LV-800AT Vickers hardness tester.
The microstructures revealed presence of primary aluminium matrix, eutectic silicon phase and intermetallics.
Graphs of microhardness against artificial aging time were plotted and peak hardness values at optimum aging
times determined for each sample. It was noted that the hardness of the specimens increased with increasing
ageing time until the peak hardness was attained and thereafter decreased upon further ageing.
This result could be explained by the precipitation hardening process of aged specimen which depends greatly
on the ageing time and ageing temperature. . The optimum combination of solution heat treatment and ageing
times of the alloys for obtaining peak hardness was found to be, solution heat treatment for 6 hours at 490⁰C
followed by ageing for 2 hours at 170⁰C for 0.38%Fe and Sr-modified alloys with corresponding hardness
values of 132.5 VHN and 131.0 VHN respectively. The base alloy had peak hardness value of 130.8 VHN
after 2 hrs solution heat treatment and 2 hrs of ageing. The 0.9%Fe+0.45%Mn alloy had a peak hardness value
of 125.0 VHN after 6 hrs of solution heat treatment and 4 hrs of ageing.
The heat treatment process needs to be optimized because too short heat treatment times means that not all
alloying elements added will be dissolved and made available for precipitation hardening, and too long heat
treatment times means usage of more energy than is unnecessary and a decrease in the hardness of the alloy.
Optimization of Heat Treatment Parameters of Al-Si Alloys v

TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 1
DEDICATION --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- iii
ABBREVIATIONS -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- iv
ABSTRACT ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ v
LIST OF FIGURES -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------viii
LIST OF TABLES --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ix
Chapter 1 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1
INTRODUCTION --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1
1.0 BACKGROUND ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1
1.1 PROBLEM STATEMENT ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 2
1.2 JUSTIFICATION------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2
1.3 OBJECTIVES ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2
1.4 REPORT STRUCTURE ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2
Chapter 2 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 3
LITERATURE REVIEW ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 3
2.0 CAST AL-SI ALLOYS ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 3
2.1 COMMON CAST AL-SI ALLOYS ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 3
2.1.1 Al-Si Alloys for Cylinder Head Applications ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 4
2.1.2 Properties of Common Alloys used for Cylinder Head Applications ----------------------------------------------------------------- 5
2.2 MICROSTRUCTURE OF CAST AL-SI ALLOYS ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 6
2.3 ALLOYING ELEMENTS-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 8
2.3.1 Influence of Iron and Manganese --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 8
2.3.2 Influence of Cu and Mg ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 12
2.3.3 Influence of Ti, Zr and V additions ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 14
2.3.4 Influence of Nickel ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 15
2.3.5 Influence of modifiers and refiners ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 15
2.4 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF AL-SI ALLOYS ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 17
2.6 HEAT TREATMENT OF ALUMINIUM ALLOYS ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 20
2.6.1 Solution Heat treatment ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 21
2.6.2 Quenching----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 22
2.6.3 Ageing treatment -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 23
Chapter 3 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 27
METHODOLOGY ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 27
3.0 INTRODUCTION ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 27
3.1 EXPERIMENTAL WORK ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 27
3.1.1 Material and Scrap Ingot Preparation ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 27
3.1.2 Preparation of Test Specimens --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 30
3.1.3 Heat Treatment ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 31
Optimization of Heat Treatment Parameters of Al-Si Alloys vi
3.1.4 Metallographic Preparation ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 31
3.2 MICROSTRUCTURE EXAMINATION ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 34
3.2.3 Optical Microscopy ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 34
3.3 HARDNESS TESTING--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 35
Chapter 4 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 37
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 37
4.0 MICROSTRUCTURE ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 37
4.1 AS-CAST MICROSTRUCTURE -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 37
4.2 HEAT TREATED MICROSTRUCTURE --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 40
4.3 HARDNESS RESULTS -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 45
Chapter 5 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 59
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 59
5.0 CONCLUSIONS------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 59
5.1 RECOMMENDATIONS ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 60
REFERENCES ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 61
APPENDIX A -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 64
RESULTS OF HARDNESS TESTS --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 64
Optimization of Heat Treatment Parameters of Al-Si Alloys vii

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1: Percentage of the alloys availability based on the literature survey ------------------------------------------------ 4
Figure 2.2: Typical hypoeutectic AlSi7Mg (AA A356) Microstructure: Al dendrites surrounded by Al-Si eutectic[21]
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 7
Figure 2.3 : Microstructure of 319.1 alloy, showing (a) the presence of α-iron Chinese script phase, (b) evidence of
sludge formation (light grey polyhedral shaped or star-shaped particles) [32] ------------------------------------------- 9
Figure 2.4: Backscattered images of Fe-intermetallics observed in (a and b) 0.5%wt. Fe, (c and d) 0.8%wt. Fe, and (e
and f) 1%wt. Fe alloys in the (a, c, e) as-cast condition and (b, d, f) after solution treatment.[1] -------------------- 11
Figure 2.5: EDX spectrum corresponding to Fe intermetallic particles observed in: (a) α-Fe[ Al12Si3(FeMnCu)] and
(b) β-Fe (Al5FeSi) alloys in the as-cast condition[1] -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 12
Figure 2.6:Optical micrographs showing the effects of Cu and Mg addition on Si morphology in as-cast alloy
samples [1]. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 14
Figure 2.7: Optical microstructures of the as-cast (a) A319, and (b) A319Zr modified ------------------------------------- 15
Figure 2.8 (a): Unmodified Al-Si microstructure Figure 2.8 (b): Microstructure of modified cast Al-Si Alloy --- 20
Figure 2.9 : Element solubility as a function of the temperature [13] ----------------------------------------------------------- 20
Figure 2.10: The three steps for precipitation hardening. ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 21
Figure 2.11: Dislocation movement: Friedel Effect (a) and Orowan mechanism (b) ---------------------------------------- 24
Figure 2.12(a): Strength as a function of Figure 2.12(b): hardness as a function of ageing temperature and 25
Figure 3.1: Cylinder head scrap from Local Scrap Vendors ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 27
Figure 3.2(a): Pouring of molten metal Figure 3.2(b): Cast ingots -------------------------------------------- 28
Figure 3.3(a): Permanent cast iron mould Figure 3.3(b): Degassing of the melt using nitrogen gas ------- 29
Figure 3.4(a) : Milling the specimen Figure 3.4(b) : Prepared samples ready for heat treatment ---- 30
Figure 3.5(a) : Box oven for heat treatment Figure 3.5(b): Quenching solution heat treated samples. ------ 31
Figure 3.6(a): Heat treated specimen Figure 3.6(b): Grinding a sample on SiC papers ----------------- 33
Figure 3.6(c): Polishing a sample on a Figure 3.6(d): Polished samples ------------------------------------- 33
Figure 3.6(e): Samples safely stored in glass desiccator --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 34
Figure 3.7: Optical microscope connected to the computer------------------------------------------------------------------------ 34
Figure 3.8(a): Leco LV 800AT Vickers Hardness Tester. ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 36
Figure 3.8(b): Load of 29.42N applied ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 36
Figure 3.8(c): Measuring indented diagonals Figure 3.8(d): Reading VHN ---------------------------------------- 36
Figure 4.1: Microstructure of the base alloy (as-cast)------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 37
Figure 4.2: As-cast microstructure of the 0.02% Sr modified alloy. ------------------------------------------------------------- 38
Figure 4.3: As-cast microstructure of an alloy with 0.38% Fe total content. --------------------------------------------------- 39
Figure 4.4: As-cast microstructure of an alloy with 0.9% Fe and 0.45% Mn total content. --------------------------------- 39
Figure 4.5: Microstructure of the base alloy after heat treatment ----------------------------------------------------------------- 40
Figure 4.6: Heat treated microstructure of the alloy modified by 0.02% Sr. --------------------------------------------------- 42
Figure 4.7: Microstructure of the 0.38% Fe alloy after heat treatment ---------------------------------------------------------- 42
Figure 4.8: Microstructure of T6 heat treated 0.9% Fe and 0.45% Mn containing alloy ------------------------------------ 43
Figure 4.9: 0.38%Fe alloy solution heat treated for 6 hrs and quenched -------------------------------------------------------- 43
Figure 4.10: Base alloy solution heat treated for 6 hrs and quenched ----------------------------------------------------------- 44
Figure 4.11: Sr-modified alloy solution heat treated for 6 hrs and quenched -------------------------------------------------- 44
Figure 4.12: 0.9%Fe+0.45%Mn alloy solution heat treated for 6 hrs and quenched------------------------------------------ 45
Figure 4.13: Microhardness curve for base alloy solution heat treated for 2 hours ------------------------------------------- 46
Figure 4.14: Microhardness curve for base alloy solution heat treated for 4 hours ------------------------------------------ 47
Figure 4.15: Microhardness curve for base alloy solution heat treated for 6 hours ------------------------------------------- 47
Figure 4.16: Microhardness curve for Sr-modified alloy solution heat treated for 2 hours---------------------------------- 48
Figure 4.17: Microhardness curve for Sr-modified alloys solution heat treated for 4 hours -------------------------------- 49
Figure 4.18: Microhardness curve for Sr-modified alloy solution heat treated for 6 hours---------------------------------- 49
Optimization of Heat Treatment Parameters of Al-Si Alloys viii
Figure 4.19: Microhardness curve for Sr+0.38%Fe alloy solution heat treated for 2 hours --------------------------------- 50
Figure 4.22: Microhardness curve for 0.9% Fe + 0.45% Mn alloy solution heat treated for 2hours ---------------------- 51
Figure 4.23: Microhardness curve for 0.9% Fe + 0.45% Mn alloy solution heat treated for 4 hours. --------------------- 52
Figure 4.24: Microhardness curve for 0.9% Fe + 0.45% Mn alloy solution heat treated for 6 hours---------------------- 52
Figure 4.25: Microhardness curves for base alloy at different solution heat treatment times. ------------------------------ 54
Figure 4.26: Microhardness curves for Sr-modified alloy at different Solution heat treatment times. -------------------- 54
Figure 4.27: Microhardness curves for Si+0.38%Fe alloy at different solution heat treatment times. -------------------- 55
Figure 4.28: Microhardness curves for 0.9%Fe+0.45%Mn alloy at different Solution heat treatment times. ----------- 55
Figure 4.29: Microhardness curves for the alloys at 2 hours Solution heat treatment. --------------------------------------- 56
Figure 4.30: Microhardness curves for the alloys at 4 hours solution heat treatment. ---------------------------------------- 57
Figure 4.31: Microhardness curves for the alloys at 6 hours Solution heat treatment ---------------------------------------- 57
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1: Common cast Al-Si alloys 4
Table 3.1: Composition of the base Alloy 31
Table 3.2: Composition of developed alloys 30
Table A- 1: Summary of VHN for Base alloy at different ageing times after 2hrs solution treatment 64
Table A- 4: Summary of VHN for Sr-modified alloy at different ageing times after 2hrs solution treatment 67
Table A- 7: Summary of VHN for Si+0.38%Fe at different ageing times after 2hrs solution treatment 70
Table A-10: Summary of VHN for 0.9%Fe+0.45%Mn alloy at different ageing times after 2hrs solution treatment 73
Table A- 11: Summary of VHN for 0.9%Fe+0.45%Mn alloy at different ageing times after 4hrs solution treatment 74
Table A- 12: Summary of VHN for 0.9%Fe+0.45%Mn alloy at different ageing times after 6hrs solution treatment 75
Table A- 13: Summary of VHN for alloys in the as-cast state 76
Optimization of Heat Treatment Parameters of Al-Si Alloys ix

Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
1.0 BACKGROUND
The use of cast aluminum alloys in automotive structural applications is growing rapidly because of the need
to reduce weight in order to reduce fuel consumption. Weight reduction in aircrafts is very important, because
lighter planes lead to fuel reduction and obviously more transportable load with the same engine power. To
reduce the aircraft weight many different solutions have been adopted, like the use of aluminium alloys,
composites and titanium alloys for parts which have to resist high temperature. In the automotive industry,
many different solutions have been adopted and a massive use of aluminium alloys is one of these.
More and more often wrought and cast aluminium alloys are used in automotive body framing, chassis,
engine and many other components. These parts were earlier produced by using steel or iron, but use of
aluminium alloys leads to lighter parts, although sometimes they are more complex or bigger. Due to higher
castability of aluminium alloys, it is possible to produce a unique part which implements the functions usually
done by other parts. In this way it is possible to reduce the number of components, which leads to economic
advantages.
In comparison to steel or iron, aluminium alloys have lower mechanical properties, as strength, hardness and
heat resistance. So, especially for the critical component, it is necessary to find the way to obtain alloys of
specific mechanical characteristics, in order to achieve a progressive substitution of steel and iron parts.
Nevertheless, aluminium alloys show a better thermal conductivity and this property allows to use these alloys
in application where heat removal is necessary, for example in block engines.
One of the mechanical properties which has to be considered is hardness and the aim of this project was to
check the influence of heat treatment parameters on this property. The final properties of an alloy are not only
due to its chemical composition, but also to its metallurgical history. It is possible to use a lot of different heat
treatments to change the properties of an alloy. Thus finding the optimal heat treatment parameters has a
fundamental importance, in order to achieve the desired properties.
Optimization of Heat Treatment Parameters of Al-Si Alloys 1

1.1 PROBLEM STATEMENT
The aim of the project was to optimize heat treatment parameters of Al-Si alloys. The heat treatment process
needs to be optimized because too short heat treatment times means that not all alloying elements added will
be dissolved and made available for precipitation hardening, and too long heat treatment times means usage
of more energy than is necessary and a decrease in hardness of the alloy.
1.2 JUSTIFICATION
Near-eutectic Al–Si alloys are well-known casting alloys with high wear resistance, a low thermal-expansion
coefficient, good corrosion resistance, and improved mechanical properties at a wide range of temperatures.
Such features make the application of these alloys particularly suitable for the automotive industry, especially
in the manufacture of cylinder blocks, cylinder heads, pistons and valve lifters. Heat treatment adversely
affects hardness of these alloys and thus it is important to optimize the heat treatment parameters.
1.3 OBJECTIVES
The overall aim of this project was to optimize heat treatment parameters of Al-Si alloys.
The specific objectives were:-
1. To investigate the influence of heat treatment parameters on the hardness of Al-Si alloys.
2. To find the optimum solution heat treatment and artificial ageing times.
3. To find the peak hardness at the optimum solution heat treatment and artificial ageing times.
1.4 REPORT STRUCTURE
This report is divided into five chapters. Chapter 1 highlights the background of the project, the problem
statement and objectives to be achieved. Chapter 2 presents the literature review on the microstructure and
mechanical properties of Al-Si alloys in addition to the effect of heat treatment on mechanical properties,
hardness in particular. Chapter 3 is an outline of the procedure used in carrying out this project. Chapter 4
reports the experimental results obtained and extensively discusses these results. Chapter 5 gives a summary
of all findings and conclusions drawn from this work together with recommendations for future work. An
appendix section is also provided at the end of this report for additional information regarding this project.

Chapter 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 CAST AL-SI ALLOYS
Al–Si alloys are well-known casting alloys with high wear resistance, a low thermal-expansion coefficient,
good corrosion resistance, and improved mechanical properties at a wide range of temperatures. Such features
make the application of these alloys particularly suitable for the automotive industry, especially in the
manufacture of cylinder blocks, cylinder heads, pistons and valve lifters [1-3]. Silicon reduces the thermal
expansion coefficient, increases corrosion and wear resistance, and improves castability characteristics of the
alloy (especially fluidity and porosity formation) [2, 4].
This explains the preference of Al-Si foundry alloys over other Al-foundry alloys such as the Al-Cu, Al-Mg
(-Si), and Al-Zn (-Si)-Mg systems. However with an increase in Si content, the mechanical properties of Al–
Si alloys, elongation in particular, are reduced noticeably. Thus the low expansion group of Al–Si alloys need
to be modified. These alloys can also be designed to acquire the required combination of strength and ductility
after heat treatment [2]. The most common of Al-Si alloys belong to the hypoeutectic group in which the
silicon content is below the eutectic composition of around 11.7%wt Si [5].
2.1 COMMON CAST AL-SI ALLOYS
The high strength-to-weight ratio, excellent mechanical properties and superior castability makes Al-Si based
alloys preferable in the automotive and aerospace industries [6]. Common alloys include the 319-type cast
Al-Si alloy (Alloy 319.0), which is typically a secondary alloy that contains Cu and Mg amongst other
elements [7, 8], the 380 type which belongs to the Al-Si-Cu family, the A356 and A357 which belong to the
Al-7%Si-Mg family of alloys. Some of the common aluminium alloys together with their compositions are
shown in Table 2.1 [9].

Table 2.1: Common cast Al-Si alloys
2.1.1 Al-Si Alloys for Cylinder Head Applications
The literature indicates that cylinder heads are made from a variety of Al-Si alloys with different
compositions. Figure 2.1 indicates the use of Alloy types 319 (Al-Si-Cu), 354 (AlSi9Cu1.6Mg), 355, 356
(AlSi7Mg) and 380(Al-Si-Cu) for cylinder heads, with the 319-type being the most predominantly used [10-
12]. Hwang et al explains this preference of Alloy type 319 to arise from the balance of properties that can be
achieved using suitable heat treatments for this particular alloy [13].
% of Avaialbility of Cylinder Head Alloys
11.1%
5.6% 22.2%
11.1%
50%
Alloy 356 319 355 354 380
Figure 2.1: Percentage of the alloys availability based on the literature survey

The uses of the above alloys are guided by the required properties of cylinder heads.
Cylinder heads experience high thermal fatigue in the combustion chamber arising from thermal cycling
between ambient and about 300⁰C and high-cycle mechanical fatigue owing to the rotation of the engine
crankshaft [14, 15]. This in effect makes the cylinder head prone to crack initiation and hence the need to use
appropriate material for its construction. The material suitable for this application must therefore have a low
thermal expansion coefficient, high tensile and compression strength, high ductility and a high creep
resistance at all service temperatures. Moreover, the alloy should have a high thermal conductivity, high
castability and machinability [10].
2.1.2 Properties of Common Alloys used for Cylinder Head Applications
A 319.0
The A319-type alloy belong to the Al-Si-Cu-Mg family and are widely used for cylinder head applications
[16]. The strengthening of these alloys is usually realized through precipitation hardening. Formation of fine
Al2Cu and Mg2Si precipitates during ageing of 319 alloys leads to a pronounced improvement in the strength
properties. However, at high temperatures strength degrades quickly with time due to rapid coarsening of fine
strengthening precipitates. To improve the strength of the alloys under these conditions, a microstructure
containing thermally stable and coarsening resistant dispersoids is required [16].
Zr is often added to the alloy to form coherent particles that are very stable upon heating due to the low
solubility and diffusivity of Zr in the Al matrix and to the low interface energy of Al3Zr particles and the base
metal. Vanadium can also be added to the alloy. These modifiers (Zr and V) enable the alloy to maintain a
high strength at temperatures up to 350⁰C [6].
The performance of 319 alloys depend greatly on their Fe content. Alloys with Fe content below 0.20% are
known as primary alloys, and have good ductility at elevated temperature but remain fragile at ambient
temperature. Secondary alloys possess higher iron content of 0.40-0.80% and sometimes up to 1%, and have
low ductility at elevated and ambient temperature [17]. A319 alloys are brittle at low temperature but can be
improved by heat treatment or alloying with elements like strontium. Strontium addition transforms the large
brittle flakes of silicon present in the unmodified A319 alloy into globular structure resulting in substantial
improvement in elongation and tensile strength. Properties of these alloys are generally controlled by addition
of modifiers and heat treatment [2].

A356
The Al7Si0.3Mg have good mechanical properties after heat treatment and are used for wheels, structural
castings and suspension parts requiring moderate to high strength and good ductility. However, their
mechanical characteristics deteriorate at higher temperatures like 300⁰C.This drop in mechanical performance
at high temperatures is mitigated by addition of Cu to the A356. It is reported that addition of Cu (~0.5%) to
A356 results to good strength in the 200-250⁰C and does not affect its ductility. However this gain in strength
disappears at 300⁰C. Thus for cylinder head application Cu can be added to the A356 for increased strength
at elevated temperature [14, 18, 19].
2.2 MICROSTRUCTURE OF CAST AL-SI ALLOYS
The Al-Si system is a simple binary eutectic in which Si has limited solubility in aluminum. The solubility of
Si in Al reaches a maximum of 1.65% wt. Si at the eutectic temperature of 577⁰C [9, 20]. As the Al-Si alloy
solidifies, the primary aluminum forms and grows into dendrites or in the case of hypereutectic Si
compositions, the silicon phase forms and grows into angular primary particles. At room temperature,
hypoeutectic Al-Si alloys comprise a soft and ductile primary aluminum phase and a hard and brittle silicon
phase. Hypereutectic cast Al-Si alloys usually contain coarse, angular primary silicon particles as well as an
Al-Si eutectic containing eutectic silicon and eutectic Al phases. Commercial aluminum alloys have different
levels of other alloying elements which are added to enhance their microstructure for the recommended
applications. Figure 2.2 shows typical microstructure of hypoeutectic Al-7Si-Mg (A356) alloy (Al-dendrites
Surrounded by Al-Si eutectic)

Figure 2.2: Typical hypoeutectic AlSi7Mg (AA A356) Microstructure: Al dendrites surrounded by Al-Si eutectic[21]
Properties of cast Al-Si-Mg alloys are predominantly governed by the microstructural characteristics such as
morphology of silicon particles and presence of intermetallic compounds depending upon the presence of
alloying elements [9, 22]. The intermetallic compounds and morphology of silicon particles are largely
affected by the alloy chemistry, solidification rate and heat treatment conditions [23]. At high solidification
rates, a uniform microstructure with the closely distributed and fine particles are usually expected [24, 25].
The microstructures of Al-Si-Cu-Mg casting alloys are essentially made up of three components whose
proportions are governed by the alloy composition and solidification conditions. The two main components
are the primary α-Al solid solution phase and the Al-Si eutectic. The third component of the microstructure
can be broadly termed as intermetallic compounds and these arise from excess amounts of Mg, Cu, Fe and
Mn that cannot be contained in the α-Al solid solution phase [24]. The intermetallics adopt various
morphologies and form at various stages, prior to, during or after the Al-Si eutectic formation period, and can
significantly affect the mechanical properties of the alloys.
Mechanical properties of cast aluminum alloy components strongly depend on local microstructure which is
directly related to chemical composition and casting system. Solidification defects such as gas pores, cavities,
shrinkage and oxide films, strongly affect the mechanical behavior and mainly fatigue resistance of the
components. With improved casting techniques, casting defects have been reduced hence other microstructure
parameters, play a dominant role:
 Secondary dendrite arm spacing

 Grain size

 Size and morphology of Si particles
 Shape and distribution of intermetallic compounds
 Precipitation hardening phase during heat treatment
Morphology of Si particles plays a vital role in determining the mechanical properties of Al-Si alloys. Si
particles may be in the form of coarse acicular plates or modified to fine fibrous structures by addition of Sr.
In an unmodified alloy the Si phase is in the form of large plates with sharp sides and ends known as acicular.
In the modified alloy, the structural transformation from acicular to fibrous Si is responsible for improvement
in mechanical properties of the casting.
During solution heat treatment of the base alloy Si particles break down into smaller fragments and become
gradually spheroidized in modified alloys. Plate like eutectics are more resistant to interfacial instability and
subsequent spheroidisation than the fibrous kind. Rate of spheroidisation is more rapid in modified alloys.
The combination of alloying elements and liquid alloy treatment are satisfactory in obtaining improved control
of the microstructure during solidification hence improved tensile properties
Cyclic loading properties of material are sensitive to microstructure. Course microstructure contain larger
defects and crack propagation rates of small fatigue cracks are accelerated. Specimens with low SDAS have
higher fatigue resistance than those with medium SDAS.
2.3 ALLOYING ELEMENTS

Aluminium foundry alloys can be tailored to cover a wide range of mechanical performance via chemistry
and/or process control [19]. Primary alloys are produced from pure aluminium, melted with addition elements.
Secondary alloys are produced at a lower cost from scrap (end-of-life recycled) aluminium materials, which
are remelted after classifying, with adjustment for main elements [21, 26]. The major elements usually present
or added to Al-Si alloys and their effects are subsequently discussed.
2.3.1 Influence of Iron and Manganese
In commercial aluminium alloys, iron is the most common and unavoidable impurity, especially when dealing
with recycled materials. Iron has a detrimental effect on the impact strength of these alloys due to the

formation of Al-Si-Fe compounds. Solubility of Fe in Al-Si is very limited, hence it forms intermetallics such
as β-Al5FeSi phases [27], which is detrimental due to its stress raising potential and poor bonding in α-Al
matrix. Increasing the amount of Fe leads to the precipitation of β-phase whose amount and size increase with
increase in Fe in the Al 7Si0.3Mg alloys. Fe mainly precipitates in the form of α-(Al15(FeMn)3Si2) and π-
(Al8FeMg3Si6) phases, with a Chinese-script morphology. Upon increasing Mn level, the Al (Fe, Mn) Si
primary particles which precipitate directly from the liquid display a predominantly polyhedral shape. They
are located in the α-Al dendrite. The presence of Fe causes formation of different intermetallics at each level
of Mn. The presence of Fe whether individually or in combination with another element for example Mn
lowers the fatigue strength of the alloy [28, 29].
High levels of Fe (~1%) considerably lower the fatigue strength. Crack initiation energy decreases with
increase in Fe content. Al-Si alloys containing Fe have lower energies but higher crack propagation speeds.
Even solution heat treatment of these alloys display no significant increase in fatigue strength and impact
energy due to the brittle and hard nature of Fe-phases. α-Fe intermetallic phase inside α-Al dendrite increases
the matrix strength and improves the resistance of the material to crack propagation. [30].
Komastu et al [31] investigated the effect of the addition of iron on the mechanical properties of Al–Si alloys.
Their results showed that iron has a detrimental effect on the impact strength of these alloys because of the
formation of Al–Si–Fe compounds.
Figure 2.3 : Microstructure of 319.1 alloy, showing (a) the presence of α-iron Chinese script phase, (b) evidence of
sludge formation (light grey polyhedral shaped or star-shaped particles) [32]
Figure 2.3(a) shows the microstructure of a 319-type alloy (containing0.5% Fe and 0.5% Mn) in which iron
precipitates mainly in the form of small Chinese-script α-Fe particles. Upon increasing the manganese level,
the Al(Fe,Mn)Si primary particles which precipitate directly from the liquid display a predominantly

polyhedral shape; they are located within the α-Al dendrites, as shown in Figure 2.3(b), where the clear, sharp
edges of the particle confirm that it has not been transformed into the Chinese-script, as was reported by
Mbuya et al [30].
The backscattered images shown in Figure 2.4, reveal the influence of iron concentrations on the formation
of different iron intermetallics at each level of manganese. It is seen that when the Fe-content increases from
0.5 %wt. to 1 %wt., platelet-like β-Fe and Chinese-script α-Fe compounds form at low Levels of Mn content.
The corresponding EDX spectrum, shown in Figure 2.5, displays strong reflections due to the presence of Fe
and Mn, which indicates to the formation of α-Phase. However, EDX spectrum corresponding to β-Fe particles
observed in alloy containing 1% shows the results for the different parameters, as determined from the
instrumented impact tests for the Sr-modified grain-refined 0.5%wt. Fe alloy, thus making it possible to
investigate the effects of various additions of Fe, whether individually or in combination with Mn, in as-cast
and heat-treated conditions.
In the as-cast condition, the total absorbed energy, of this alloy is found to decrease with an increase in Fe
whether added individually, or in combination with Mn. At the high Fe levels of 1%wt, the impact energy is
considerably lower due to the formation of sludge and β-Fe. Such intermetallic serve as stress concentration
sites and tend to promote crack propagation, ultimately resulting in low impact energy values.

Figure 2.4: Backscattered images of Fe-intermetallics observed in (a and b) 0.5%wt. Fe, (c and d) 0.8%wt. Fe, and (e
and f) 1%wt. Fe alloys in the (a, c, e) as-cast condition and (b, d, f) after solution treatment.[1]

Figure 2.5: EDX spectrum corresponding to Fe intermetallic particles observed in: (a) α-Fe[ Al12Si3(FeMnCu)] and
(b) β-Fe (Al5FeSi) alloys in the as-cast condition[1]
The total absorbed energy of the alloy containing (~1%) Fe and (~0.5%) Mn is low in comparison to the other
alloys studied. It is also interesting to note that the impact strength is more sensitive to minimal variations in
the microstructure than elongation. Similar observations were made by Richard [33] ,who indicated that
impact energy values are more sensitive to the as-cast microstructure of Al–Si alloys than the tensile property.
Crack initiation and propagation energies of the alloys are affected by the addition of Fe, either individually
or in combination with Mn, the crack initiation energy decrease with an increase in the iron content. .
Consequently, the ductility index decreases too.
The highest crack speeds are obtained for the alloys containing the highest iron levels, thus indicating that
these alloys possess the lowest energies. Even after solution heat treatment, these alloys display no significant
increase in the impact energy due to the brittle and hard nature of the iron micro constituents. The formation
of these undesirable phases is not changed, or is only slightly changed, by solution heat treatment at 495⁰C
[2].
2.3.2 Influence of Cu and Mg
Impact energies are relatively low with increase in Cu and or Mg content. The volume of blocky Al2Cu
increases with increase in Cu content. Increased amount of Al2Cu in the presence of Sr particles provide

further crack initiation sites in addition to the brittle Si particles. In copper containing alloys such as 319 and
332 fracture behavior is controlled by Al2Cu particles rather than by the Si particles. At high Mg levels
(~0.5%), impact energy is considerable lower [24, 34]. This may be attributed to Al5Cu6Mg8Si particles which
are habitually unaffected by solution heat treatment. Cu has a maximum equilibrium solubility in α-Al matrix
of about 5.65%wt. although dissolution of Cu in Al-Si Cu cast alloys is about 1%wt. A high level of Cu leads
to increased porosity [18].
Alloys containing Cu such as 319 and 332 have low impact strength since fracture behavior is influenced by
Al2Cu rather than Si particles [35].Mg is soluble in aluminum up to a maximum of 17%wt [35]. However at
the low amounts added (0.3% - 0.7%), some will precipitate as Mg2Si or AlSiMg2Si tertiary eutectic. Mg2Si
readily forms as Chinese script and dissolves upon heat treatment and enters solid solution[36] . When Mg is
present and Fe content is also high, the π phase Al9FeMg3Si5 with Chinese morphology will be formed [37,
38]. High levels of Mg counteracts the effect of Mn in stabilizing the AlFeSi phase [39].
Generally, with regard to the addition of Cu and Mg, the impact energies are relatively low with increases in
the Cu and/or Mg content [40], the volume fraction of the blocky Al2Cu phase increases with an increase in
Cu content. In addition to the modification of the silicon phase, there is a tendency to form an increased
amount of blocky Al2Cu in the presence of Sr, although dispersed Al2Cu also forms. These particles provide
further crack-initiation sites in addition to those of the brittle Si particles.
The influence of both Sr and Mg on the segregation of the Al2Cu phase is expected to increase the severity of
the segregation, resulting in the formation of large amounts of the coarse block-like form of the phase, thus
providing further cause of the reduction in the impact energy. The decrease in the total absorbed energy from
one alloy to another is more significant at the highest Cu and Mg contents, compared to the decrease observed
for low Cu and Mg contents [24, 34].
Figure 2.6 shows how the increase in the level of Mg and Cu hinders the modification effect of Sr when these
elements are added to the 0.5%wt. Fe alloy. The microstructures reveal that some Si areas are fully modified,
whereas others are only partially modified.

Figure 2.6: Optical micrographs showing the effects of Cu and Mg addition on Si morphology in as-cast alloy
samples [1].
2.3.3 Influence of Ti, Zr and V additions
Formation of fine Al2Cu and Mg2Si during ageing of 319 alloys leads to a pronounced improvement in the
strength properties. However, at high temperatures strength degrades quickly with time due to rapid
coarsening of fine strengthening precipitates [40] .To improve the strength of the alloys under these
conditions, a microstructure containing thermally stable and coarsening resistant dispersoids is required [41]
According to theory, a particle will be resistant to coarsening if the energy of its interface with the matrix is
low, and if the diffusivity and solubility of its rate-controlling element are small. Among the transition metals,
Zr has the smallest diffusion flux in aluminum, and its addition to aluminum base alloys results in the
formation ofAl3Zr phase [8].
In binary Al–Zr alloys, this phase can form either as a semi-coherent tetragonal equilibrium phase or in a
coherent cubic form. Both of these forms are expected to form low energy interfaces with the matrix, with
that of the latter being especially low [42]. These coherent particles are very stable upon heating due to the
low solubility and diffusivity of Zr in the Al matrix and to the low interface energy of Al3Zr particles and the
base metal. Addition of small amounts of Zr to wrought aluminum alloys has been widely studied. This has
been mainly done to improve workability and formability by refining the microstructure [43], and to impede
recrystallization during heat treatment due to the obstacle action of the coherent particles [44, 45].

This facilitates an increase in strength and ductility of the wrought alloys in the precipitation-hardened T6
condition. The effect of Zr on cast aluminum alloys, however, has been rarely studied [46]. Figure 2.7 below
shows the optical microstructure of an unmodified A319 alloy and a Zr modified alloy.
Figure 2.7: Optical microstructures of the as-cast (a) A319, and (b) A319Zr modified
2.3.4 Influence of Nickel

Addition of Ni activates an additional strengthening mechanism based on load transfer to an interconnected
network of hard phases. However there are upper limits of addition of Ni for positive contribution at elevated
temperature strength depending on Si content. Both yield and tensile strengths increase upon the addition of
Ni, but this applies only to a certain Ni concentration. While for eutectic alloys with 12%Si a monotonic
increase in strength can be observed up to 2%Ni, hypoeutectic alloys with 7%Si exhibit a hardening effect
only in the range below 1%Ni [1]
2.3.5 Influence of modifiers and refiners
The eutectic Si particles can be modified to a fibrous morphology state. Na and Sr are used for chemical
modification and thermal modification. Addition of small amounts of these elements to the melt changes the
coarse large needles of Si particles into fine round form as shown in Figure 2.8. Increase in solidification rate
causes a decrease in SDAS and size of Si particles. At slower cooling rates, Si particles appear large. The Si
phase in the eutectic develops into globular structure with Sr addition and improves mechanical properties
considerably by virtue of even distribution of the stress around these hard particles [47-49].
Addition of Ti and Sr enhances favorable effects of both elements in the microstructure thereby leading to
general improvement in mechanical properties. Modification can therefore be achieved using several ways
such as faster solidification rates, mold vibration, melt agitation in mushy state and melt inoculation using
other elements such as Na, Sr, Sb and certain rare earth metals. Sr and Sb are known to be the best modifiers.
Excess amount of Sr results in porosity and volumetric shrinkage. As an additive Sr improves mechanical
properties and suppresses formation of Si in the hypereutectic Al-Si alloys. This generally improves
mechanical properties such as ductility and toughness. Metallographic studies show a change from plate like
Si particles to fine particles on addition of 0.2%wt of Al-10Sr modifier. According to previous studies, impact
strength is the most sensitive of all the mechanical properties to silicon content for alloy compositions
containing 3–15% Si. Modification causes a significant improvement in the impact strength of both as-cast
and heat-treated alloys [8, 45, 49].
Gruzleski and Closset [46] studied the effect of strontium addition on the mechanical properties of A356.0
alloy. Their results showed that impact properties are much more sensitive to modification than tensile
properties, where the impact strength of the modified alloy is seen to increase to three times its value, the
elongation value is doubled, although both yield and tensile strengths remain virtually unaffected. Closset
[50], who investigated the modification and quality of low pressure aluminum alloy castings, found that Sr
modification substantially improves the elongation and, to lesser extent, the tensile strength of 319 type alloys.
The impact strength of the alloy is found to be highly sensitive to microstructure and greatly improved by Sr-
modification of the eutectic.
Similar research results were also reported by Komatsu et al [44] who applied instrumented impact testing to
Na modified and unmodified alloys after different stages of heat-treatment. He found that it was not only the
impact strength which was significantly affected by silicon morphology, but the maximum load and
propagation energy were as well. The fracture surfaces after tensile testing of unmodified alloys showed a
lustrous, dark grey, well-faceted brittle appearance which resembled the appearance of silicon, whereas the
modified alloys had a ‘‘lighter, silky fracture” which suggests that the fracture occurred largely through the
ductile aluminum matrix. From the few data available in the literature concerning the impact strength of Al–
Si alloys, it would appear that this property is influenced by the fineness of the microstructure and the
morphology of the constituents [51].
Modification and grain refinement affect not only the total absorbed energy but also the fracture behavior of
the alloys. This improvement in strength may be explained by the change in silicon morphology from an
acicular to a fibrous form resulting in a lessening of stress concentration at the silicon–aluminum interface.
Strontium also reduces the size of the Si particles thereby resulting in higher crack propagation energy, since
a crack has more chance of propagating in the ductile matrix without encountering a brittle silicon particle.

Figure 2.8 (a): Unmodified Al-Si microstructure Figure 2.8(b): Microstructure of modified cast Al-Si
Alloy [1].
2.4 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF AL-SI ALLOYS

Some of the important factors dictating the mechanical properties of cast Al-Si alloys are divided into two
groups: (a) those that are governed mainly by the casting process and (b) those influenced by the physical
metallurgy of the alloy [52]. Tighter controls currently applied during the casting process as well as the
advancements in the casting processes have resulted in reduction of structural defects in castings, such as
pores and oxide bifilms, which seriously degrade mechanical properties [52, 53].
On the other hand, better understanding of the physical metallurgy background of the age-hardened cast
aluminum alloys indicated that chemical composition, solidification rate and heat treatment are the key
parameters to improve the ‘quality’ of the investigated material, as expressed through the mechanical
properties [54].
Dwivedi et al found that an increase in the silicon content from 4 to 20% influences the tensile strength,
ductility and hardness of Al-Si-Mg alloys. The ductility of the alloy reduces monotonically while hardness
increases over the range of Si increase. Furthermore, tensile strength increases up to 16% Si, but reduces at
higher silicon contents [23].
Elhadari et al [6] observed that additions of Zr and V significantly increased the yield strength (60-87%
increase) and ultimate tensile strength but lowered the ductility in comparison with typical A356-T6 and 319-
T6 alloys [47].

Strength of heat treatable cast aluminum alloys decreases at temperatures above about 200⁰C. Precipitates
that maintain the high strength of the alloy usually coarsen or dissolve at temperatures above 150⁰C, resulting
in reduced high temperature performance and consequently limited practical applications [55]. Nickel is
commonly used with copper to improve the mechanical properties of alloys at elevated temperatures. Addition
of copper to Al-Si alloys increases their strength and fatigue properties without loss of castability [38].
Salem et al [56] realized a reduction in ductility as a consequence of increasing the iron content and attributed
it to the larger volume fraction of the brittle Fe-rich intermetallic compounds. The yield and ultimate tensile
strength, seemed not to be negatively affected by the addition of iron, but the influence of microstructure
coarseness e.g. SDAS, was evident. Moreover, Iron forms undesirable intermetallic compounds like the β-
phase Al5FeSi, which reduces both ductility and strength. It is common practice to neutralize these detrimental
effects of iron by adding certain minor elements such as Mn and Mg to modify these intermetallics to less
harmful morphologies like the π-phase Al8Mg3FeSi6 or the α-plate Al15(FeMn)3Si2 [57].
Fe and Mn content also affects the fatigue life of cast Al-Si alloys. Under low applied stress, the movement
of dislocations is more effectively blocked by the large Fe-based intermetallic compounds than by the eutectic
Si particles, so that at the interface with the intermetallic compounds there is an accumulation of dislocations,
which leads to stress concentrations and consequently favours crack nucleation, due to the particle–matrix
decohesion or particle cracking, and this reduces the fatigue life of the castings. On the other hand, at high
applied stresses and cycles to failure less than about 106, fatigue life strongly depends on micro-crack
propagation [27].
Han et al [58] in their study of optimization of tensile properties for Al–Si–Cu–Mg 319-type alloys found that
the addition of Mg to experimental 319 alloys led to an increase in yield strength and ultimate tensile strength,
but to a reduction in percentage elongation. It was also found that Mg causes a greater increase in yield
strength than it does in ultimate tensile strength (94 MPa vs. 60 MPa, respectively). Compared with
experimental alloys of the same Mg content, industrial alloys showed higher tensile properties, due to the
presence of trace elements (Fe, Ni, Zn) in the latter. In Mg-free alloys, the addition of Sr increased the strength
and ductility. When Mg was present, in either experimental or industrial alloys, the ductility was reduced. The
optimum combination of Mg and Sr in this study was evaluated to be 0.3 wt. % Mg with 150 ppm Sr. In the
Mg-free 319 alloys, tensile properties increase with increasing solution treatment time and temperature [59].

Optimization of heat-treatment parameters may lead to the best combination of ductility, strength and hardness
for a given cast component. One of the most common tempers used in the metal casting industry for Al-Si-
Cu alloys is the T6 heat treatment. It is generally accepted that this treatment allows for full enhancement of
the mechanical properties in terms of higher strength and hardness values, attributed to a large amount of
precipitation strengthening which occurs during the ageing process [60].
The results of a study on the influence of additives on the impact toughness of Al–10.8% Si near-eutectic cast
alloys by Mohamed et al [1]indicated that the morphology of fibrous Si in Sr modified alloys enhanced
toughness because of its profound effect on crack initiation and crack propagation resistance. The combined
addition of modifier and grain refiner led to a 33% increase in the impact strength (7.21J) compared to the
untreated alloy (5.42J). In alloys containing high levels of iron, such as the (~1% Fe, ~1% Mn) and (~1% Fe,
~0.5% Mn) alloys, the addition of iron resulted to an increased precipitation of sludge or β-Fe platelets,
respectively; these particles also acted as crack initiation sites and reduced the impact properties noticeably.
In alloys already containing high levels of copper, such as the (~3.25% Cu, ~0.3% Mg) and (~0.3.25% Cu,
~0.5% Mg) alloys, increasing the copper level lowered the impact properties significantly.
Kumar et al [61] further reported that addition of Be, Ca and Sr to an Al-7Si-0.3Mg-0.8Fe alloy significantly
improved the impact strength by modifying the eutectic Si from acicular to fibrous form and refinement of
the platelet β-phases. The best combination of both tensile and impact properties were observed in the
combined addition of Be + Mn, Ca + Mn and Sr + Mn to the Al-7Si-0.3Mg-0.8Fe alloy.
Lorella et al [57] observed that high cooling rate induced a reduction of the SDAS, as well as of the volume
fraction and size of the solidification defects, with a consequent increase of the tensile and fatigue properties.
Li et al [8] on their study on parameters controlling the performance of AA319-type alloys also observed a
reduction in tensile strength, yield strength, impact energy and %elongation with decrease in cooling rate (i.e.
increase in SDAS) regardless of the alloy composition in both T5 and T6 heat treatment conditions.
In analyzing fatigue properties of cast alloys, it should be noted that the fatigue data of cast alloys normally
exhibit a fairly large scatter due to the microstructural variations especially the type and size of casting defects.

2.6 HEAT TREATMENT OF ALUMINIUM ALLOYS
The term “heat treatment” indicates a sequence of controlled heating and cooling, which leads to
microstructure modifications, and thus to changes in the properties, of a material. In many cases, heat
treatment is necessary to achieve optimal properties, which allows to use a material for industrial purposes.
Heat treatment is often used to achieve increase in strength and hardness, to relieve residual stresses and to
increase ductility.
Aluminum alloys are very versatile, because they can be used in many different heat treatments, as function
of their chemical composition and of required mechanical properties. Heat-treatment improves the strength of
aluminum alloys through a process known as precipitation-hardening which occurs during the heating and
cooling of an aluminum alloy and in which precipitates are formed in the aluminum matrix.
To be heat treatable an aluminum alloy must have solubility of its alloying elements which is a function of
the temperature as shown in Figure 2.9. Non heat-treatable alloys consist of a single phase, for which an
increase in strength is achieved by solid-solution strengthening. Aluminium alloys are rendered heat treatable
(capable of being precipitation hardened) as a result of alloying thus providing the means to enhance the
properties using appropriate heat treatment procedures and practices.
Figure 2.9 : Element solubility as a function of the temperature [13]
Different temper designations are used to indicate the heat treatment to which the alloy has been subjected.
Below is a list of selected designations.
i. O, annealed
ii. T4, solution heat treated and quenched

iii. T5, artificially aged from the as-cast condition
iv. T6, solution heat treated, quenched, and artificially aged
v. T7, solution heat treated, quenched, and overaged
The T6 heat treatment temper is commonly used due to its capability of yielding the best properties. Figure
2.10 shows the major steps of the heat treatment which are normally used to improve the mechanical properties
of aluminum. The alloy should first be solution treated at a temperature just below the eutectic temperature
for long enough to allow solutionizing of the second phases. Then it should be quenched to room temperature.
Finally it should be heated to a lower temperature to allow precipitation hardening.
Figure 2.10: The three steps for precipitation hardening.
2.6.1 Solution Heat treatment
The properties of the aluminium silicon alloys are controlled by solid-solution strengthening of the α
aluminium matrix and dispersion strengthening of the β-phase [4, 32].
The purpose of the solution treatment of Al-Si alloys is to:
i. Dissolve particles formed during solidification containing Cu and Mg,
ii. Homogenise the alloying elements in the matrix
iii. Spheroidise the eutectic silicon particles [62].
The solution treatment also improves the distribution of eutectic silicon particles besides their spheroidisation.
The solution treatment process needs to be optimized because too short solution treatment means that not all
alloying elements added will be dissolved and made available for precipitation hardening, and too long
solution treatment means usage of more energy than is necessary [58].
The time needed for solution treatment is strongly dependent on the coarseness of the microstructure. For a
very fine microstructure a short solution treatment of 10 min is sufficient to achieve dissolution and
homogenisation, while for a coarse microstructure more than 10 h is needed. A successful solution treatment
depends on the as-cast microstructure (volume fraction, distribution, morphology and composition of phases,
degree of modification of Si particles), in combination with the solution treatment parameters (temperature,
time) chosen [58, 62].
Previous studies have been made to understand the solution treatment process of Al–Si–Cu-Mg alloys. The
dissolution and homogenisation processes are found to be faster at high temperatures and more Cu and Mg
can be dissolved in the matrix. The disadvantages of high solutionising temperatures are higher thermal
stresses induced during quenching and the risk of localised melting of Cu-rich phases. Dissolution and
homogenisation of Al-Si-Cu(Mg) alloys need longer times than Al-Si-Mg alloys due to the lower temperature
allowed and the slower diffusion of Cu atoms in the matrix.
Hence, the choice of solution treatment temperature depends on the Cu and Mg concentrations of the alloy.
However, if the solution temperature is too low, a reduction of mechanical properties will result. Standard T6
treatment specifies that the solution heat treatment of 319 alloys should be carried out at approximately 505ºC
and maintained for 4 - 12 hours depending on the casting method. Shorter periods of time are recommended
for permanent mould castings and longer times for sand castings [63].
2.6.2 Quenching
Main aim of quenching is to obtain a supersaturated solution. In order to obtain this kind of structure, the
temperature has to decrease more or less rapidly, as function of the initial temperature, the chemical
composition and the final microstructure which is required. Usually, this treatment follows the solution heat
treatment. Quenching blocks the atoms in the positions that they have achieved during the solution treatment.
This treatment avoids, or limits, precipitations of second phases or precipitates. These precipitates should be
obtained during the ageing treatment in order to achieve a higher increase in mechanical properties. Quenching
makes it possible to have a better control on the precipitate morphology.
The alloy is thus quenched after solution treatment normally to room temperature to achieve maximum
supersaturated alloying elements for subsequent ageing. Cold water quenching is used for high rate especially
in thick sections but gives distortions for example residual or quenching stresses in thin sections. Hot or

boiling water quenching as well as air cooled quenching gives slower rates of cooling and quenching stresses.
This shows acceptable response of subsequent ageing and also depending on quench sensitivity of each alloy
systems. However this might cause heterogeneous nucleation of coarse particles.
2.6.3 Ageing treatment
Many times the structure obtained after quenching is not able to give useful mechanical properties for
industrial use. The material in as-quenched condition can show higher properties than one in as-cast condition,
but sometimes they are not enough. Large thermal gradients that arise during the quench operation induce
large thermal stresses. These thermal stresses, if sufficient, will cause differential strains in the component (or
residual stresses). Residual stresses typically remain after the age-hardening treatment, as the ageing
temperature is insufficient to allow stress relaxation [21].
The next step, in the T6 heat treatment, is then an artificial ageing treatment, which consist of heating the
material until a certain temperature, usually between 90 °C and 230 °C. During this operation, the atoms
mobility is increased. As reported in the diffusivity rule, increase in the temperature results in increase in the
diffusivity hence the solute atoms can move in the material. This movement of atoms can cause the formation
of Guiner-Preston (GP) zones.
Guiner-Preston (GP) zones are ordered solute-rich groups of atoms, coherent with the lattice structure and
dispersed in the material. These groups of atoms usually have a size different from the lattice structure and
modify it, causing deformations in the lattice structure. GP zones form hardening precipitates. These precipitates
increase mechanical properties such as yield strength and hardness. Depending on atom type, GP zones can be
larger or smaller than the lattice structure, hence they can cause tension or compression on the structure. GP
zones are metastable and dissolve in the presence of a more stable phase.
With the proceeding of the treatment, the precipitates become coarser and this situation furnishes the necessary
condition to the GP zones to transform to other precipitates. These new precipitates are the ones which allow
the material to obtain peak values in the mechanical properties. They are partially coherent with the matrix,
so they can slow down the dislocation movements, also remaining connected to the matrix structure. If the
treatment continues, these semi-coherent precipitates become incoherent. At this point, they decrease their
opposition to dislocation movements and this leads to decreases in mechanical properties.

The strength properties of a material are mainly influenced by the possibility of movement of dislocations
within the structure of the material. This movement can be slowed by the presence of particles, grain
boundaries and work hardening. In case of heat treatable alloys, the main strengthening mechanism is the use
of alloying elements which allow the formation of secondary phases during heat treatment. To pass the
precipitates and to continue their motion, the dislocation consume energy. This leads to an increase in the
strength of the material because a greater effort must be applied in order to pass the precipitates. As it is
possible to see in Figure 2.11, dislocations can pass the precipitate particles in two different ways, by shear
(Friedel effect, Figure 2.11a) or by encirclement (Orowan mechanism, Figure 2.11b).
Figure 2.11: Dislocation movement: Friedel Effect (a) and Orowan mechanism (b)
When the particle is large, the dislocation passes the particle encircling it and continuing its way. Every time
a dislocation has to pass a particle, it requires energy and so this leads to an increase in strength. When the
particles have smaller sizes, the dislocation passes them by a shear mechanism, because this requires less
energy than the encirclement mechanism.
As it is possibly noticed in Figure 2.12(a), there is a specific size of the particle which leads to the maximum
strength. So it is necessary to find an optimal ageing treatment time, which allows to obtain this optimal size.
Comparing Figure 2.12(a) and (b), it is evident how the curve shape are quite the same. At the beginning the
strength increases with increasing time, which is caused by an increase in particles sizes. When the peak value
is reached, any further time spent in the ageing treatment will result only in a decrease in strength, because
the particles will be coarser, decreasing their resistance to the dislocation movement.

Figure 2.12(a): Strength as a function of Figure 2.12(b): hardness as a function of ageing temperature and
Radius of second phase particle [62] time [62]
Another important factor in the artificial ageing treatment is the treatment temperature. Higher temperature
leads to shorter treatment time, but the resulting properties could vary in relation to the alloy type. In some
alloys, properties such as hardness remains quite constant and they are obtained in short time. In other alloys,
the peak hardness is reached in a short time, but the hardness values are lower than that obtainable with a
longer treatment at lower temperature. It is therefore necessary to optimize ageing time and temperature to
achieve peak values of mechanical properties.
Moreover, ageing temperature and time depend upon alloy systems and the final required properties. Single
step ageing is done to develop high strength while multiple ageing is employed to give specific properties
such as stress corrosion resistance and toughness. Ageing can either be natural ageing done at room
temperature or artificial ageing done at elevated temperatures of between 100⁰C and 190⁰C.
Tash et al [64] realized that for 356 and Mg containing 319 Aluminium alloys having both α-Fe and β-Fe
intermetallics, peak hardness is obtained at 180ºC for 4h during ageing. Moreover, for the same concentration
of Mg in both alloys, the 319 displayed high hardness due to cooperative precipitation of Al2Cu and Mg2Si
phase particles. Magnesium and Sr modification lead to segregation of the Al2Cu phase in areas free of eutectic
Si particles, explaining the fairly sluggish dissolution rate of the copper phase upon solutionizing at 505ºC
[64, 65].

In another study by Sjolander and Seifeddine [66], they found that artificial ageing of Al-Si-Mg alloys in the
temperature range of 170-210ºC gives peak yield strength while Cu containing alloys show a decrease in peak
yield strength with increasing ageing temperature. Solution treatment at 505⁰C for 6 h, water quenched and
artificial ageing at 170ºC for 8 h of AlSi6Cu4 alloy has been reported to improve the mechanical properties.
Yield strength was elevated from 137 as-cast to 384 MPa T6 and the UTS from 194 to 408 MPa as reported
by Kores et al [12]. Artificial ageing treatment for 8 h at 170ºC with small additions of 0.4 wt.% Mg has been
reported to produce higher values of properties such as tensile strength and microhardness at the expense of
reduced elongation and impact toughness in the 319 base alloy [67].

Chapter 3
METHODOLOGY
3.0 INTRODUCTION
This project aims to investigate the optimal heat treatment parameters of secondary Al-Si-Cu-Mg alloys.
The preparation of the scrap ingots were carried out at Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and
Technology. Chemical composition analysis was carried out for randomly selected scrap automotive engine
cylinder head used for small vehicles. The scrap cylinder heads were obtained from different vendors in
Nairobi and their chemical composition analysis was carried out using an optical emission spectroscope
(OES) spark machine by LSM in the UK and by Booth Extrusions in Thika. Alloy preparation, micro-
hardness measurements and metallographic images were carried out at the University of Nairobi.
Figure 13.1: Cylinder head scrap from Local Scrap Vendors
3.1 EXPERIMENTAL WORK
3.1.1 Material and Scrap Ingot Preparation
This project focused on post-consumer cylinder heads regarded as scrap. 76 kg of Aluminium cylinder heads
were randomly sourced from various scrap vendors along Kirinyaga road in Nairobi. All external parts were
removed and the material thoroughly cleaned with petrol to wash away oil and foreign particles embedded on
it. Melting of the cylinder heads was carried out at Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology

in an oil fired graphite crucible furnace with melting capacity of 70 kg. Seven cylinder heads were
subsequently melted under cover flux to a temperature of 730⁰C.This took about 2 hours to melt all the
cylinder heads. Powder cover flux was introduced at two stages, during the initial stage of melting and when
the metal reached the pouring temperature (730⁰C). The melt dross was skimmed off before pouring. The
molten metal was poured using a preheated ladle into 4kg conical ingot moulds fabricated from sodium
silicate. The chemical composition of the base alloy (scrap ingot) is shown in Table 3.1 below.
Figure 3.2(a): Pouring of molten metal into a Figure 3.2(b): Cast ingots
Sand mould using a pre-heated ladle
Table 3.1: Chemical composition of the base alloy

Alloy Si Cu Mg Fe Mn Cr Zn Ni Ti Pb Sn
Scrap 6.01 2.62 0.24 0.28 0.21 0.02 0.12 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01
ingot
Melting of the cylinder head ingots for obtaining the test bar castings was carried out in a 4 kg capacity
graphite crucible, using an electric muffle furnace at University of Nairobi. Nitrogen gas was used for
degassing the melt by immersing a ceramic tube deep into the molten metal to allow removal of hydrogen.
The melt temperature was kept at 750⁰C during pouring. K-type thermocouple was employed to measure the
temperature of the molten metal.
Master alloys of Al-10% Sr in the form of metallic rod and Al-75% Fe and Al-75% Mn in the form of
briquettes were available and added after treatment with coverall flux to achieve Si eutectic modification.

After completely stirring to dissolution and homogenization of the alloy chemistry, the molten metal was
skimmed to remove dross and surface oxides prior to pouring. The degassed melt was then poured into a
permanent metal mould shown in Figure . The permanent metal mould was preheated to a temperature of
450⁰C.The mould has a wedged-shaped geometry which provides efficient feeding and variable cooling rate.
A ceramic foam filter with a dimension of 50x50x20 mm and 30 pores per inch (PPI) was used for each
casting to minimize turbulence during pouring and for trapping of inclusions. After solidification, sample bars
were sectioned from different positions in order to obtain specimens for hardness and microstructure analysis
after heat treatment.
Figure 3.3(a): Permanent cast iron mould (a) and Figure 3.3(b): Degassing of the melt using nitrogen gas
Sample bar casting (b)
The composition of the alloys developed for this investigation is shown in Table 3.2. The weight percentage
of the added elements that are shown in the table reflects the final composition of the element in the alloy.

Table 3.2: Composition of developed alloys
Sr.No. Experimental alloys with total composition of each additive element in the alloy
1. Base alloy (SI)
2. SI + 0.02% Sr
3. SI + 0.38% Fe
4. SI + 0.9% Fe + 0.45% Mn
3.1.2 Preparation of Test Specimens
Selection and separation of samples from the bulk material (sampling) was done in all the bar castings
obtained i.e. base alloy (SI), Si+0.02% Sr, Si+0.38% Fe and Si+0.9% Fe+0.45% Mn. The bars were sectioned
by normal mechanical sawing before milling to render plane surfaces suitable for further preparation without
causing severe changes in the material. All the specimens were clearly marked so that their identity would not
be lost at any time in the preparation sequence.
Figure 3.4(a): Milling the specimen Figure 3.4(b): Prepared samples ready for heat treatment

3.1.3 Heat Treatment
The samples were heat treated in the T4 and T6 temper. In the T4, the samples were solution heat treated for
2, 4 and 6 hours at 490⁰C, quenched in water at 19⁰C and then left at room temperature for 24 hours for natural
ageing. In the T6, the samples were solution treated for 2, 4, and 6 hours at 490⁰C, quenched in water at 19⁰C
and finally artificially aged at time intervals of 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, and 24 hours at 170⁰C in an air circulated
oven. This was done for all the four groups of the samples.
Figure 3.5(a): Box oven for heat treatment Figure 3.5(b): Quenching solution heat treated samples.
3.1.4 Metallographic Preparation
To remove the altered surface material and reveal the true structure of the specimen, grinding of the specimen
was done using four grades of silicon carbide (SiC) papers 240 µm, 320 µm, 400 µm and 600 µm with a
forwards and backwards motion under a flow of water which acted as a lubricant. The specimens were washed
between each paper to remove any debris and rotated through 90⁰ before the next paper to avoid the formation
of scratches. Aluminium and many of its alloys are soft and ductile and have a tendency to form deformed
layers thus grinding and polishing compounds are easily embedded. After the last paper the specimen was
washed well in water then methanol and dried. This removed heavy surface damage and produced a flat

surface. After the grinding operation, polishing was commenced on a rotating wheel covered with a suitable
cloth and impregnated with 6 micron diamond. The specimens were rotated opposite to the wheel rotation
thereby eliminating directional effects. A lapping fluid (white spirit) was also used as a lubricant. The
specimens were then washed in water before moving to the 1 micron wheel and finishing in the ¼ micron
diamond wheel. After polishing, the specimen were thoroughly washed and dried using an electric drier.
Grinding and polishing produced mirror-like surfaces free from visible scratches on the specimens.
Cracks, pores, pits and nonmetallic inclusions were observed in the as-polished condition. For those specimen
which did not exhibit their microstructure due to uniform reflection of incident light, etching was done to
produce image contrast. Before etching, the specimens’ surfaces were cleaned and made free of grease.
Residues, fingerprints and inconspicuous films which would cause various areas to be attacked at different
rates were removed.
Conventional chemical etching technique in which the etchant reacted with the specimen surface without use
of an external current supply was applied for producing microstructural contrast. Keller’s reagent (50ml
Distilled water, 15ml HCL (density 1.19g/cm3), 25ml HNO3 (density 1.40g/cm3), 10ml 40% (HF+H2O)) was
used as the etchant.
Etching was carried out by immersion in Keller’s reagent for about 1-3 minutes. The specimens were removed
from the etchant when their surfaces began to dull. After successful etching, the specimens were washed well
in water then methyl alcohol and dried in a warm air blast. Washing in alcohol was important in preventing
staining.
Care was taken to avoid body contact and over-exposure to hydrochloric and hydrofluoric acids as these are
caustic chemicals hence pose danger to the human cells. Polished and etched specimens that were not to be
examined immediately, were protected from atmospheric corrosion by storage in glass desiccators [68].

Figure 3.6(a): Heat treated specimen ready for Figure 3.6(b): Grinding a sample on SiC papers
grinding and polishing
Figure 3.6(c): Polishing a sample on a Figure 3.6(d): Polished samples

rotating wheel

Figure 3.6(e): Samples safely stored in glass desiccator
3.2 MICROSTRUCTURE EXAMINATION
3.2.3 Optical Microscopy
After proper grinding and polishing, the samples were examined using Optika - optical microscope B-353
MET shown in Figure. The micrographs were taken using bright-field vertical illumination. To create the
visual impression of good focus over the field of view, the fine-focus control was adjusted while viewing.
Figure 3.7: Optical microscope connected to the computer

3.3 HARDNESS TESTING
Hardness samples were made thick enough so that the applied load did not produce a mark or bulge at the
back side of the samples. The sample thickness was more than 1.5 times the diagonal (d) length (ASTM E92
recommendation). Hardness measurements were taken for each alloy's specimen using the Vickers Hardness
Tester LV-800AT machine Figure.
The available loads of the testing machine in SI range from 2.942 N up to 294.2 N. However, the load used
for this experiment was 29.42 N for a dwell time of 15 seconds. The testing machine had a diamond indenter
of a square based pyramid with an included angle of 136⁰.The sample surfaces were made perpendicular to
the indenter axis within ±1⁰ to effectively reduce errors. Mulhearn and Samuels have shown that tilt angles
less than 2⁰ from the perpendicular introduce alignment errors of 1% or less [69].
The samples for micro-hardness were prepared in a similar way as the metallographic samples. The load was
applied gradually to the polished sample without a jerk to a full test load of 29.42N for 15 seconds as seen in
Figure. The diagonals of the impression at opposite angles were then measured and the Vickers hardness
number obtained directly from the screen.
Twenty readings were taken for each sample and averaged to get the representative (accurate) hardness of the
material since taking few readings may falsify the result by all the data points falling on the hard intermetallic
phases or on the soft aluminium matrix. The minimum impression spacing (center to edge of adjacent
impression) was made to be 2.5 times the diagonal. Also, the minimum distance between the center of an
impression and the sample edge was more than the recommended 2.5 times the diagonal (d) [70].

Figure 3.8(a): Leco LV 800AT Vickers
Hardness Tester. Figure 3.8(b): Load of 29.42N applied
Figure 3.8(c): Measuring indented diagonals Figure 3.8(d): Reading VHN

Chapter 4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.0 MICROSTRUCTURE
4.1 AS-CAST MICROSTRUCTURE
Figure 4.1 shows the microstructure of the base alloy (SI) in the as-cast state without any element addition.
This micrograph reveals phases such as primary Al-matrix, coarse acicular eutectic silicon particles and
intermetallic phases of Fe and Cu. The eutectic silicon particles appear unmodified and fairly scattered
throughout the micrographs. The amount of Fe - intermetallics observed in this microstructure are few and
Cu - intermetallics are observed as small and circular phases. The types of phases which are present in the
microstructure are clearly revealed. The eutectic silicon particles are seen as wide and irregular structures.
Moreover, the Fe -intermetallics appear as skeleton-like phases and Cu-phases appear in the form of block-
like structures.
Eutectic-Si
Cu-phase
Al-matrix
Fe-Intermetallic
50μm
Figure 4.1: Microstructure of the base alloy (as-cast)

Figure 4.2 shows the microstructure of an alloy obtained after addition of 0.02% Sr. In this alloy (Si + 0.02%
Sr), completely modified and partially modified eutectic silicon particles and skeleton like Fe intermetallics
are observed. The irregular (acicular) Si structures observed in the unmodified base alloy in Figure 4.1, are
transformed into fibrous particles. Another important observation with this modifier is the formation of fine
and compact Fe - intermetallic. This could be due to the effect of strontium in lowering the precipitation
temperature of α-Al15(FeMn)3Si2 phase and fragmentation and dissolution of β-Al5FeSi phase [39].
Modified Eutectic-Si
Incomplete modification
of Si-particles
50μm
Figure 4.2: As-cast microstructure of the 0.02% Sr modified alloy.
Figure 4.2 shows that the Cu intermetallic phases are in the form of fine eutectic Al2Cu. This transformation
is due to the effect of strontium. Strontium segregates Cu into regions free of eutectic Al-Si and contributes
to the free growth of blocky Al2Cu [71].
Figure 4.3 shows the microstructure of the base alloy when its Fe content is increased to 0.38%. In this alloy,
eutectic silicon particles, Fe - rich intermetallics and Al2Cu phases are observed.

Eutectic -Si
Fe rich phase
Al2Cu phases
50μm
Figure 4.3: As-cast microstructure of an alloy with 0.38% Fe total content.
The eutectic silicon particles have acicular or needle - like morphology and they are also large in size as
compared with the particles in the previous alloys. Large particles in an alloy are usually sources of failure.
With 0.38% Fe, large Fe- phases are observed and a slight increase in the distribution of Fe- intermetallics is
also noted.
Eutectic-Si
Fe-Phase
(Chinese Script)
Cu-phase
50μm
Figure 4.4: As-cast microstructure of an alloy with 0.9% Fe and 0.45% Mn total content.
Figure 4.4 shows the microstructure of the base alloy when Fe and Mn contents are increased to 0.9% and
0.45% respectively. With the addition of Fe and Mn in the ratio of Fe: Mn (2:1), long and interconnected Fe
- intermetallics are observed. Manganese increases the nucleation site of α Fe - phase and suppress the
formation of coarse β phases. In a report by Mohamed et al [2] , at low level of manganese, increasing α-Fe
up to 1%, plate - like β-Fe and Chinese script α -Fe intermetallics were observed.
The eutectic silicon particles in this sample appear as acicular structure. Cu-intermetallic phases are also
observed in this alloy as small pockets of circular and block-like eutectic phases nucleating along the coarse
Si particles and Fe-phases.
4.2 HEAT TREATED MICROSTRUCTURE
Cast Al-Si alloys are typically heat treated to various tempers depending on the application requirements. The
most common heat treatment temper for automotive components is the T6 for ambient service temperatures
and the T7 temper for higher temperature applications such as cylinder heads. Heat treatment is expected to
impart significant microstructural changes as discussed in this section.
Fragmented
Eutectic-Si
particles
Fe-intermetallics
Necking of
Eutectic-Si
50μm
Figure 4.5: Microstructure of the base alloy after heat treatment

Figure 4.5 shows the microstructure of the base alloy (Si) after it was heat treated to the T6 temper. The
sample was solution heat treated for 6 hours at a temperature of 490⁰C followed by natural ageing for 24 hours
and artificial ageing for 2 hours at 170⁰C.
In this alloy, necking, fragmentation and spheroidisation of eutectic Si particles are observed. However some
of the eutectic silicon particles still possess coarse acicular shape. The rate of spheroidisation is dependent on
the size of the particles, fast spheroidisation and coarsening is expected with smaller sized particles [2]. Small
size Fe - intermetallics are also observed in this microstructure but the Cu-phases observed in the as-cast
condition seem to have disappeared after heat treatment.
The microstructure of the alloy modified by 0.02% Sr after heat treatment is shown in Figure 4.6. The
microstructure of this alloy reveals spheroidisation of the eutectic Si particles, fragmentation of Fe-phases and
formation of hard spot of Cu-phase.
The size of eutectic silicon particles are seen in this microstructure as small and fine when compared to the
unmodified alloy. However, when this microstructure is compared to the as-cast, it has large eutectic-Si
particles. The modification and heat treatment results in the dissociation of iron intermetallics. This is
consistent with Mohamed et al [2] who reported that in the Sr modified alloy, partial dissolution of β- needles
becomes more pronounced after solution heat treatment.
Spheroidised
Eutectic-Si
Fe-intermetallic
Fragmentation of
Fe-intermetallics
Porosity
Cu-phase
50μm
Figure 4.6: Heat treated microstructure of the alloy modified by 0.02% Sr.

Moreover, strontium addition leads to the transformation of the eutectic Al2Cu-Phase into a hard and blocky
structure that could not be dissolved during solution treatment.
In Figure 4.7, the microstructure of the 0.38% Fe containing alloy is shown after T6 heat treatment. From this
microstructure it can be observed that the fairly distributed eutectic silicon particles tend to elongate, neck,
fragment and also tend towards being spheroidised due to the effect of heat treatment.
The sharp edges of eutectic silicon particles observed in the as-cast state are seen to be rounded. However,
complete transformation of the needle-like structure into fine fibrous morphology is not achieved in this alloy
as the transformation rate is dependent on the size of the particles. Cu-phases are not seen in this
microstructure but Fe-rich intermetallics are observed in this alloy.
Fe-intermetallics
Necking of
Eutectic-
Al-matrix
Si particle
50μm
Figure 4.7: Microstructure of the 0.38% Fe alloy after heat treatment
Figure 4.8 shows the microstructure of the alloy containing 0.9% Fe and 0.45% Mn after heat treatment. The
figure shows phases such as the Chines-script (α-Al15(FeMn)3Si2) and eutectic silicon particles. The Chinese-
scripts Fe-phases are highly dispersed in the eutectic region and can be seen to cover a large area.
Spheroidisation of the eutectic silicon particles is observed in this alloy after heat treatment.

Eutectic-Si
α-Al15(FeMn)3Si2
Fragmentation of
Fe-intermetallics
50μm
Figure 4.8: Microstructure of T6 heat treated 0.9% Fe and 0.45% Mn containing alloy
From the micrographs of T4 (0h ageing) shown in Figure 4.9 to Figure 4.12 below, it was evident that T4
and T6 micrographs look similar when observed using an optical microscope for the same solution treatment.
Fe-intermetallics
Necking of
Eutectic- Al-matrix
Si particle
50μm
Figure 4.9: 0.38%Fe alloy solution heat treated for 6 hrs and quenched

Necking of
Eutectic-Si
Fragmented
Eutectic-Si
particles
50μm
Figure 4.10: Base alloy solution heat treated for 6 hrs and quenched
Spheroidised
Eutectic-Si
Fragmentation of
Fe-intermetallics
Fe-intermetallic
50μm
Figure 4.11: Sr-modified alloy solution heat treated for 6 hrs and quenched

Fragmentation of
Porosity Fe-intermetallics
α-Al15(FeMn)3Si2
(Chinese Script)
Eutectic-Si
50μm
Figure 4.12: 0.9%Fe+0.45%Mn alloy solution heat treated for 6 hrs and quenched
4.3 HARDNESS RESULTS
In Figure 4.13 to Figure 4.24, the trend in hardness with ageing time is presented for the four samples i.e.
Base alloy (SI), SI+0.02%Sr, SI+0.38%Fe and SI+0.9%Fe+0.45%Mn for solution heat treatment times of 2
hours 4 hours and 6 hours respectively. The T4 heat treatment temper is taken as the zero hour ageing time.
Table A- 1 to Table A- 13 in APPENDIX A, show hardness values of 20 measurements for each sample in
each of the heat treatment conditions together with their averages and deviations. Figure 4.25 to Figure 4.28
show microhardness variation with ageing time at different solution heat treatment times (2, 4 and 6 hours)
for a given sample. Figure 4.29, Figure 4.30 and Figure 4.31 show Microhardness variation with ageing time
at solution heat treatment times of 2 hrs, 4 hrs and 6 hrs respectively for the four samples combined. The
hardness values in the as-cast state were recorded as 97.9, 98.0, 102.0 and 93.8 VHN for the base, Sr-modified,
0.38% Fe and 0.9% Fe alloys respectively. For the 2 hours solution heat treatment, the T4 temper resulted in
an increase in the hardness values by 17.6%, 21.3%, 8.7% and 12.3% in the base, Sr-modified, 0.38% Fe and
0.9% Fe alloys respectively while for the 4 hours solution heat treatment, the T4 tempered samples recorded
an increase in the hardness values by 17.3%, 15.0%, 11.1% and 15.1% in the base, Sr-modified, 0.38% Fe
and 0.9% Fe alloys respectively. Likewise, an increase in the hardness values by 23.6%, 23.1%, 14.7% and

17.4% in the base, Sr-modified, 0.38% Fe and 0.9% Fe alloys respectively, was observed for the 6 hour
solution heat treated samples and then T4 tempered.
This increase with solution treatment times is attributed to dissolution of solute from intermetallics formed
during solidification, which are then retained in the Al matrix upon quenching. For the 2 hours solution heat
treated sample, the hardness of the base alloy in Figure 4.13 is observed to increase up to 2 hrs ageing time
and attaining a peak value of 130.9 VHN thereafter followed by a gradual drop up to 10 hrs ageing time,
before an optimum hardness value is observed. The optimum reaches a peak value of 121.3 VHN at 12 hrs
ageing time, and finally falls to a final value of 115.6 VHN at 24 hrs ageing time.
140
130
Microhardness (VHN)
120
110
100
90
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
Ageing time(hrs)
Figure 4.13: Microhardness curve for base alloy solution heat treated for 2 hours
Similarly, the hardness of the base alloy solution heat treated for 4 and 6 hrs attained their peak values of
130.0 and 129.1 VHN respectively after 2 hrs ageing time and achieving peak values of 113.5 and 120.4 VHN
respectively after an ageing time of 12 hrs as shown in Figure 4.14 and Figure 4.15 respectively. The two
peak hardness values are also observed in the 4 and 6 hrs solution treatment.

140
130
120
Microhardness (VHN)
110
100
90
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
Ageing time (hrs)
140
130
Microhardness (VHN)
120
110
100
90
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
Ageing time(hrs)
In the Sr-modified alloy, the 2, 4 and 6 hrs solution heat treated samples ( Figure 4.16 to Figure 4.18) attained
peak values of 124.6,125.0 and 131.0 VHN respectively, after 2 hrs ageing time. However, no upturn in

hardness is noticeable in these alloys after 12 hrs but after the fall in hardness, there is a rise in hardness values
after 24 hrs ageing time in the 4 and 6 hrs solution heat treated samples. The hardness value of the 2hrs
solution heat treated alloys falls to a final value of 106.1 VHN at the 24 hrs ageing time.
140
130
MIcrohardness (VHN)
120
110
100
90
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
Ageing time(hrs)
Figure 4.16: Microhardness curve for Sr-modified alloy solution heat treated for 2 hours
130
120
Microhardness VHN)
110
100
90
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
Ageing time(hrs)
Figure 4.17: Microhardness curve for Sr-modified alloys solution heat treated for 4 hours

140
130
Microhardness (VHN)
120
110
100
90
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
Ageing time (hrs)
Figure 4.18: Microhardness curve for Sr-modified alloy solution heat treated for 6 hours
The 0.38% Fe alloy (Figure 4.19 to Figure 4.21) attained peak hardness values of 126.7,128.2 and 132.5 VHN
for the 2 hrs,4 hrs and 6 hrs solution heat treated samples respectively, after 2 hrs ageing time. The 2 and 6
hrs solution heat treated samples do not show any double peak in hardness with ageing time. However, they
both show decline in hardness values to final values of 105.6 and 108.5 VHN at 24 hrs ageing respectively.
The 4 hrs solution heat treated sample exhibited an upturn in hardness after 10 hrs ageing time as shown in
Figure 4.20.

140
130
Microhardness (VHN)
120
110
100
90
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
Ageing time(hrs)
Figure 4.19: Microhardness curve for Sr+0.38%Fe alloy solution heat treated for 2 hours
140
130
Michrohardness (VHN)
120
110
100
90
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
Ageing time (hrs)

140
130
Microhardness (VHN)
120
110
100
90
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
Ageing time (hrs)
The ageing response for the alloy with 0.9% Fe + 0.45% Mn is shown in Figure 4.22 to Figure 4.24 to be
slower and attained peak hardness values of 124.4,124.0 and 125 VHN after 4hrs ageing for the 2 hrs,4 hrs
and 6 hrs solution heat treated samples respectively. The hardness values then drop to 113.2 and 118.6 VHN
which are attained after 10 hrs ageing for the 2 and 6 hrs solution heat treated samples respectively. The
double peak is not observed followed by second peak hardness of 113 and 119 in the 4 hrs solution heat treated
sample.
130
Microhardness (VHN)
120
110
100
90
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
Ageing time (hrs)
Figure 4.22: Microhardness curve for 0.9% Fe + 0.45% Mn alloy solution heat treated for 2hours

140
Microhardness (VHN)
130
120
110
100
90
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
Ageing time (hrs)
Figure 4.23: Microhardness curve for 0.9% Fe + 0.45% Mn alloy solution heat treated for 4 hours.
140
130
Microhardness (VHN)
120
110
100
90
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
Ageing time(hrs)
Figure 4.24: Microhardness curve for 0.9% Fe + 0.45% Mn alloy solution heat treated for 6 hours

From the foregoing, it is evident that the hardness of the specimens increased with increasing ageing time
until the peak hardness is attained. Then the hardness tends to decrease upon further ageing. This result could
be explained by the precipitation hardening process of aged specimen which depends greatly on the ageing
time and ageing temperature. The initial increase in hardness is attributed to the diffusion assisted from second
phase particles. At the beginning of ageing treatment, the solute atoms diffuse and locally cluster to form the
GP zones throughout the matrix.
The GP zones result in an increase in hardness due to the high stress required to force dislocation through the
coherent zone. With increasing ageing time the intermediate θꞌ (Al2Cu) precipitate (coherent precipitate) will
form and replaces the GP zone. It is interesting to note that the size of the θꞌ phase is larger than that of the
GP zone.
Therefore, dislocations must be forced through the highly strained matrix resulting in further increase of
hardness. However, further ageing leads to the growth of the θꞌ phase and its transformation to the stable and
incoherent θ phase. When the coherent precipitates are present, the alloy is said to be in the peak aged
condition. When the stable incoherent θ phase precipitates, the strength of the alloy decreases. Now the alloy
is in the overaged condition. The θ phase still provides some dispersion strengthening, but with increasing
time, the θ grains grow larger and less numerous and even the simple dispersion strengthening effect
diminishes. The second hardness peak in the age-hardening curve is acquired in terms of metastable particles.
The upturn in hardness is corresponding to the continuous transition from GP zones to metastable phases [72].
From Figure 4.25 to Figure 4.28, it is observed that the first peak values of hardness increased with increasing
solution heat treatment times. The samples solution treated for 6 hrs achieved the highest peak values in
hardness compared to those solution heat treated for 2 and 4 hrs 6 hrs seemed the sufficient time to achieve
dissolution of particles containing Cu and Mg formed during solidification. This time was also sufficient to
completely homogenize the alloying elements in the matrix and also to spheroidise the eutectic silicon
particles thus leading to higher hardness values. However, for the base alloy, 4 hrs solution heat treated sample
recorded the highest peak hardness value compared to the 2 and 6 hrs heat treated samples.

140
130
Microhardness (VHN)
2 hours 4 hours 6 hours
120
110
100
90
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
Ageing time(hrs)
Figure 4.25: Microhardness curves for base alloy at different solution heat treatment times.
140
130
Microhardness (VHN)
120
110
100
90
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
Ageing time(hrs)
Figure 4.26: Microhardness curves for Sr-modified alloy at different Solution heat treatment times.

140
130
Microhardness (VHN)
120
110
100
90
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
Ageing time(hrs)
Figure 4.27: Microhardness curves for Si+0.38%Fe alloy at different solution heat treatment times.
140
130
Microhardness (VHN)
120
110
100
90
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
Ageing time(hrs)
Figure 4.28: Microhardness curves for 0.9%Fe+0.45%Mn alloy at different Solution heat treatment times.

The base alloy solution heat treated for 2 hrs exhibited the highest peak hardness followed by the 0.38%Fe
alloy, Sr-modified and the alloy with 0.9%Fe+0.45%Mn respectively as shown in Figure 4.29.
This trend was replicated in the 4 hrs solution heat treated alloys as evidenced in Figure 4.30. However, after
6hrs of solution heat treatment , the 0.38%Fe alloy had the highest peak hardness followed by the Sr-modified,
base alloy and finally the Si+0.9%Fe+0.45%Mn alloy having the lowest peak hardness value (Figure 4.31).
140
130 Base Alloy Si+0.02%Sr

Si+0.38%Fe Si+0.9%Fe+0.45%Mn
Micohardness (VHN)
120
110
100
90
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
Ageing time(hrs)
Figure 4.29: Microhardness curves for the alloys at 2 hours Solution heat treatment.

140
130
Base Alloy Si+0.02%Sr
Si+0.38%Fe Si+0.9%Fe+0.45%Mn
Microhardness (VHN)
120
110
100
90
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
Ageing time(hrs)
Figure 4.30: Microhardness curves for the alloys at 4 hours solution heat treatment.
140
135
Base Alloy Si+0.02%Sr
130 Si+0.38%Fe Si+0.9%Fe+0.45%Mn
Microhardness (VHN)
125
120
115
110
105
100
95
90
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
Ageing time(hrs)
Figure 4.31: Microhardness curves for the alloys at 6 hours Solution heat treatment

The above trends can be explained firstly that after 2 and 4 hrs of solution heat treatment, the alloying elements
have not been completely homogenized in the aluminium matrix, particles containing Cu and Mg formed
during solidification have not been dissolved and the eutectic silicon particles have not been spheroidised.
Thus the amounts of the precipitates are not sufficient to increase the hardness of the alloy.
Increasing Fe increases Fe intermetallics which obviously depletes the amount of solute available for
precipitation. Thus peak hardness will inevitably be lower. Higher Fe and Mn additions simply means more
intermetallics thus more solute being trapped and not available for precipitation. This explains why the
0.9%Fe+0.45%Mn recorded the lowest peak hardness value.
Sr tends to segregate solute to interdendritic regions during solidification which may lead to formation of
more Cu containing phases. This also leads to reduction of solute available for precipitation. Most of these
Cu-containing or Fe-containing phases either partially or completely dissolve during solution treatment. This
transformation releases solute for precipitation. More solute is obviously released with increasing solution
time.
After 6 hrs treatment the precipitates have sufficient time to dissolve in the matrix, thus increasing the strength
and hence the hardness of the alloy. Secondly, the 0.38%Fe alloy showed the highest hardness since the Fe
levels were below the critical iron content (%wt.) (i.e. Fecrit ≈ 0.075× [%Si] ‒ 0.05) [73].
For this research, the critical Fe content was (0.075× [6.01] ‒ 0.05) 0.4% wt. For Fe content below Fecrit and
for an Al alloy with low Mg content (up to 0.4%) like this alloy (0.24%Mg), the principal Fe phase is the β-
Al5FeSi which increases the strength and hardness at the expense of ductility. Thus making the 0.38%Fe alloy
achieve higher hardness than the other alloys. Additions of Mn to neutralize the effects of iron are common
at Mn:Fe ratios of (~0.5) as in this alloy. Mn may reduce β-phase and promote α-Al15(Fe,Mn)3Si2 which is
more stable and its dissolution is sluggish. This may improve ductility at the expense of hardness. It is reported
by Rana et al [73] that only when the manganese content increases over 0.5%wt. in aluminum alloys, that
both the yield and ultimate tensile strength would increase significantly without decreasing ductility. This
validates our results since the yield strength correlates with the materials’ hardness [70].

Chapter 5
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.0 CONCLUSIONS
From the microstructural observations and the hardness data analysis, the following deductions can be made:
1. Micrographs of the samples reveal coarse acicular eutectic silicon, Fe and Cu intermetallics in the
as-cast state. Addition of strontium to the base alloy modifies the eutectic silicon particles from
needle-like or lamellar to fibrous while addition of Fe and Mn increases Fe-intermetallics.
2. After heat treatment, necking, fragmentation and spheroidisation of eutectic silicon particles and
fragmentation of Fe-intermetallics were observed. Heat treatment improves the distribution of eutectic
silicon particles besides their spheroidisation. It also alters the quantity and distribution of micro-
constituents.
3. The heat treatment process needs to be optimized because too short heat treatment times means that
not all alloying elements added will be dissolved and made available for precipitation hardening, and
too long heat treatment times means usage of more energy than is necessary and a decrease in the
hardness of the alloy.
4. Hardness of the specimen increases with increasing ageing time until the peak hardness is attained,
then tends to decrease upon further ageing.
5. The optimum combination of solution heat treatment and ageing times of the alloys for obtaining peak
hardness was found to be, solution heat treatment for 6 hours at 490⁰C followed by ageing for 2 hours
at 170⁰C for 0.38%Fe and Sr-modified alloys with corresponding hardness values of 132.5 VHN and
131.0 VHN respectively. The base alloy had peak hardness value of 130.8 VHN after 2 hrs solution
heat treatment and 2 hrs of ageing. The 0.9%Fe+0.45%Mn alloy had a peak hardness value of 125.0
VHN after 6 hrs of solution heat treatment and 4 hrs of ageing.

5.1 RECOMMENDATIONS
This study showed that heat treatment leads to a change in the microstructure and thus the hardness of Al-Si
alloys. Hence, heat treatment parameters need to be optimized. To pursue the need for a higher performance
of these alloys, the following areas are recommended for further investigation.
1. Fatigue and creep tests need to be conducted on these alloys to investigate full applicability of these
alloys in automotive components.
2. A detailed microstructural analysis such as SEM and TEM should be utilized to understand the effect
of alloying elements on the microstructure and mechanical properties.

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APPENDIX A
RESULTS OF HARDNESS TESTS
Table A- 1: Summary of VHN for Base alloy at different ageing times after 2hrs solution treatment
Reading T4 2hrs 4hrs 6hrs 8hrs 10hrs 12hrs 24hrs
1st 110.8 136.6 126.3 123.1 119.6 119.1 121.3 114
2nd 109.1 130 125.9 123 118.3 118.3 122.9 117.5
3rd 113 134.5 128.1 123.9 118.7 119 121.3 115.7
4th 115 128.6 126.3 122.8 119.1 118.4 121.5 115.3
5th 115.9 128.9 125.9 126.5 117.3 115.8 121.4 114.9
6th 115.2 132.1 127.3 125.9 118.4 117.8 121.6 116.1
7th 115.7 132.1 126.8 123.8 118.7 118.6 121.8 117.5
8th 115.3 131.1 127.4 122.2 118.3 117.2 121.7 116.8
9th 115.1 130.6 126 123.9 118.9 118.1 121.7 116.1
10th 114.2 130.1 126.1 123.1 117.2 118.9 121.9 115.9
11th 116.1 129.1 125.7 123.6 118.2 118.4 120.4 114.9
12th 114.8 130.1 124.3 123.9 117.5 118.2 120.2 116.2
13th 113.1 132.4 126.4 123.5 117.2 116.3 121.9 117.1
14th 115.7 131.1 126.8 123.4 118.2 117.1 120.5 115.9
15th 115.8 130.7 125.1 123.7 118.5 118.2 121.3 116.7
16th 115.3 130.6 124.7 123.6 118.3 118.1 120.1 116.2
17th 115.2 130.5 128.1 122.9 117.2 118.2 120.5 114.7
18th 115.7 129.8 126.1 121.5 118.9 118.4 121.5 115.1
19th 114.9 127.9 126.9 121.7 118.4 117.1 121.8 115.2
20th 115.1 130.3 126.7 123.6 118.4 118.2 119.9 115.8
MEAN 114.6 130.9 126.3 123.5 118.3 118.0 121.3 115.9
S.Deviation 1. 2.0 1.0 1.1 0.7 0.8 0.7 0.9

1st 115.6 129.1 128.6 117.7 117.6 111.9 114.6 110.9
2nd 114.7 134.6 128.7 125.9 120.1 114.5 114.8 109.6
3rd 116 139.6 127.7 120.4 114.2 112.3 113.3 112.4
4th 118.4 135.8 130.5 122.6 116.4 111.8 111.6 114
5th 114.2 134.6 125.2 123.3 118.3 110.4 110.6 112.6
6th 115.9 133.2 128.5 122.4 117.6 107.2 113.2 110.3
7th 114.8 134.6 127.9 123.5 117.7 113.7 114.7 111.1
8th 114.5 133 126.3 123.4 117.3 111.5 114.5 113.2
9th 113.2 136.9 128.9 122.6 115.8 112.6 112.9 111.7
10th 113.9 136.2 128.6 123.1 117.3 110.9 113.8 112.3
11th 115.8 134.8 125.8 123.8 116.2 111.6 114.1 113.7
12th 114.9 134.2 129.7 122.6 117.2 110.3 113.8 110.9
13th 115 132.8 128.1 123.8 117 111.6 114.5 112.4
14th 113.5 130.6 128.7 123.9 117.5 110.5 111.2 113.2
15th 112.1 135.6 128.2 123.6 117.2 111.4 111.9 109.2
16th 114.3 135.7 127.9 123 117.3 111.3 114.8 108.3
17th 114.8 132.8 127.6 122 118 112.3 114.2 110.7
18th 115.4 135.8 127.9 121.2 116.5 113.1 113.8 111.3
19th 115.6 132.7 128 123.4 114.3 110.4 112.1 112.9
20th 114.8 135.3 128.6 123.9 117.7 111.5 114.7 111.4
MEAN 114.9 134.4 128.1 122.8 117.1 111.5 113.5 111.6
S.Deviation 1.3 2.2 1.2 1.6 1.3 1.5 1.3 1.5

1st 122.9 129 120.1 121.2 117.3 118.4 120.3 112.5
2nd 118.7 129.3 124.3 121.3 117.3 119.5 119.7 113.7
3rd 119.3 129 122.6 120.7 117.4 119.3 120.6 113.2
4th 118.1 128.7 124.4 123 116.2 117.6 120.7 113.2
5th 119 130.5 124.4 121.1 116.4 119 121.4 114.2
6th 120.8 129.6 124.5 120.5 115.7 118.3 121.8 111.7
7th 120.2 127.9 124.7 119.6 117.6 118 120.5 113.3
8th 119.7 128.7 124 121 116.4 117.2 120 112.9
9th 118.4 131 123.6 120.7 117.8 116.5 120 113.2
10th 119.2 129.7 125.3 120.6 116.5 119.3 121.3 113.2
11th 119.4 128.3 124.7 120.9 117.2 118.7 119.7 113.6
12th 119.1 129.4 124.8 119.6 118.2 117.8 119.9 110
13th 118.7 128.7 124.6 122 117.7 117 121.3 113.3
14th 119.3 129.5 124.5 121.3 118.3 119.3 120.3 112.5
15th 118.4 128.3 123.8 120.2 118.2 119.2 118.3 113.3
16th 118 127.1 122 121.6 117.6 119.6 120.1 112.9
17th 119.2 126.5 124.7 121.2 117.3 119.7 120 113.7
18th 119.6 128.9 122.7 121.7 117.9 119 121.2 112
19th 120.3 129.2 123.9 122.9 116.2 118.5 120.4 113.3
20th 121 132 124.5 118.6 115.2 118 120.1 113.4
MEAN 119.5 129.1 123.9 121.0 117.1 118.5 120.4 113.0
S.Deviation 1.1 1.2 1.2 1.0 0.9 0.9 0.7 0.9

Table A- 4: Summary of VHN for Sr-modified alloy at different ageing times after 2hrs solution treatment
1st 119.2 124 123.8 117.2 114.2 111.6 110.2 109.2
2nd 120.7 124.4 123.7 114.8 114.1 110.3 110.4 107.3
3rd 119.5 125.4 121.1 118.2 115.6 111.2 110.9 109.3
4th 119.8 125.4 121.5 118 117.4 111.5 108.7 105.6
5th 118.1 125.7 121.8 117.6 114.3 110.2 109.5 106.2
6th 119.7 124.9 121.9 118.9 114.1 111.7 109.6 105.8
7th 118.1 125.8 121.1 117.6 114.5 111.3 108.2 105.8
8th 117.9 126.1 121.7 116.3 113.1 112.1 110.1 105.3
9th 118.2 124.8 121.8 117.1 112.3 110.1 110.3 105.1
10th 116.8 125.8 122.5 117.9 112.9 111.6 109.1 107.4
11th 119.7 125.2 121.8 118.2 114.1 110.9 108.9 108.1
12th 119.2 125.7 120.4 116.2 113.2 109 111.2 105.2
13th 118.1 124.9 121.9 116.5 113.8 110.2 110.2 105.7
14th 116.9 121.9 120.3 117.8 113.4 111.3 110.4 106.1
15th 118.7 122.8 119.2 116.9 113.5 112.1 109.9 104.7
16th 118.7 124.7 119.4 117.2 115.7 109.4 110.2 104.3
17th 116.9 124.2 120.1 117.1 115.6 109.5 110.6 105.8
18th 117.4 121.2 121.6 117.3 117.2 112 111.1 105.2
19th 117.8 124.9 121.2 117.1 114.4 110.5 110.1 105.1
20th 118.9 124.1 121.3 116.1 114.1 111.2 109.7 105.6
MEAN 118.5 124.6 121.4 117.2 114.4 110.9 110.0 106.1
S.Deviation 1.1 1.3 1.1 0.9 1.3 0.9 0.8 1.1

1st 111.4 125.2 118.5 117 112 110 109.5 112.1
2nd 112.9 126.5 120 116.5 113.2 108.3 110.5 111.3
3rd 111.1 124.8 121.6 117.3 113.1 109 108.3 112.4
4th 112.5 125.9 121 118.6 110 110.3 107 110.9
5th 110.5 124.2 122.7 118.3 112.7 109.3 106.4 111.7
6th 112.1 124.7 125.9 117.8 113.3 111.4 107.5 112
7th 114.6 124.5 120.6 117.1 113.9 109.4 106.9 110.3
8th 109.5 126.1 120.6 118.9 112.7 110.6 108.2 111.4
9th 112.7 125 121.4 116.9 111.9 109.8 109 110.9
10th 111.4 124.6 121 115.5 112.3 108.8 107 111.1
11th 113.6 123 122.1 117.8 113.4 109.9 106.3 110.3
12th 113.1 124.8 121.3 118 111.1 108.7 107.9 110.4
13th 112.7 124.7 122.4 117.2 112.3 109.4 110.3 111.7
14th 112.9 125.3 122.2 118.2 113.2 111.5 109.3 112.3
15th 113.4 124.8 120.7 117.1 112.8 110.4 110.1 113
16th 113.9 126.2 120.3 116 113.7 111.6 109.9 112.1
17th 111.1 124.6 121 117.5 113.2 109.4 109 111.4
18th 110.4 126 122.7 114 114 110.9 108.8 110.8
19th 112.6 124.5 121.4 117.6 112.9 112.7 108 111
20th 112.7 124 121 116.3 112 109.4 109 112
MEAN 112.3 125.0 121.4 117.2 112.7 110.0 108.4 111.5
S.Deviation 1.3 0.8 1.4 1.1 0.9 1.1 1.3 0.7

1st 120 132.3 124 121.1 116.4 113.3 112.4 114.3
2nd 119.4 132 124.5 120.8 116 112.6 113 115.5
3rd 118 120.6 123.8 122 117.8 113.4 113.4 114.7
4th 120.4 131.4 125.1 121.3 115.9 112.8 112.6 114
5th 120.3 129.6 124.5 121.5 116.3 110.5 112.7 113.6
6th 118.9 132.5 127 121.3 116.7 113.4 113.7 112.6
7th 119.5 131.5 124.4 120.6 116.4 112.8 1134 112.8
8th 120 130 124 120.9 115.7 113.4 111.6 114.4
9th 120.3 133.1 125.3 121.4 116.3 113.1 112.8 115.4
10th 119.5 132.3 124.2 121 116.3 112.5 112.8 114
11th 120.4 132 123.5 122.2 115.7 110.3 112.7 113.9
12th 118.6 132.3 122.9 121.3 116.1 112.4 113.3 114
13th 119.6 132.2 124.1 121.2 114 112.8 113.5 113.5
14th 120.2 130.3 124.3 119.9 115.4 112.9 113.2 113.9
15th 119.5 131.5 124.4 121.2 116.5 113.2 112.8 114.3
16th 119.8 132.4 123.6 121 116.4 113.5 112 112
17th 120.4 130.3 123.9 123.1 115.8 112.9 113.3 114
18th 120.1 129.8 124 121.3 116 113 113 114.3
19th 119.4 131.7 124.2 121.4 115.5 113.1 112.9 113.9
20th 120.6 132.1 124 121 116.2 112.8 112.5 114.4
MEAN 119.7 131.0 124.3 121.3 116.1 112.7 112.9 114.0
S.Deviation 0.6 2.5 0.8 0.6 0.69 0.8 0.5 0.8

Table A- 7: Summary of VHN for Si+0.38%Fe at different ageing times after 2hrs solution treatment
1st 112.1 120.1 127.6 117 116.6 110.3 107.3 106.3
2nd 112.2 126.5 114.2 115.7 117.1 110.6 106.2 105.7
3rd 104.2 119.3 130.1 115.6 113.1 109.3 108.1 102
4th 110.3 128.6 113.8 120.9 113.7 110.2 106.8 110.1
5th 102.2 130.2 123 111.1 114.9 110.4 107.1 105.2
6th 110.3 127.2 119 111.5 113.1 109.3 107.3 109.1
7th 111.1 126.8 123.9 116.3 112.9 111.3 107.1 105.2
8th 113.2 126.9 123.8 117.8 113.7 108.2 107.1 105.6
9th 110.9 130.1 124.4 118.9 113.8 110.9 106.9 105.7
10th 112.5 128.7 123.9 117.2 112.2 107.1 106.8 105.7
11th 110.2 127.6 123.8 115.3 113.4 108.2 105.1 106.2
12th 112.1 127.8 124.7 117.4 113.1 110.2 106.1 108.1
13th 109.1 128.3 125 116.9 113 110.1 107.9 103.1
14th 113.2 126.5 123.2 115.8 114.6 110.9 107.2 104.1
15th 112.6 127.8 120 116.9 115.8 110.8 107.9 103.2
16th 110.7 126.3 122 118.3 110.1 110.2 107 103.9
17th 112.4 126.9 121.4 117.9 112.8 106.9 105.9 105.6
18th 115.3 124.5 124.8 116.6 113.3 110.2 107.1 105.4
19th 112.9 127.9 123.9 115.2 112.4 110.1 107.1 105.9
20th 110.4 126.9 123.2 117.9 113.8 110.5 107.6 105.6
MEAN 110.9 126.7 122.8 116.5 113.7 109.8 107.0 105.6
S.Deviation 2.9 2.7 3.7 2.2 1.5 1.2 0.7 1.9

1st 113 127.8 123 118 113.1 107.4 109 112.8
2nd 114.7 128 122.6 119.1 118.1 107.2 108.5 109
3rd 113.3 128.7 123.3 117.6 113.8 110.1 107.7 114.6
4th 111.5 127.9 123 118.4 112.5 107.3 108.1 117.8
5th 113.4 128.8 122.9 120.7 112.5 106.6 107.6 109.2
6th 112.9 130.2 120.9 117.5 113.1 109.5 108.2 108.9
7th 113 128.3 123.3 118.1 112 107 108.4 107
8th 112.7 127.6 119.5 116 113.3 106.5 107.8 108
9th 113.1 128.1 122.8 118.3 113 109.1 108.2 109.3
10th 113.2 128.3 123 120 113.4 106.6 108 109.3
11th 112.9 128.1 122.8 117.9 114.1 107 107.6 107.7
12th 113.1 127.6 123.1 118.4 112.8 108.1 107 108
13th 113.5 128 122.7 118.1 113.1 106.5 110 107.6
14th 113.3 127.8 123.1 117.3 112.5 107.4 106.5 108
15th 112.7 128.1 118.9 118 113 108 108.1 107.7
16th 113 126.9 122.6 117.7 113.1 107.3 111 111
17th 113.2 128.9 123.3 118.1 112.9 106.9 107.9 106.6
18th 113.1 127.7 122.6 120 110.9 107 108.2 108
19th 112.5 128 123 118.2 113.3 108.1 108.1 107.7
20th 113.3 128.2 123.1 118 112.7 107.3 107.6 108.3
MEAN 113.1 128.2 122.5 118.3 113.2 107.5 108.2 109.3
S.Deviation 0.6 0.6 1.2 1.0 1.3 1.0 0.9 2.7

1st 119.9 128.7 128.9 122.2 118.9 113.6 112.4 109.3
2nd 120.1 130.6 127.9 123.8 118.8 113.6 112.2 109.5
3rd 118.6 133.9 128.7 122 118.4 112.7 112 109.7
4th 117.3 136.5 128 121.3 118.3 114.1 113.2 107.8
5th 116.9 130.2 128 121.1 118.7 112.1 111.9 108.2
6th 114.7 133.2 127.6 120.9 119.2 112 111.4 108
7th 118.3 132.9 128.3 122.5 118 113.6 111.6 109.3
8th 117.2 130.4 126 121.7 119.3 114.4 111.3 108.2
9th 116.8 133.9 128.1 121.2 120.2 111.9 112.3 109.4
10th 117.3 133.7 129.2 122.9 120.4 113.2 112 108.4
11th 116.2 133 127.3 122 120 112.8 111.5 109.3
12th 117.8 132.9 128.4 121 119.7 113.4 111.3 107.2
13th 117.1 131.7 128.2 122.6 118 114 112.7 107.4
14th 117.3 132 128 122.7 117.3 113.2 113 108.3
15th 116.3 133.8 128.2 121.9 118.2 113.1 111.3 107.3
16th 115.2 132.1 128.5 122.5 117.6 113.3 112.8 108
17th 117.3 132 127 121.3 119.5 113.8 112.1 109.3
18th 116.3 133.9 126.3 120.7 117.5 113.3 112.8 107.3
19th 117.4 133 128.2 120 118.3 112.9 112.4 109.1
20th 117 130.7 128 121.3 118.4 112.5 112.2 108.7
MEAN 117.3 132.5 127.9 121.8 118.7 113.2 112.1 108.5
S.Deviation 1.3 1.7 0.8 0.9 0.9 0.7 0.6 0.8

Table A-10: Summary of VHN for 0.9%Fe+0.45%Mn alloy at different ageing times after 2hrs solution
treatment
1st 104.3 119.4 120.1 115.6 111.4 113.2 110.2 106.1
2nd 104.8 113.1 128 115.9 110.3 114.4 110 105.3
3rd 100.9 116.3 129.3 115 112.4 113 109.9 106
4th 104.9 120.1 120 112 110.4 113 110.2 106.7
5th 105.4 118.3 124.5 115.4 111.6 113.4 110.5 106.7
6th 104.9 119.2 124.1 115.2 112.1 112.9 109.8 107.5
7th 105.7 119.1 124.7 116.1 111.6 113.3 110 105.9
8th 109.6 117.9 125.8 113.1 110.4 112.6 108.8 106
9th 104.6 119.4 124.2 114.6 110.1 113.5 110.2 106.3
10th 108.2 117.8 124.8 115.7 111.3 113.1 110.1 106.1
11th 105.9 119.1 124.2 114.8 112.4 113.3 109.7 105.7
12th 105.4 119.4 123.9 115.3 111.9 113.2 110.3 106.1
13th 104.3 119.4 122 115.6 112.3 112.7 110.1 106.2
14th 104.7 119.2 123.7 114.8 110.5 113.1 109.6 105.9
15th 105.6 118.9 123.7 112.8 112.9 113.4 110.2 106.7
16th 108.6 117.3 124.7 114.7 109.4 112.8 109.6 106.2
17th 104.5 117.8 124.4 115.7 110.6 113 110 106.2
18th 106.2 118.5 124.3 114.9 109.7 112.9 109.5 106.3
19th 103 118.4 125.1 114.2 109.1 113.1 110 105.6
20th 104.7 119.2 126.9 114.5 111.5 113.3 110.2 106.4
MEAN 105.3 118.4 124.4 114.8 111.1 113.2 109.9 106.2
S.Deviation 1.8 1.5 2.1 1.0 1.1 0.4 0.4 1.8

Table A- 11: Summary of VHN for 0.9%Fe+0.45%Mn alloy at different ageing times after 4hrs solution
treatment
1st 108.3 122.9 124.2 110.4 110.3 107.3 109.3 110.4
2nd 109.2 120.1 124.1 114.8 110.2 107.9 107.6 107.8
3rd 110 119.5 124.5 112 112.3 108.2 107.4 107.9
4th 107.3 119 124 115.4 110.9 108 107.6 105.4
5th 107 117 120 113.9 109.5 108.3 105.3 104.2
6th 106.3 121 125.6 113 110.6 107.9 104.7 107.3
7th 108.9 120.3 123 114.4 111.1 107.6 105.7 106.4
8th 110.2 118.9 123.9 115.5 109.7 106.5 105.4 107.8
9th 109.5 118.3 124.6 114.3 110.2 107.9 106.7 105.8
10th 108.3 120.2 124.7 114.7 110.1 108.3 106 109
11th 109.4 121.1 123.7 113.2 110.9 107.9 109 105
12th 107.2 120.4 124.8 113.9 108.7 107.5 108.5 103.7
13th 106.9 118.9 124.9 114.8 109.3 108.6 109.2 104.6
14th 109.3 119.9 124.4 114.3 110.1 106.9 107.3 107.3
15th 110.3 120 125.6 114.4 111 107.9 108.8 106.8
16th 111 120.4 123.9 113.2 107 106 108.5 107.7
17th 107.2 121.5 122 113.2 110.3 109.3 105.7 108.3
18th 108.3 118.7 125.3 114.7 110.4 111 106.3 107.3
19th 109.3 119.9 121.9 114.8 110.5 110.4 105.3 105.6
20th 108 118.8 124.3 114.5 110 110.2 107.8 106.3
MEAN 108.6 119.8 124.0 114.0 110.2 108.2 107.1 106.7
S.Deviation 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.2 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.3

Table A- 12: Summary of VHN for 0.9%Fe+0.45%Mn alloy at different ageing times after 6hrs solution
treatment
1st 116 119 125 120 115 117.8 114.6 113
2nd 115.6 120.2 126.5 119.5 116 118.8 114.5 112.5
3rd 116 119.5 125.5 119.5 115.4 119 115.4 112.5
4th 115.7 120 124.8 120.2 114.9 118.4 116 112.6
5th 116.6 120.3 124.9 119.6 116.3 118.6 114 113
6th 115.9 119.5 125.4 119.5 116.5 117.4 115.5 113.4
7th 115.3 120.3 125 120.4 116.4 119.8 114.4 112
8th 114.9 119.6 124.7 120.6 116.3 118.3 115 112.1
9th 116.3 119.7 122.9 119.8 114.7 117.8 114.6 113
10th 115.5 120.4 125 119 115.4 119 114 112.4
11th 115.5 120.4 123.9 119.5 114.4 118.4 115.5 113
12th 114.8 119.6 126.3 120.3 115.7 118 115 112.2
13th 114.7 120.4 124.8 119.7 115.1 119.5 114.9 112.3
14th 115.4 119.5 125 120.3 114,9 118.5 113.8 111
15th 114.9 120.4 125.3 120.4 116.6 119 114 111.2
16th 114.7 120 124.8 119.6 116.3 118.9 115.8 111.9
17th 114.7 119.7 124.4 119.6 117 118.7 114.6 114
18th 115.3 118 124.6 120.4 113.5 119 115 113.3
19th 115.4 119.9 125 120.6 115.9 117 114.2 112.4
20th 114.8 120.3 125.2 119.5 115 119.4 115 113
MEAN 115.4 119.8 125.0 119.9 115.6 118.6 114.8 112.5
S.Deviation 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.4 1.2 0.7 0.6 0.6

Table A- 13: Summary of VHN for alloys in the as-cast state
Reading SI + 0.38%Fe Base alloy (SI) SI + 0.02% Sr SI+0.9%Fe+0.45%Mn
1st 98 94 102 98
2nd 98.1 93.5 100.1 97.8
3rd 97.8 94.3 100.2 96.8
4th 98.3 94.3 103 98.3
5th 98.5 93.7 102.5 98.4
6th 98.4 92 102 97.6
7th 98.4 94.2 103.2 98.2
8th 97.5 93.7 102.2 98.3
9th 98 94.1 103.4 98.2
10th 97.6 94 102 97.6
11th 98 94.4 102.4 98.2
12th 98.4 94.6 101.9 98.3
13th 97.6 93.6 102.1 97.8
14th 98.3 93.7 101.6 98
15th 97.7 94 102.4 98.2
16th 98.4 93.8 101.7 97.6
17th 98.2 93 102 97
18th 96 92.9 102.3 97.5
19th 98.3 94.4 101.5 96.8
20th 98.6 94.3 101.9 98.7
MEAN 98.0 93.8 102.0 97.9
S.Deviation 0.5 0.6 0.8 0.5

Optimization of Heat Treatment Parameters of Al-Si Alloys

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Optimization of Heat Treatment Parameters of Al-Si Alloys

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UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI

COLLEGE OF ARCHITECTURE AND ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL AND MANUFACTURING

FME 561/562: FINAL YEAR PROJECT REPORT

CODE: TMO 01/2015

TITLE: OPTMIZATION OF HEAT TREATMENT PARAMETERS OF CAST

PROJECT SUPERVISOR: DR. THOMAS MBUYA OCHUKU

OTIENO OWUOR NICK

WANYAMA WAFULA FRANCIS

Dr. T.M. OCHUKU

Optimization of Heat Treatment Parameters of Al-Si Alloys i

Optimization of Heat Treatment Parameters of Al-Si Alloys ii

May God abundantly bless you.

Otieno O.N & Wanyama W.F

Optimization of Heat Treatment Parameters of Al-Si Alloys iii

ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials

Fecrt Critical Fe level

Optimization of Heat Treatment Parameters of Al-Si Alloys iv

Optimization of Heat Treatment Parameters of Al-Si Alloys v

Optimization of Heat Treatment Parameters of Al-Si Alloys vii

Optimization of Heat Treatment Parameters of Al-Si Alloys ix

Optimization of Heat Treatment Parameters of Al-Si Alloys 1

1.4 REPORT STRUCTURE

Optimization of Heat Treatment Parameters of Al-Si Alloys 2

2.0 CAST AL-SI ALLOYS

2.1 COMMON CAST AL-SI ALLOYS

Optimization of Heat Treatment Parameters of Al-Si Alloys 3

2.1.1 Al-Si Alloys for Cylinder Head Applications

% of Avaialbility of Cylinder Head Alloys

Alloy 356 319 355 354 380

Optimization of Heat Treatment Parameters of Al-Si Alloys 4

2.1.2 Properties of Common Alloys used for Cylinder Head Applications

Optimization of Heat Treatment Parameters of Al-Si Alloys 5

2.2 MICROSTRUCTURE OF CAST AL-SI ALLOYS

Optimization of Heat Treatment Parameters of Al-Si Alloys 6

 Secondary dendrite arm spacing

Optimization of Heat Treatment Parameters of Al-Si Alloys 7

2.3 ALLOYING ELEMENTS

2.3.1 Influence of Iron and Manganese

Optimization of Heat Treatment Parameters of Al-Si Alloys 8

Optimization of Heat Treatment Parameters of Al-Si Alloys 9

Optimization of Heat Treatment Parameters of Al-Si Alloys 10

Optimization of Heat Treatment Parameters of Al-Si Alloys 11

2.3.2 Influence of Cu and Mg

Optimization of Heat Treatment Parameters of Al-Si Alloys 12

Optimization of Heat Treatment Parameters of Al-Si Alloys 13

2.3.3 Influence of Ti, Zr and V additions

Optimization of Heat Treatment Parameters of Al-Si Alloys 14

2.3.4 Influence of Nickel

2.3.5 Influence of modifiers and refiners

Optimization of Heat Treatment Parameters of Al-Si Alloys 16

2.4 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF AL-SI ALLOYS

Optimization of Heat Treatment Parameters of Al-Si Alloys 17

Optimization of Heat Treatment Parameters of Al-Si Alloys 18

Optimization of Heat Treatment Parameters of Al-Si Alloys 19

Figure 2.9 : Element solubility as a function of the temperature [13]

Optimization of Heat Treatment Parameters of Al-Si Alloys 20

Figure 2.10: The three steps for precipitation hardening.

2.6.1 Solution Heat treatment

Optimization of Heat Treatment Parameters of Al-Si Alloys 22

2.6.3 Ageing treatment

Optimization of Heat Treatment Parameters of Al-Si Alloys 23

Optimization of Heat Treatment Parameters of Al-Si Alloys 24

Optimization of Heat Treatment Parameters of Al-Si Alloys 25