TRAINING COURSE

ON ELECTRICAL METHODS

PRINCIPLES
FIELD OPERATION
INTERPRETATION

Presented by Jean BERNARD

March 2002

IRIS INSTRUMENTS, Training course on Electrical methods, 2002 Page 1 of 29

 IRIS INSTRUMENTS,
EXPLORING AND MONITORING
THE EARTH RESOURCES

• Since 1991, in Orléans, France

• Design, manufacturing, selling
• Exploration equipment: geophysics
• Monitoring equipment: data loggers ●
• Sales, rentals, maintenance, training
Orléans
• 2002 sales: 3.5 M€ (85% abroad)
• Staff: 19, including 7 for R&D

Groundwater
Environment
Engineering
Archaeology
IRIS Instruments premises
Mining
Web site : iris-instruments.com

Resistivity Resistivity Imaging Magnetic Resonance

Induced Polarization Groundwater level and quality parameters

IRIS INSTRUMENTS, Training course on Electrical methods, 2002 Page 2 of 29

 PRINCIPLES

OF ELECTRICAL METHODS

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 APPLICATIONS OF ELECTRICAL METHODS

AIM OF GEOPHYSICAL METHODS:

- To make measurements on the surface ?
and get ideas of what is located underground
- To select the best place where to make a hole
and find the target

AIM OF ELECTRICAL METHODS:

- To detect conductive or resistive layers
and bodies at depth

Groundwater
exploration
Geotechnical studies

Archaeological
investigation

Environmental surveys

Mineral
exploration

IRIS INSTRUMENTS, Training course on Electrical methods, 2002 Page 4 of 29

 RESISTIVITY METHODS FOR GROUNDWATER, MINING
ENVIRONMENT, GEOTECHNICAL, ARCHAEOLOGY

Sea
≈ ≈≈≈
≈≈≈
≈≈
fresh ≈
fresh
salted
salted

Depth and thickness Fresh / salt water contact Salt water wedge
of aquifer layers determination determination

≈
+ + + + + + + + . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
+ + + + + + + + . . . . . . . +
+ + + + + + + + + + . . . + + +
+ + + + + + + +
Depth to bedrock Thickness of bedrock Geological contact
measurement alteration detection

_
_ _ _ _ _
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
_ _ _

Fracture and fault Waste disposal Polluted area

detection site investigation detection

Cave, cavity and karst Buried structure Mineral orebody

detection detection exploration

IRIS INSTRUMENTS, Training course on Electrical methods, 2002 Page 5 of 29

 POROSITY AND PERMEABILITY
OF ROCKS

DEFINITIONS
• POROSITY: quantity of water, existing in rocks
(unit: %) = volume of water / volume of rocks

• PERMEABILITY: speed of the water, when pushed by pressure

(unit : m/s) = yield per unit of hydraulic pressure gradient

NUMERIC VALUES FOR VARIOUS TYPES OF ROCKS

TYPE OF ROCKS POROSITY PERMEABILITY

(%) (m/s)

gravel 30 10 - 2
UNCONSOLIDATED
(Soft sediments) sand 25 10 - 4

clay 50 10 - 12

CONSOLIDATED massive 1 10 - 10
sandstone fissured / fractured 5 10 - 8
limestone
granite, basalt weathered 15 10 - 6
NB: These values are only indicative and largely depend on local conditions

GROUNDWATER PUMPING

• WELL YIELD = Coeff x permeability x thickness

Production well
• PUMP POWER = yield x height x g

Vadose zone (water and air in pores)

Water level

Saturated zone (water only in pores) thickness

Non permeable layer

IRIS INSTRUMENTS, Training course on Electrical methods, 2002 Page 6 of 29

 ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF ROCKS

THE ELECTRIC CURRENT FLOWS INTO THE GROUND

4

THANKS TO THE IONS OF SALTS DISSOLVED IN THE WATER

Salt ions + + ions: Na, Ca, K, …

_ - ions: Cl, SO4, NO3, ...
Current

TYPE OF POROSITY TYPE OF WATER TYPE OF ROCK

matrix free sand, gravel

fracture free limestone,

sandstone

adherence bound clay

THE RESISTIVITY OF ROCKS DEPEND ON:

• THE WATER CONTENT (Porosity)
• THE RESISTIVITY OF THE WATER
• THE CLAY CONTENT
• THE CONTENT IN METALLIC MINERALS

VALUES OF RESISTIVITY OF ROCKS:

0.1 ohm.m SALTED WATER
1 ohm.m MASSIVE SULPHIDE
10 ohm.m CLAY
100 ohm.m SAND, MARL
1 000 ohm.m DRY SAND, LIMESTONE
10 000 ohm.m HARD GRANITE, BASALT

IRIS INSTRUMENTS, Training course on Electrical methods, 2002 Page 7 of 29

 RESISTIVITY AND POROSITY
OF ROCKS

Relation between the resistivity of and the porosity for non clayey rocks

whole rock

water

sediment

ROCK RESISTIVITY = F x WATER RESISTIVITY

F = Formation Factor = a / (porosity)N

(ARCHIE FORMULA)

Formation
Factor (F)

F≈ 1/Φ2 ( a = 1, N = 2)
100

10% Porosity (Φ)

For example :
Water resistivity = 10 ohm.m
Porosity = 20% Rock resistivity = 250 ohm.m
Formation factor = 25

RESISTIVITY SCALE FOR WATERS AND ROCKS

salt water fresh water

1 10 100 1 000 10 000 ohm m

clay sand gravel

altered rock hard rock

IRIS INSTRUMENTS, Training course on Electrical methods, 2002 Page 8 of 29

 CONDUCTIVITY AND SALINITY
OF WATERS

• CONDUCTIVITY (Siemens) = 1 / resistivity (ohm.m)

• USUAL UNIT of conductivity = microS / cm

Conductivity (microS / cm) = 104 / resistivity (ohm.m)

• SALINITY (mineralization): Total Dissolved Salt (TDS)

TDS (mg / l) = 0.7 x conductivity (microS / cm)

• NUMERIC VALUES FOR VARIOUS TYPES OF WATER:

Type of Resistivity Conductivity Salinity

water ohm.m microS / cm mg / l

very fresh 200 50 35

fresh 20 500 350

salted 10 1 000 700

very salted 0.3 30 000 21 000

(sea water)

Usual rule for drinkable water: resistivity > 10 ohm.m conductivity < 0.7 g/l

IRIS INSTRUMENTS, Training course on Electrical methods, 2002 Page 9 of 29

 HOW TO DETECT AN AQUIFER
FROM THE VALUE OF THE RESISTIVITY ?

FROM THE ABSOLUTE VALUE OF THE RESISTIVITY

Resistivity (rock) ≈ Resistivity (water) / porosity²

Fresh water resistivity Porosity Aquifer resistivity

10 to 200 ohm.m 1 to 30% 50 to 2000 ohm.m

FROM THE RELATIVE VALUE OF THE RESISTIVITY

Geological background Aquifer resistivity

Hard rock (resistant) Lower than background

Clayey or salty (conductive) Higher than background

IRIS INSTRUMENTS, Training course on Electrical methods, 2002 Page 10 of 29

 MEASUREMENT OF RESISTIVITY

MEASUREMENT OF RESISTIVITY OF A LINEAR CONDUCTOR

length
Intensity I
section
Resistance R

Voltage V

RESISTANCE (ohm) = Voltage (V) / Intensity (A) (OHM law: V = R x I)

RESISTANCE (ohm) = Resistivity (ohm.m) x length (m) / section (m²)

RESITIVITY = (section / length) x voltage / intensity

Rho = K x V / I

MEASUREMENT OF RESISTIVITY OF A 3-DIMENSION CONDUCTOR

Intensity IAB
TX

RX

A M Voltage VMN N B

Ground resistance, resulting from

several layers with different resistivities

APPARENT RESISTIVITY = (coefficient) x voltage / intensity

Rho = K x VMN / IAB

K = 2 x Pi / ( 1/AM – 1/AN – 1/BM + 1/BN )

Units: Rho (ohm.m), K (m), VMN (mV), IAB (mA)

IRIS INSTRUMENTS, Training course on Electrical methods, 2002 Page 11 of 29

 TWO TYPES OF RESISTIVITY
INVESTIGATIONS

VARIATIONS OF RESISTIVITY WITH DEPTH: ELECTRICAL SOUNDING

The variation of the depth of investigation

is obtained by increasing the length of the
current line AB:
• small lines: shallow
• long lines: deep
The depth of investigation varies from
about 1/3 to 1/10 of the length of AB

APPLICATIONS: * Thickness an depth of aquifer

• Thickness and depth of layers
• Depth of bedrock
• Thickness of weathered layers
• Quality of aquifers (from the value of the resisitivty)

LATERAL VARIATIONS OF RESISTIVITY: ELECTRICAL PROFILING

The lateral variations of the resistivity

along a line is obtained by translating
the current line AB and the potential
line MN at the same time.

The lengths of the lines AB and MN

are kept constant, which means that
the depth of investigation does not
vary along the profile

APPLICATIONS : * Localization of fractures an weathered zones

• Mapping of geological contacts
• Delineation of clay lenses
• Localization of mineralised dykes

IRIS INSTRUMENTS, Training course on Electrical methods, 2002 Page 12 of 29

 MAIN ELECTRODE ARRAYS

SCHLUMBERGER SOUNDING AND PROFILING

MN << AB

A M N B

WENNER SOUNDING AND PROFILING

MN = AB / 3

A M N B

GRADIENT ARRAY

MN is moved
within the middle
part of AB
A M N B

RECTANGLE ARRAY

MN is moved along
various lines
parallel to AB
A M N B

DIPOLE DIPOLE ARRAY

MN is moved a certain number of

times away from AB, then AB is
A B M N shifted of one spacing and so on.
A pseudo section is obtained, a
combination of profiling and
shallow sounding

IRIS INSTRUMENTS, Training course on Electrical methods, 2002 Page 13 of 29

 PRINCIPLE OF INDUCED POLARIZATION
MEASUREMENTS

The Induced Polarization (IP) is a phenomenon which occurs with

some types of minerals (mainly metallic particles, but also some clay
minerals).

It is equivalent to a charge / discharge behaviour of capacitors when

currents are switched on / off.

When IP effects are present, a decay curve is observed at the receiving

electrodes (MN), when the pulse of current is over.

IAB Intensity ON+ OFF

ON - OFF

VMN Voltage
without
IP effect

VMN Voltage V(t) VMN

with
IP effect

DEFINITION OF THE INDUCED POLARIZATION PARAMETER :

CHARGEABILITY = ∫ v(t) dt / ∆t x VMN

Unit of chargeability : mV / V, or per mil

IRIS INSTRUMENTS, Training course on Electrical methods, 2002 Page 14 of 29

 FIELD OPERATION

OF ELECTRICAL METHODS

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IRIS INSTRUMENTS, Training course on Electrical methods, 2002 Page 15 of 29

 RANGE OF RESISTIVITYMETERS:
FROM SHALLOWEST TO DEEPEST

SYSCAL Kid

200V, 25W, 0.5A

SYSCAL Junior

400V, 100W, 1.2A

SYSCAL R1 Plus

600V, 200W, 2.5A

SYSCAL R2

800V, 250W, 2.5A

800V, 1 200W, 2.5A

IRIS INSTRUMENTS, Training course on Electrical methods, 2002 Page 16 of 29

 PACKING LIST

FOR A RESISTIVITY SURVEY

MAIN EQUIPMENT
• The equipment itself (resitivitymeter), with charged batteries
• The PC computer for data transfer and interpretation

REELS AND ELECTRODES

• Reels with electric wires for transmission of current (AB line)
• Reels with electric wires for measurement of voltage (MN line)
• Metallic stakes, with hammers
• Cables and clips for wire to stake connection

OTHER ACCESSORIES
• Measuring tapes (100m)
• Tool kit box (pliers, screwdrivers, voltmeter, isolating tape, …)
• Field note book and data sheets
• An external 12V car battery

Resistivity survey with SYSCAL Junior resistivitymeter

IRIS INSTRUMENTS, Training course on Electrical methods, 2002 Page 17 of 29

 TRANSMISSION OF THE CURRENT

Voltage VAB

Intensity IAB
TX

RX

A M Voltage VMN N B

IN THE RECEIVER CIRCUIT MN:

Basic formula: Apparent RESISTIVITY = K x VMN / IAB

Hence: VMN = Apparent RESISTIVITY x IAB / K

When AB is large (deep investigation), K is large, and in case of low values of the
apparent resistivity, the voltage VMN can be difficult to measure unless the intensity
IAB is large enough (usual values of the intensity: 10, 50, 100, 500 mA, …).
Hence the usefulness of having sometimes an intensity of current as high as possible

IN THE TRANSMITTER CIRCUIT AB:

Ohm’s Law: IAB = VAB / RAB

To increase the intensity IAB of the current: increase VAB on the equipment
(50, 100, 200, 400, 600, 800V…)
or decrease RAB on the ground
(10k, 1k, 100 ohm …)

To decrease the ground resistance of the electrodes A and B:

• push the metallic stakes more deeply into the ground
• use several stakes per electrode (and connect them in parallel
• Pour water onto the stakes (if possible water with salt)

IRIS INSTRUMENTS, Training course on Electrical methods, 2002 Page 18 of 29

MEASUREMENT OF THE VOLTAGE VMN

VOLTAGE INTENSITY VOLTAGE

noise IAB VMN

IDEAL
no noise IAB VMN
CASE

Telluric currents,
Self Potential, +IAB +VMN
Industrial noise
REAL
CASE

-IAB -VMN

NUMBER OF READINGS Noise level

1 READING ONLY Noise(1)

N READINGS (N STACKS) Noise(1) / sqrt (stack number)

IRIS INSTRUMENTS, Training course on Electrical methods, 2002 Page 19 of 29

 OPERATING PROCEDURE

OF A SYSCAL RESISTIVITYMETER

PREPARING THE READING

BATTERY Check the capacity of the battery
ARRAY Select the electrode array, ex. Schlumb. Sounding
SPACING Introduce the values of the lengths of the lines
Ex: AB / 2 = 10, MN / 2 = 2
CHECK Check the connection of the electrodes
and the values of their ground resistances
PARAMETERS Introduce various parameters such as the pulse
duration (ex. 500 ms or 1s)

TAKING THE READING

START Check the various values displayed:
Intensity IAB in mA
Voltage VMN in mV
Resistivity RHO in ohm m
Standard deviation Q in %
Chargeability M in mV/V
Number of stacks in #
STOP Check the average (stacked) values of
the previous parameters
Plot the resistivity value on the diagram

USING THE MEMORY

STORE Save the parameters in the internal memory
READ Recall a previously stored reading
TRANSFER Load the data into the PC computer

IRIS INSTRUMENTS, Training course on Electrical methods, 2002 Page 20 of 29

 FIELD DATA SHEET
FOR RESISTIVITY MEASUREMENTS

SITE: DATE: VES nb :

OPERATOR : EQUIPMENT:

AB/2 MN/2 VAB VMN IAB RHO M Mem

m m m m mA ohm.m mV/V
3 0.5

4 0.5

4 1

5 0.5

5 1

6 1

8 1

8 2

10 1

10 2

15 2

20 2

20 5

IRIS INSTRUMENTS, Training course on Electrical methods, 2002 Page 21 of 29

 INTERPRETATION

OF ELECTRICAL METHODS

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IRIS INSTRUMENTS, Training course on Electrical methods, 2002 Page 22 of 29

 INTERPRETATION OF VERTICAL
ELECTRICAL SOUNDINGS (VES)

QUANTITATIVE INTERPRETATION

A bilogarithmic representation in Log(Rho) and Log (AB/2) is used because a 10m thick
layer at 10m depth has the same effect than a 100m thick layer at 100m depth (the
resolution decreases with depth).

Apparent resistivity
3m 1 000 ohm.m
resistive resistive

100 30m 20 ohm.m

ohm.m

conductive 00 5 000 ohm.m

AB/2
10 100m

PRINCIPLE OF EQUIVALENCE

CASE 1: FOR THE SECOND LAYER:

• the thickness is undetermined
1 3 • the resistivity is undetermined
BUT THE LONGITUDINAL CONDUCTANCE
2 S = thickness / resistivity
IS WELL DETERMINED
Example: 30m / 20ohm.m = 1.5 Siemens
15m / 10ohm.m = 1.5 Siemens
CASE 2:

FOR THE SECOND LAYER:

2 • the thickness is undetermined
• the resistivity is undetermined
BUT THE TRANSVERSE RESISTANCE
1 3
T = thickness x resistivity
IS WELL DETERMINED

Solutions (resistivity-thickness) which give the same sounding curves are “equivalent”

IRIS INSTRUMENTS, Training course on Electrical methods, 2002 Page 23 of 29

 TWO LAYER MASTER CURVES

FOR SCHLUMBERGER SOUNDINGS

FIRST LAYER Resistivity : Rho1

Thickness : E1

SECOND LAYER Resistivity : Rho2

Apparent
resistivity

Rho1 Rho2

E1
AB / 2

IRIS INSTRUMENTS, Training course on Electrical methods, 2002 Page 24 of 29

 EXAMPLE OF THREE LAYER CURVES
FOR SCHLUMBERGER SOUNDINGS

Resistivity: Rho1
FIRST LAYER
Thickness: E1

Resistivity: Rho2
SECOND LAYER
Thickness: E2

Resistivity: Rho3
THIRD LAYER

Apparent
resistivity
Rho2

Rho3

Rho1

E1
AB / 2
E2 / E1

With master curves, the interpretation is carried out by placing the experimental
sounding curve (data points) over one of the master curves which best fits the data.

The thickness and resistivities of the various layers are then read on the master
curves according to the mentioned indications.

Due to the equivalence law, several theoretical solutions can be found for one
given set of experimental data.

IRIS INSTRUMENTS, Training course on Electrical methods, 2002 Page 25 of 29

 FIELD EXAMPLE : PARIS BASIN

SCHLUMBERGER SOUNDING IN ALLUVIUMS (LOIRE RIVER)

The 12 first meters (about 100 ohm.m resistivity) consist in sands, then
6m show a marls component with a lower resistivity (less then 20
ohm.m).

At 18 m depth, starts the water which overlies the first series of

Limestone layers which at their top are frequently karstified (hence their
low resistivity, of the order of 150 ohm.m)

IRIS INSTRUMENTS, Training course on Electrical methods, 2002 Page 26 of 29

 FIELD EXAMPLE : NIGER

LOOKING FOR A FAULTED AREA IN A CRISTALLINE BEDROCK

FOR SUPPLYING GROUNDWATER TO A VILLAGE

Sand Alteration Bedrock

Sand

Alteration

Bedrock

Fault (F)

First, a
Schlumberger
sounding to
determine the
depth of the
bedrock

Then, a
Schlumberger
profiling to
locate laterally
the faulted area
and sit a drillhole

IRIS INSTRUMENTS, Training course on Electrical methods, 2002 Page 27 of 29

 FIELD EXAMPLE : LA REUNION ISLAND

LOOKING FOR A THICK, NON SALTY, NON CLAYEY AQUIFER

IN VOLCANIC ROCKS (BASALT, ASHES, LAVAS)
FOR AGRICULTURAL PURPOSES

Schlumberger
soundings carried
out every 300m
permit to identify
various geological
formations

At a few hundreds
metres from the sea
coast, the intrusion
of salt water is a
danger. Low values
of resistivity (<10
ohm.m) show this
salty environment.

Inside the land, the

clayey basement is
pointed out by values
lower than 100
ohm.m

The aquifer is
associated with
values of 300 to 600
ohm.m.

The maximum
thickness of this
layer is observed at
SE3 between 50 and
150m depth.

IRIS INSTRUMENTS, Training course on Electrical methods, 2002 Page 28 of 29

 FIELD EXAMPLE : BORA BORA ISLAND

LOOKING FOR THE MAXIMUM DEPTH OF A DRILL HOLE IN A

CORAL ISLAND (PACIFIC OCEAN)

In a coral island, the fresh water is in equilibrium above the salt

water coming from the sea and usually forms a kind of lens.

Electrical soundings carried out on the Bora Bora island confirm this
shape of lens, with a maximum thickness of fresh water sands
of 40m in the middle of the island. The drillholes do not have to
overpass this depth for the salt not to contaminate the fresh water.

IRIS INSTRUMENTS, Training course on Electrical methods, 2002 Page 29 of 29