The porous reduced oxide (PRGO) was acquired by creating pores on grapheme oxide layers.

Halloysite nanotubes, modified by poly sodium-p-styrene-sulfonate were used to increase the

interlayer spacing of PRGO. These two materials were immobilized on membrane surface through
a facile solvent evaporation method which is time saving. The structure thus formed through this
process offers added constant pathway for water and salts, which improves the permeability of
water through the composite membranes. Comprehensive characterization of the materials was
done by Raman, TEM, FTIR, XRD and EDS while composite membranes were categorized by
EDS, SEM and FTIR. These type of membranes exhibited higher separation effect for salts and
dye also pure water permeation of composite membranes could reach to a high limit, therefore the
hybrid membranes which are graphene-based presented a potential application in the field of
separation of dyes and salts. [1]

Mono-dispersed MCM-48 spherical particles having three dimensional cubic meso-structure were
amalgamated and used as nano-fillers circulated in the aqueous or organic phase to make thin film
nanocomposite (TFN) membranes through the interfacial polymerization of trimesoyl chloride
and m-phenylenediamine. When SEM and TEM images of the isolated polyamide active layer
were taken they confirmed that MCM-48 nano-particles were fixed throughout the PA layer with
dispersion in the aqueous phase after that the water flux was measured at 16 bar with 2000 ppm
NaCl solution. The results showed that as the MCM-48 content was increased in the organic phase
the water flux increased progressively without affecting the salt rejection considerably (>95%).
Whereas the increase in MCM-48 content in the aqueous phase considerably affected the salt
rejection which was decreased. The results showed that lower amount of MCM-48 can be used in
aqueous phase than in organic phase for having similar kind of performances. Similar long term
durability is exhibited by two kinds of TFN membranes which confirms that MCM-48 can reside
stably in the TFN membranes by dispersing in both aqueous and organic phases. [2]

One of the commonly used coating material for RO membranes is Polyvinyl-alcohol (PVA) in
order to improve their surface properties. However there are no efficient reports available with
respect to the conditions and chemistries of the processes used for their production. In the recent
studies, PVA coatings were fabricated on the outer surfaces of the composite polyamide reverse
osmosis membranes. These coatings were prepared in hydrogel film as well as ultrathin absorbed
film forms. After studying the processing conditions, such as PVA concentration, crosslinking
parameters and relative humidity of the curing environment, the properties such as relative
hydrophilicity, tightness, surface charge and morphology were investigated for the membranes.
The results showed that the membranes exhibited enhanced NaCl rejection as compared to the
virgin one with PVA coating cured at high RH while showing a slight decrease in the water flux.
These membranes showed good antifouling performance that is comparable to the commercial
membrane SW30 HR LE. The results showed that high salt rejection and flux in composite
membranes is produced due to a combination of high hydrophilicity and weak tightness. [3]

The TFN RO membranes merged with hydrophilic nanoparticles have a potential problem that the
salt rejection can’t be improved expressively. In the present study, a novel TFN RO membrane
which is incorporated with hydrophilic fluorinated silica nanoparticles, were fabricated to improve
the property of salt rejection. Fluorinated silica nanoparticles were well distributed in organic
phase during the process of interfacial polymerization. These membranes were characterized with
tempered total reflectance infrared, atomic force microscopy, water contact angle measurements
and field emission scanning electron microscopy. The conditions for preparation of TFN RO
membranes, including IP reaction time, organic solvent removal time and fluorinated silica
loading, were adjusted by characterizing desalination performance using 2000 ppm NaCl aqueous
solution at 25 °C and 1.55 MPa. The rejection of salts increased considerably without fluorinated
silica nanoparticles, while the water flux decreased marginally. The basic demonstration of this
study was the potential use of hydrophilic nanoparticles in high performance TFN RO membranes.
[4]

Another promising way to improve the performance of membranes is surface modification, in the
present study a commercial aromatic polyamide thin-film composite reverse osmosis membrane
was improved through progressive surface treatment with glutaraldehyde aqueous solution trailed
by polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) aqueous solution. Different tests such as SEM, AFM, ATR-FTIR
spectroscopy, streaming potential, contact angle and cross flow permeation were employed in
order to investigate the impact of modification on membrane performance. It was explained that
PVA molecules were attached covalently on the pristine membrane surface due to which both
surface physico-chemical and permeation properties of membrane could be changed. This type of
attachment resulted in an improvement of the properties such as better surface hydrophilicity, a
declined surface negative charge, a slightly increased surface roughness and it could also enhance
membrane salt rejection and water flux at the same time. This alteration proved to be effective in
improving membrane antifouling property to the foulants of bovine serum albumin, sodium dodecy
sulfate and dodecyltrimethyl ammonium bromide by improving anti-adsorption capability and
membrane chlorine stability through decreasing chlorination sites and inhibiting the underlying
polyamide backbones from chlorine attack. In addition to that this type of modification could
effectively enhance the membrane rejection performance and antifouling property in tertiary
treatment of industrial effluent. [5]

The sulfonated-cardo-polyarylene-ether-sulfone copolymers (SPAES-C) were produced via post

sulfonation of the parent polymer. A number of RO composite membranes were acquired by
coating SPAES-C on porous polysulfone support membranes while varying the concentration of
coating solutions. The results obtained by SEM indicated that the obtained RO membrane had
smooth surface and no defect. In the meantime, the thickness of the functional layer obtained from
the SEM was in the range of about 300 to 400 nm. All the membranes exhibited good water flux
and enhanced salt rejection. The salt rejection can be improved by adding a secondary layer of
formaldehyde-cross-linked polyvinyl alcohol coated on the surface of SPAES-C membrane and as
a result of this layer the NaCl rejection can be improved significantly. When compared with
commercial PA RO membrane, the composite membranes based on SPAES-C showed excellent
chlorine tolerance in RO operations. [6]

The ever growing population, severe changes in the climate, increased agricultural demands,
pollution of water resources and rapid industrialization assert the development of innovative
technologies for generating potable water. The polyvinylchloride/cellulose acetate (PVC/CA)
membranes were prepared using phase inversion technique for seawater RO and its performance
was investigated using Red Sea water. The performance of the membrane indicated that the
prepared membranes were capable to work under high pressure. Any increase in feeding operating
pressure led to an increase in permeate flux and rejection. These membranes were characterized
using FTIR, SEM, mechanical properties and spectrophotometry and on these basis the best
membrane for desalination was distinguished. According to these results one prepared membrane
was selected to run performance test in desalination unit and this membrane showed excellent
performance and stability under different operations. [7]
According to literature the Ce(IV)/polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) redox system mediated fast surface
modification of polyamide TFC RO membrane for the enhancement of both chlorine resistant and
antifouling properties. Copolymerization of 3-sulphopropyl methacrylate (SPMA) and methylene-
bi-acrylamide (MBA) in the existence of Ce(IV)/PVA on premade TFC membrane provided
surface amended membranes. The success in the modification of surface of TFC membranes was
evident from mitigated total reflection Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR),
SEM, AFM and contact angle. Based on these characterizations, it is concluded that a soft
hydrophilic polymer layer of a complex mixture of PVA-g-poly(SPMA-co-MBA), polyamide-g-
poly(SPMA) and polyamide-g-poly(SPMA-co-MBA)-g-PVA like structure was produced on
membrane surface. These membranes showed much improved antifouling property during
desalination of water in the presence of scale forming salt and protein compared to that of the
unchanged membrane also chlorine stability test clearly showed improved chlorine resistance by
the altered membranes as compared to unmodified membrane. This is due to the formation of a
complex polymeric protective layer on top of polyamide barrier layer. [8]

The scarcity of water at global levels has called for considerations to create new and innovative
technologies that can be used to provide sustainable solutions to water crisis. One of the major
advancement in the recent times is the membrane based desalination processes to resolve global
challenges. Currently a number of membrane based desalination technologies have been installed
worldwide for production of clean water. However the unavoidable membrane fouling issue has
made the application of membrane for desalination limited. The membrane fouling is known as
the major culprit for the elevated operating costs due to increased transmembrane pressure,
deterioration of permeate flux and regular chemical cleaning which decrease the membrane’s
lifespan. The strategies applied for controlling the fouling encompasses the efforts made in the
novel membrane development, membrane cleaning and feed water pretreatment are highlighted.
The pros and cons of such techniques are discussed and reviewed on basis of substantial number
of up to date literatures. [9]

The hydrophilicity of membranes effects the transport of water through the membrane in
osmotically driven separations such as forward osmosis. In this study polysulfone support layer of
two types of commercially existing reverse osmosis membranes were coated with hydrophilic
PVA in order to increase the hydrophilicity and rate of transport of water through membrane.
Previously polydopamine coatings of the polysulfone support of RO membranes gave promising
results. In the following study more readily available materials were explored specifically, the
effects of two different PVA crosslinking agents’ glutaraldehyde and maleic acid on the resultant
membrane properties and osmotic performance were considered. In case of seawater membranes
it was found that PVA cross-linked to a limited degree with maleic acid generates a substantial
improvement in water flux in FO and RO systems, as compared to membranes in which PVA is
crosslinked by glutaraldehyde. Though brackish water membranes didn’t show significant changes
in the performance of membranes. By this study it was concluded that the smaller pores of the
brackish water membrane become clogged and this effect is exaggerated by the deficiency of
fractional free volume present within PVA that is highly crosslinked with glutaraldehyde. [10]

The basic subject of this work is the development of a novel vibration assisted seawater
desalination method which changes properties such as hydrodynamic and thermodynamic to
mitigate the inorganic fouling of RO membranes. Experimental measurements and classical mass
transport model showed that when the cross flow velocity is increased in the feed channel increases
the near membrane mass transfer coefficient, which promotes the back-diffusion of salts with a
reduced concentration polarization. A theoretical CP FEM model integrating increased cross-flow
velocity reveals that a lower CP modulus forms near the membrane surface with higher vibration
frequency resulting in lesser fouling of membrane. This desalination process was explained using
a linear motor driven periodically oscillating desalination cell. A smaller decline in the flux was
observed when a higher vibration frequency and velocity was used. Process imitations and
experimental observations authenticated that the planned vibration assisted desalination process
helps increase the permeate flux and diminish the inorganic fouling formation on the RO
membrane surface. [11]

Much of the research has been done on the crosslinking performance of so-called “engineering
plastics. Until now the industrial conversion to actual development of multifunctional electronic
components has gained increased importance in the plastic industry and will continue to do so.
Surface mounted device (SMD) and 3-dimensional moulded interconnected devices 3D-MID are
the examples of such technology. These techniques require materials with high short-term
temperature stability. In this study the discussion will be focused on the radiation crosslinking
process for both commercial and technical reasons. The main topics of focus are crosslinking
behavior of Polybutylenterephthalate and Polyamide and the importance and challenges to the
irradiation industry, as well as practical applications.

With the ever increasing industry pollution is becoming a crucial problem for mankind and in order
to make the world pollution free, radiation technology takes an important position. Nuclear
radiation, polymerization, curing and grafting which are all important chemical processes in the
field of polymers can proceed through radiation techniques. This type of technology is mainly
preferred over the other processes due to clean processes, large reactions as well as product quality
can be controlled, saving energy as well as resources, automation and saving of human resources
etc. In addition to that radiation is also a good sterilizing technique over other conventional
techniques. The irradiation of polymers can be useful in various sectors. However in this study the
focus is mainly on four sectors, i.e. textile, electrical, biomedical and membrane technology. [12]

Sulfonated polyvinyl alcohol (SPVA) was manufactured by esterification reaction of PVA and
sulfuric acid and the structure was categorized by FTIR spectrum. After that a series of TFC
membranes modified with cross-linked SPVA layer were fabricated by coating method cross-
linker being glutaraldehyde. The resultant membranes were observed by SEM, ATR-FTIR, XPS,
AFM, static contact angle and streaming potential. The membranes modified with SPVA exhibit
increased salt rejection and decreased water flux when SPVA content is increased in coating
aqueous solutions. More than 99% salt rejection is exhibited by the optimal PA-SPVA-0.5 sample
higher than the 98.32% of the virgin PA membrane. In addition to that the PA-SPVA-0.5
membrane shows much more fouling resistance to CTAB and BSA than virgin PA membrane and
TFC sample modified with PVA. This membrane loses about 8% of the initial flux after BSA
fouling for 12 hours, which is much lower than virgin PA and PA-PVA-0.5 membranes which
have 28% and 15% respectively. Also 95% flux recovery of the PA-SPVA-0.5 can be obtained
after cleaning. Hence the PA-SPVA-0.5 membranes are good for antifouling RO membrane
desalination and purification. [13]