Heat Transfer

Revision – Examples
Heat transfer: energy transport because of a temperature
difference.

Thermal energy is transferred from one region to another.

Heat transport is the same phenomena like mass transfer,

momentum transfer and electrical conduction. Similar rate
equations, where flux is proportional to a potential
difference.

Potential difference  temperature difference

Three modes of heat transfer:

- Thermal Conduction
- Thermal Convection
- Thermal Radiation
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 Thermal conduction
The mechanism: energy is transported between parts of
continuum by the transfer of kinetic energy between
particles or groups of particles at the atomic level.

Purely thermal conduction: in solid opaque bodies

(opaque: not permeable for radiation) the thermal
conduction is the significant heat transfer mechanism
because the material doesn’t flow and there is no radiation.

In flowing fluids, thermal conduction dominates in the

region very close to the boundary layer, where
– the flow is laminar
– the flow parallel to the surface
– there is no eddy motion
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 Steady-state conduction
Steady-state conditions: t = F(t) = constant

For steady-state heat conduction, in one dimension, the Fourier-law is

dt
q  (k·A)
dx
q – heat flow rate, W
k – thermal conductivity or heat conduction coefficient, W/m·K
A – cross sectional area normal to flow, m2
dt/dx – temperature gradient, K/m

The equation states that the heat flow rate (q) in the x direction is directly
proportional to the temperature gradient dt/dx and the cross sectional area A
normal to the heat flow.

The proportionality factor is the thermal conductivity k.

The minus sign indicates that the heat flow is positive in the direction of
decreasing temperature. 4
If A and k are constant (e.g. at a wall) the equation

(t1  t 2 )
qkA
L
L – wall thickness
t1 – temperature at x = 0
t2 – temperature at x = L
A – surface of the wall
k – thermal conductivity

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One-layer flat wall
t2  t1 t1  t2
q  k  A kA , W
x2  x1 x2  x1
t1  t 2 t1  t 2 t1  t2 t L
qkA  A·  A·  A· , W where R 
L L R R k
k

R – thermal resistance, K/W

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Example 1
Given is a solid brick wall, with the following data:

Material:
brick, fired clay, density: 1760 kg/m3,
conductivity (k): 0.8 W/m K

Surface (A): 5 m x 3 m = 15 m2

Interior surface temperature (t1): 20 °C

Exterior surface temperature (t2): 0 °C

Thickness of the wall (L): 38 cm = 0.38 m

Calculate
a) the heat flow through the wall
b) the thermal resistance
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Multi-layer flat wall

t1  t2 t 2  t3 t3  t 4
q  A·  A·  A· , W
R1 R2 R3

If the number of layers is n:

t1  t n 1
q  A· n

R
i 1
i

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Example 2
Given is an insulated concrete wall, which data are:
Layers:
1 – sand and gravel concrete,
2400 kg/m3, k1 = 1.5 W/m K, L1 = 16 cm
2 – expanded polystyrene,
20 kg/m3, k2 = 0.036 W/m K, L2 = 6 cm
3 – sand and gravel concrete,
2400 kg/m3, k3 = 1.5 W/m K, L3 = 8 cm
Surface (A): 5 m x 3 m = 15 m2
Interior surface temperature (t1): 20 °C
Exterior surface temperature (t4): 0 °C

a) Calculate the heat flow through the wall and the

temperature on the surface of the layers
b) Illustrate the temperature in the wall

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Thermal conduction at a one-layer pipe

The Fourier-equation in cylinder coordinates:

dt
Q  2r  L  k , W
dr

q – the heat flow rate

r – radius
L – length of the pipe
k – thermal conductivity
dt/dr – temperature gradient

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The solution of the equation:
t1  t 2
Q  2  L  k , W
r
ln 2
r1

At the same way, with the thermal conduction resistance:

t
Q , W
R

The thermal conduction resistance:

1  r2  1  d2  m  K
R ln   or R  ln  ,
2  L  k  r1  2  L  k  d1  W

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 Thermal convection

Energy transfer is involved by fluid movement and molecular

conduction.

Heat transfer means energy transfer

• from liquids and gases to the surface of a body or a wall, or

• from the surface of a body to the liquid.

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If in the flow the Reynolds number is large enough, three different
flow regions exist:

At the wall:
laminar sublayer (boundary layer)  thermal conduction

Outside the laminar layer:

buffer layer  eddy mixing and conduction

Beyond the buffer layer:

turbulent region  eddy mixing

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Convection is divided into two categories:

Free convection, natural convection:

the flow is generated by nonhomogeneous densities caused
temperature difference.

Forced convection:
the flow is produced by external sources (pump, fan).

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 The heat flow rate is described by the Newton’s formula:

q  hc  A (t s  t f )  hc  A  t

Where
q – heat flow rate, W
hc – convectional heat transfer
coefficient, W/m2K
A – surface of the wall, m2
ts – temperature of the surface, K or °C
tf – temperature of the fluid, K or °C

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The heat transfer coefficient can be calculated with dimensionless
numbers, from similarity theory.

Generally Nu = F (Pr; Gr; Re)

It means, Nusselt number is a function of the product of

Prandtl number,
Grashof number and
Reynolds number.

Dimensionless Numbers

hc  L
Nu  hc – heat transfer coefficient, W/m2·K
k
L – characteristic dimension, m
k – thermal conductivity of the fluid, W/m·K

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 Dimensionless Numbers
In the equation of Nusselt number
 cp  – absolute viscosity, kg/m·s or Ns/m2
Pr 
k cp – specific heat, J/kg·K
k – thermal conductivity of the fluid, W/m·K

L3   2    g  t L – characteristic dimension, m
Gr 
2  – density, kg/m3
 – coefficient of thermal expansion, 1/K
g – gravitational acceleration, m/s2
t – temperature difference, K or °C
 – absolute viscosity, kg/m·s or Ns/m2
vL
Re 
 v – velocity, m/s
L – characteristic dimension, m  D, diameter
 – kinematic viscosity = /, m2/s
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 Practical cases of convection

Natural or free convection: effect of temperature difference.

General relationship:
hc  L
Nu   C  (Gr  Pr) n
k

k  L      g  t     c p 
3 2 n n

hc  C      
L  av 2
f  k f

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 Open spaces: hc = F(t; direction of heat flow)

Direction of heat flow:

Ceiling  down
Wall  horizontal
Floor  up

t = ts – tair > 0

hc up >hc hor > hc down

Some values for hc heat transfer coefficient

Air, gas 4 … 10 W/m2 K
Water, liquid 100 … 500 W/m2 K
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Forced convection: fluid stream derived from outer force

Nu = F(Pr, Re) = F(v)

Some values for hc heat transfer coefficient

Air, gas 10 … 50 W/m2 K

Water, liquid 500 … 5000 W/m2 K

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Example 3
Given are a room and a radiator.

Surface temperature:
ts = 85 °C

Parameters of ambient air:

tair = 30 °C, 1 bar, dry air

Natural convection, length in direction of flow: 0,5 m

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 Solution:
n n
h L k  L3   2    g  t    cp



Nu  c  C  (Gr  Pr) n  hc  C    k 
k L   av2 
f  f

Properties of dry air at tair = 30 °C

density,  30 = 1.1270 kg/m3
coefficient of thermal expansion,  30 = 3.255·10-3 1/K
gravitational acceleration, g = 9.806 m/s2
absolute viscosity,  30 = 1.8682 ·10-5 Ns/m2
specific heat, cp30 = 1013 kJ/kg·K
thermal conductivity of the fluid, k30 = 0.0258 W/m·K
Temperature difference t = 85 – 30 = 55 °C
Average temperature tav = (85 + 30)/2 = 115/2 ~ 60 °C
absolute viscosity at 60 °C  60 = 1.9907 ·10-5 Ns/m2
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ASHRAE Fundamentals 2005, Chapter 3, Page 3.17 Table 10

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A special problem of convection:
Convection in closed spaces: hollows, air layer between surfaces
e.g. window construction

t1 > t2
Complex process of heat transfer:
A1 = A2 conduction
convection
radiation
Equivalent heat conduction coefficient: ke
Equivalent conduction resistance of air
layer:
L
Requi 
kequi
From table, e.g. ASHRAE Fundamentals 2001,
Chapter 25, Table 3
Thermal Resistances of Plane Air spaces, m2 K/W
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 Thermal radiation

The radiation energy transfer is through energy-carrying

electromagnetic waves that are emitted by atoms and
molecules due to change in their energy content.
It means: does not depend on an intermediate material.

The rate of thermal energy emitted by a surface depends on

its quantity and its absolute temperature.
A black surface absorbs all incident radiation.

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The total energy emitted per unit time and unit area is given
by the Stefan-Boltzman law:

Eblack    T 4

where
 – Stefan-Boltzmann constant: 5.670·10-8 W/m2 K4

For nonblack surfaces

E    Eblack      T 4

where
 – hemispherical emittance or emissivity.
 is a function of the material, condition of its surface.

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Lambert’s cosine law:
Lambert's cosine law is the statement that the total power
observed from a "Lambertian" surface is directly proportional to
the cosine of the angle Φ made by the observer's line of sight
and the line normal to the surface.

E  En  cos 

Utilising the Lambert’s law the total energy

radiated to the hemisphere is:

ETotal  En  

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 The heat flow rate between the surfaces

Given are two surfaces:

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First let’s examine two general plane elements!

The energy flux which leaves dA1 element and which is absorbed by
dA2 element is quadraticly small:
d2E1 = E1n · cos 1 · dA1 ·dW1

From this, the radiation absorbed by dA2 is:

d2E1-2 = 2 ·d2E1

The heat exchange through radiation between the two plane elements is:
d2q1-2 = d2E1-2 – d2E2-1

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 Angle Factor
The fraction of all radiant energy leaving a surface i
that is directly incident on surface k is the angle
factor Fik (also known as view factor, shape
factor, and configuration factor).

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 Overall Heat Transfer
From inside air to outside air the heat transfer is a complex
process:
Inside  convection
In the wall construction  conduction
Outside  also convection

The heat flow rate with overall heat transfer coefficient:

q  U  A (t i  t o )
Overall heat transfer coefficient:
1 1
U or U
1 n Li 1 n
  Ris   R j  Ros
hi j 1 ki ho j 1
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 Example 4

Let’s see Example 1

There is a brick wall, where the wall construction data are the following:
Material Density Condutivity Thickness
, kg/m3 k, W/m,K L, m
1 – Brick, fired clay 1760 0.8 0.38

R = 0.475 m2K/W

Inside temperature: 22 °C
Outside temperature: – 4 °C
Area of the surface: 15 m2
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Heat transfer coeff./surface resistance on the laminar air layer
W/m2 K
ASHRAE F.25.2 EN 12831
Still air (inside)
Horizontal surface (upward) 9.26/0.11* 10.0/0.1
Horizontal surface (downward) 6.13/0.16* 5.9/0.17
Vertical surface 8.29/0.12* 7.7/0.13
* non reflective surfaces

Moving air (outside)

Any position 34/0.03* 25/0.04
* wind velocity 6,7 m/s (24 km/h)

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Hungary:

7/2006. Ministerial Decree – energetical calculations

regulate the energy consumption of buildings in
harmony with the european regulations.

Required U-values:
External wall 0.45 W/m2K
.
.
Etc.

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 Example 5

We improve the brick wall with a new insulation

The wall construction data are the following:
Material Density Condutivity Thickness
, kg/m3 k, W/m,K L, m
1 – Brick, fired clay 1760 0.8 0.38
2 – Expanded polystyrene 20 0.036 0.10

R1 = 0.475 m2K/W

Inside temperature: 22 °C
Outside temperature: – 4 °C
Area of the surface: 15 m2

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