CHAPTER - IV

THEORIES AND FACTORS OF

JOB SATISFACTION
 Job satisfaction as a job reaction remains an important area of study. The
perceived or imagined judgement of how well the job life is satisfying the various
needs, accounts for the degree of job satisfaction and dissatisfaction. For perfect
job satisfaction there should exist a one to one relationship between the perception
of how well the job life fulfils the various needs and expectations or aspirations of
the individual and the extent to which these needs are actually fulfilled. Any
discrepancy between aspirations and perceptions account for dissatisfaction.

One of the signs of deteriorating conditions in an organisation is low job

satisfaction. It results in strikes, slow downs, absences and employee turnover. It
may also be a part of grievances, low performance, disciplinary problems and
other difficulties, all of which have a negative effect on organisational
effectiveness. On the other hand, high job satisfaction is the hall mark of a well-
managed organisation. However it cannot be urged into existence or even bought.
It is fundamentally the result of effective behavioural management.

Job satisfaction is part of life satisfaction. The nature of one’s environment

off the job does affect one's feelings on the job. Similarly, since a job is an
important part of life, job satisfaction influences one's general life satisfaction.

THEORIES OF JOB SATISFACTION

'Job satisfaction’ and 'Motivation* are two closely related concepts.

Although there are certain theoretical and practical differences between the two
concepts, it must be noted that the two are closely related. Job satisfaction is
 100

associated with job behaviour as work motivation. Most theories of motivation

have an underlying assumption that individuals are motivated to seek that which is
pleasant to them. As a result, many theories of motivation are also considered
atleast in part, theories of job satisfaction. Some important theories of motivation
which are capable of explaining sources of satisfaction and dis-satisfaction of job
from specific view points and which will help in understanding the dynamics of
job satisfaction are -
1) Abraham H.Maslow's hierarchy need theory.
2) Frederic Herzberg's two factor theory.
3) Victor Vroom's Valence expectancy theory.
4) Porter-Lawler model.
5) Stacy Adam's equity theory.
6) Reference group theory.

1) ABRAHAM H. MASLOW'S HIERARCHY NEED THEORY

Perhaps the most widely discussed theory related to motivation and job
satisfaction is Maslow's hierarchy of needs. Making a synthesis of holistic,
motivational and cultural approaches, Maslow proposed five degrees of need
priority. A need hierarchy of five levels by Maslow is depicted in the figure 4.1.
 101

FIGURE 4.1

MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS

 102

1) Physiological needs the basic needs of the organism such as food,

2) Safety needs
3) Sociological needs
4) Esteem needs
5) Self-actualisation needs -
water, oxygen, sleep etc.
the need for a generally ordered existence in a
stable environment which is relatively free of
threats to the safety of the person's existence,
the need for affectionate relations with other
individuals and the need for one to have a
recognised place as a group member - the need
to be accepted by one's peers,
the need of a stable, firmly based self-evaluation
the need for self-respect, self-esteem and for the
esteem of others.
the need for self-fulfilment - the need to achieve
one's foil capacity of doing.

The important point about need levels is that they usually have a definite
sequence of domination. Second-level needs do not dominate until first-level needs
are reasonably satisfied. Third-level needs do not dominate until first - and second-
level needs have been reasonably achieved, and so on. As the more basic needs are
satisfied, a person seeks to fulfill the higher-level needs. If one's basic needs are
not met, they claim priority and efforts to satisfy the higher-level needs will be
postponed.

Jobs which are able to satisfy more of the Maslow needs would be jobs
which would result in greater satisfaction on the part of the employee.
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The hierarchy concept is critical to Maslow, since his basic premises are that :
1) The behaviour of any person is dominated and determined by the most basic
groups of needs which are unfulfilled.
2) The individual will systematically satisfy his needs, starting with the most
basic and moving up the hierarchy.
3) More basic need groups are said to be potent in that they will take
precedence overall those higher in the hierarchy.

HERZBERG’S TWO FACTOR THEORY

No theory of job satisfaction has received as much attention or has been

subjected to as much criticism as the theory proposed by Herzberg, Mausner and
Snyderman. Their study was concerned with an investigation into the causes of job
satisfaction and dissatisfaction of engineers and accountants. The workers were
asked to describe, in detail, times when they felt exceptionally good or
exceptionally bad about his job. They were also asked to describe the conditions
that led to those feelings. Herzberg and his associates found that employees named
different types of conditions for good and bad feelings. The results of their study
did indicate that factors which were associated with high satisfaction (satisfiers)
were somewhat different from the factors which were associated with situations of

low satisfaction (dissatisfiers).

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Herzberg stated that certain job factors primarily dissatisfy employees when
the conditions are absent. However, their presence generally brings employees to a
satisfied neutral state. By themselves, these factors do not motivate, they serve as a
take-off point for motivation. These potent dissatisfiers are called hygiene factors
or maintenance factors, because they are necessary to maintain a reasonable level
of satisfaction in employees. The hygiene factors are related to context or
environment in which people perform their tasks, therefore, they are also referred
to as context factors.

Other job conditions operate primarily to build motivation and job

satisfaction, but their absence rarely proves strongly dissatisfying. These
conditions are known as motivators or satisfiers. Job satisfiers are related to job
content and they are therefore called content factors.

Table 4.1 shows Herzberg's classification of hygiene factors and

motivators.

CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF HERZBERG’S THEORY

•

1) The implicit assumption in the study is that the people being interviewed had
both the ability and the desire to report accurately on the conditions which
make them satisfied or dissatisfied with their jobs. If this is not so, then their
results may be only an artifact of the "set" people carried into the interview
situation. For this reason, the study has been severely criticized. The major
objection is that, people may be more likely to attribute the causes of
satisfaction to their own achievements and accomplishments on the job.
 TABLE - 4.1

CLASSIFICATION OF HYGIENE FACTORS AND MOTIVATORS

Hygiene factors or Motivators or

Dissatisfiers or Satisfiers or
Extrinsic factors Intrinsic factors

Company policy and administration Achievement

Supervision Recognition

Salary Advancement

Interpersonal relations Work itself

Job security Responsibility

Working conditions Possibility of growth

Status
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On the other hand, they may be more likely to attribute their dissatisfaction
not to personal inadequacies, but to factors in the work environment.

2) Critics of the model state that factors involved in feelings of satisfaction and
dissatisfaction do not appear to divide as neatly as was the case with
Herzberg's study.

3) Other critics say that the model does not give enough emphasis to the
motivating qualities of pay, status, and relations with others, which the
model identifies as maintenance factors.

VICTOR VROOM’S EXPECTANCY THEORY

Victor Vroom proposed the expectancy model as an alternative to the

content models, which he felt were inadequate explanations of the complex
process of motivation and job satisfaction. The expectancy model is built around
the concepts of valence, instrumentality and expectancy and is commonly called
the VIE theory.

Valence - Valence refers to the strength of a person's preference for a

particular outcome. It is an expression of the amount of one's
desire for a goal.
Expectancy - Expectancy is the probability that a particular action or effort
will lead to a particular first-level outcome.
Instrumentality - Instrumentality refers to the degree to which a first-level
outcome will lead to a desired second-level outcome.

In summary, the strength of the motivation to perform a certain act will

depend on the algebraic sum of the products of the valences for the outcomes
(which include instrumentality) times the expectancies. The theory can be
expressed in the form of an equation-

Valence x Expectancy -> Motivation -> Action -> Outcomes -» Satisfaction.

The products of valence and expectancy is motivation. It is defined as the

strength of the drive towards an action. The action or efforts leads to a series of
outcomes. When outcomes are favourable, the employee will be more satisfied and
more likely to be motivated again.

Vroom suggests that job satisfaction is a reflection of how desirable a

person finds his job, thus, it is a measure of a person's valence for his work
situation. There can be different valences associated with different properties of
work roles. The general valence of the work role is useful in predicting behaviour
in relation to the total work role. This will indicate whether the total work role is
attractive enough (positive valence) to lead an individual towards it or has a
negative valence and leads an individual away from it. In Vroom's model, job
satisfaction reflects valence of the job to its incumbents.
CRITICAL APPRAISAL OF VROOM’S MODEL

The expectancy model developed by Vroom attempts only to mirror the

complex motivational process; it does not attempt to describe how motivational
decisions are actually made or to solve actual motivational problems facing a
manager. Besides the application problem, the model also assumes that people are
rational and logically calculating. Such an assumption may be unrealistic.

PORTER-LAWLER MODEL

Porter and Lawler extended Vroom’s model and stated the relationship
between performance and satisfaction. Porter and Lawler start with the premise
that motivation does not equal satisfaction and/or performance. Motivation,
satisfaction and performance are separate variables and relate in ways different
from what was traditionally assumed. Figure 4,2 presents the multivariable model
used to explain the complex relationship that exists between motivation,
performance and satisfaction.

As in Vroom's model, value of reward and perceived effort-reward

probability will determine the level of effort to be undertaken. However, Porter
and Lawler point out that the effort does not directly lead to performance. It is
mediated by abilities/traits and role perceptions. More important in the Porter-
Lawler model is what happens after the performance. The rewards that follow and
how these are perceived will determine satisfaction. It was concluded that
 109

FIGURE - 4.2

PORTER - LAWLER MODEL1

 110

performance and satisfaction will be more strongly related when rewards are made
contingent upon performance than when they are not.

STACY ADAM’S EQUITY THEORY

Adam's equity theory is the most explicit and extended of theories which
received widespread attention among persons concerned with compensation
theories and practices. The theory argues that a major input into job performance
and satisfaction is the degree of equity (or inequity) that people perceive in their
work situation.
Equity occurs when

Person's outcomes Other's outcome

Person's inputs Other's inputs

The inputs and outputs of person and others are based upon the person's
perceptions. Age, sex, education, social status, qualifications, job level are
examples of perceived input variables. Rewards such as pay, status, promotion and
intrinsic interest in the job etc. are various outcomes. The ratio is based upon the
person's perception of what the person is giving (inputs) and receiving (outcomes)
versus the ratio of what the relevant other is giving and receiving.

Inequity occurs when a person perceives that the ratio of his or her
outcomes to inputs and the ratio of a relevant other's outcomes to inputs are
unequal. To restore equity, the person may alter his own inputs or outcomes,
 Ill

cognitively distort his or other's inputs and outcomes, act on the other to get him to
change his inputs or outcomes or leave the field. Adam postulated that inequity
will create tension and that this tension has motivating properties impelling the
person to reduce or eliminate it. More over, the force of motivation is proportional
to the magnitude of inequity.

It is believed that individuals are guided by a moral system which has the
fair distribution of rewards as a basic target. If a person receives less than a fair
amount, he feels that an injustice has been done to him. On the other hand, if he
receives more than the fair amount, he feels guilty and fears that his relations with
co-workers will be strained.

Job satisfaction is a function of the difference between the amount of

reward that the person believes he should receive and the amount of reward which
he actually receives. The greater the difference between these two amounts, the
greater the tension or disequilibrium experienced by the person.

REFERENCE GROUP THEORY

Reference group for the individual define the way in which he should look
at the world and evaluate various phenomena in the environment including
himself, to a great extent. According to this theory, if a job meets the interest,
desires and requirements of a person's reference group, he will like it, and if it does
not, he will not like it.
 112

The frames of reference for evaluation will be provided by one's social

group and general social environment. The research findings of Hulin confirmed
this theory. It was found that job conditions remaining constant, for the person
living in a well-to-do neighbourhood, the less likely it was that he/she would like
the job i.e. probability ofjob satisfaction would be less and the vice-versa.

To sum up, the theories of job satisfaction emphasise the need to identify
and study its constituent factors for they may not be universally true to every job
situation.

FACTORS OF JOB SATISFACTION

Organisations can influence job satisfaction and prevent absenteeism and

turnover only if the organisations can pinpoint the factors causing and influencing
these affective responses. Job satisfaction is derived from and is caused by many
inter-related factors. Researchers - through theoretical speculation and factor
analytic procedure - have identified a number of factors of job satisfaction. Some
components of job satisfaction repeatedly emerged in studies whereas some varied
from study to study.

Hoppock , the earliest investigator in this field, in 1935 proposed six major
components of job satisfaction -
1) The way the individual reacts to unpleasant situations.
2) The facility with which he adjusts himself to other persons.
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3) The relative status in the social and economic group with which he
identifies himself.
4) The nature of work in relation to the abilities, interests and
preparation of the worker.
5) Security and
6) Loyalty.

Siegal3 , on the basis of his review ofjob satisfaction studies, reports that all
the factors may be grouped under two headings - intrinsic factors and extrinsic
factors. Factors intrinsic to job include pay, job security, participation and personal
recognition, hours and working conditions and occupational status. Among factors
extrinsic to job are perceptions about supervision, sex, age, level of intelligence,
job experience and personal adjustment.

Korman4 classified correlates of job satisfaction into two categories -

environmental effects and personal variables. Occupational level, job content,

considerate leadership, pay and promotional opportunities, social interaction and
working in a group come under environmental effects. Age, educational level, sex
are personal variables influencing job satisfaction.

Herzberg"’ and his associates reviewed more than 150 studies and listed

various job aspects in 10 different categories, each representing on-the-job

components of job satisfaction. The job factors are - intrinsic aspect of job,
supervision, working conditions, wages, opportunity for advancement, security,
company and management, social aspects of the job, communication and benefits.
 114

/r
Worthy , has reported that there are atleast six factors, namely, company in
general, the local organisation, local management, immediate supervision, co­
workers and working conditions which comprise job satisfaction.

7
Keith Davis considered job satisfaction as related to a number of variables,
such as turnover, absence, age, occupation and size of the organisation in which an
employee works.

o
The review of relevant literature conducted by Scott and others, suggests
the following 10 important job factors to be associated with job satisfaction. These
are : pay, co-workers, supervision, type of work, working conditions, identification
with company, over-all job satisfaction, security, management and opportunity for
advancement.

Fred Luthans9 enumerated six major factors that influence job satisfaction -

pay, the work itself, promotions, supervision, the work group and working
conditions.

Evans and Laseau 10 studied various factors in relation to job satisfaction

and the factors in their order of preference were found to be : income, interesting
and important job, pride in company, fellow workers, immediate boss,
management, working conditions, security, chance to go ahead, benefit plans,
safety and facilities.
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Baneijee^ identified two categories of variables determining job

satisfaction-

a) Organisational variables - Occupational level, variation and lesser degree

of job content, considerate leadership, pay and promotional opportunities,
interaction and the workgroup.

b) Personal variables - age, educational level and sex.

Twery et al. , deduced five common factors on the basis of a factor -

analytic study: i) general attitude towards the job, ii) satisfaction with the
supervisor, iii) satisfaction with the higher echelon, iv) satisfaction with living
conditions and v) satisfaction with co-workers.

13
Harrell grouped the factors of job satisfaction under three broad heads
which are again sub-divided into different variables -

a) Personalfactors : sex, age, number of dependants, time on job, intelligence,

education and personality.
b) Factors inherent in the job : type of work, skill required, occupational
status, geography and size of plant.
c) Factors controllable by management : security, pay, fringe benefits,
opportunity for advancement, working conditions, co-workers,
responsibility, supervision and downward flow of information.
 Hammond^, on the basis of the factor analysis, found five group factors -

i) financial success, ii) personal-social success, iii) technical satisfaction, iv)

social-contact satisfaction and social-service satisfaction.

Pestonjee 15 , in a review of job satisfaction studies, identified that both on-

the-job factors and off-the-job factors consist of two subsets which are again
composed of many intertwined job aspects. For eg: Job and management areas
comprise on-the-job factors. Likewise, personal adjustment and social relations
areas encompass off-the-job factors. These four areas with their related aspects are:

1) Job area : nature of work, hours of work, fellow workers, opportunities on

the job for promotion and advancement, over-time regulations, interest in
work, physical environment, machines and tools etc.
2) Management area : supervisory treatment, participation, rewards and
punishment, praises and blames, leave policy, favouritism.
3) Personal adjustment : emotionality, health, home and living conditions,
finances, relation with family members etc.
4) Social relations : neighbours, friends and associates, attitudes towards
people in the community, participation in social activities, sociability, caste-
barriers etc.

Mumford^ gave a comprehensive and lengthy list of factors of job

satisfaction by classifying them into three groups. Each group was identified as
being composed of a number of variables. They are -
 117

a) the situation in which an employee works related to the organisational

variable. The following are the organisational variables :

1) Size of the organisation.

2) Ownership.
3) Organisational structure.
4) Interpersonal relationships.
5) Attitude towards management.

b) the individual and his background both on the job as well as outside the job.
The personal, demographic and employee background variables are as
follows:

•»
1) Age
2) Education ►Factors of individual differences

3) Marital status

4) Sex •

5) Job level

6) Length of service ► Factors related to the occupational

1) Job mobility 4
background of the employees

8) Rural-urban background'
9) Family > Factors related tc social milieu
10) Housing of the employees.
c) the factors or characteristics of the job itself. The job characteristics are as
follows:

1) Security
2) Pay
3) Promotion'
4) Fringe benefits »Reward structure
5) Prestige
6) Power
J
7) Recognition

8) Autonomy
9) Opportunity to use skill > Task structure
10) Interesting job J

11) Social contact

12) Leadership opportunity »• Social relations
13 Work environment

Although the factors can never be completely isolated from one another for
analysis, they can, by the use of statistical techniques, be separated enough to give
an indication of their relative importance to job satisfaction. The importance of the
various factors appears to change from one situation to another. There are many
factors, but only those considered most important are discussed here.
 Factors ofjob satisfaction can be broadly classified under three heads-

a) Organisational factors
b) Job factors
c) Personal factors.

a) ORGANISATIONAL FACTORS

1) Organisation and Management Policies

This factor includes many of those aspects of the worker’s immediate

situation which are a function of organisational administration and policy. This
factor is rather unique in the sense that administrative policies either directly or
indirectly affect many of the other factors. To be more specific, this factor involves
the relationships of the employee with all superiors of the organisation above the
level of immediate supervision.

2) Size of the Organisation

Organisation size often is inversely related to job satisfaction. The

employees in small organisations tend to be more satisfied with their jobs. The
favourable attitudes in small organisations are based specifically on optimism
about advancement, opportunity for making suggestions, treatment of employees
and respect for the ability of management. In a small organisation, employees
 120

know each other better and are therefore more co-operative. Whereas, large
organisations tend to overwhelm people and disrupt supportive processes, such as
communication, co-ordination and participation. The work environment loses
elements of personal closeness, friendship, and small-group teamwork that are
important to the satisfaction of many people.

3) Location of the Organisation

Generally, employees working in organisations located in large cities are

less satisfied with their jobs than are those in smaller cities and towns. The greater
job satisfaction in small towns is due to the difference in psychological
environment rather than to size as such. Moreover, in large cities, the cost of living
is high and the life there becomes mechanical.

b) JOB FACTORS

1) Pay

Wage/salary is a significant factor of job satisfaction. Employees often see

pay as a reflection of how management views their contribution to the
organisation. If the employees feel that the remuneration paid to them for their
services is in commensurate with their contribution, they will be satisfied. Pay is
positively related to job satisfaction. The more the pay is increased, the more it has
the capacity to fulfil an increasing number of needs thereby leading to satisfaction.
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2) Security

Assured work and stable income gives a sense of security. Job security
counts a lot in determining the level of satisfaction of an employee with his job.
Security includes those features of the job situation which lead to assurance for
continued employment, either within the same organisation or within the same
type of work or profession.

3) Relations with Work Group

The work group serves as a source of support, comfort, advice, and

assistance to the individual worker. This factor includes all on-the-job contacts
among the employees, whether those contacts are for working and operating
purposes or for more personal reasons. Good relations with the work group make
the job more likable. On the other hand, if the reverse conditions exist - the people
are difficult to get along with, it will have a negative effect on job satisfaction.

4) Working Conditions

Working conditions are another factor that have a modest effect on job
satisfaction. Working conditions include those physical aspects of the working
environment which are not necessarily a part of the work. If the working
conditions are good, the employees will find it easier to carry out their jobs. In
contrast, if the working conditions are poor employees will find it more difficult to
get things done. 'Working hours' are also included in this factor which affect the
 122

individual's comfort and convenience in much the same way as other physical
working conditions.

5) Promotions

Promotion is advancement of an employee to a better job, better in terms of

greater responsibility, more prestige or status, greater skill and especially
increased rate of pay or salary. Hence, it significantly affects job satisfaction of an
employee.

6) The Contents of the Work

The content of the work is another major source of job satisfaction. The
important ingredients of a satisfying job include interesting and challenging work,
variety in work and meaningful work.

7) Supervision

Another factor pertains to the relationships of the worker with his

immediate superiors. Supervision is a moderately important source of job
satisfaction. There are two dimensions of supervisory style that affect job
satisfaction. One is employee centeredness which is measured by the degree to
which a supervisor takes personal interest in the employee's welfare. The other
dimension is participation or influence by the employees in decisions that affect
their own jobs. A participative climate created by the supervisor has a more
substantial effect on worker's satisfaction. The favourable attitude of employees
towards their supervisor produce a climate in which attitudes of good teamspirit
establish.

8) Recognition

Recognition for work is another significant factor of job satisfaction. Most

of the people have need for a high evaluation of themselves. They feel that what
they do should be recognised by others concerned. Recognition means
acknowledgement with a show of appreciation. When such appreciation is given to
the work performed by the employees, they feel elated and satisfied.

9) Prestige and Status

Prestige and status derived from the job affects the level of satisfaction of
an employee with his job. The status depends not only on the way the employee
regards the status of his job, but also on the way it is regarded by others whose
opinion he values. Normally people prefer jobs with higher status in the society.

10) Fringe Benefits

This factor includes all those phases of organisation policy which attempt to
prepare the worker for emergencies, illnesses, old age and hospitalisation. Also,
the allowances for holidays, leave and vacations are included within this factor.
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11) Freedom of Action

When a person is constantly interfered by seniors/superiors in his day-to-

day work, he feels disheartened and will not work whole heartedly. On the other
hand, if he is given the freedom to act in the manner he likes, he feels the work as
natural as play and this significantly affects the level of satisfaction of an
employee with his job.

12) Opportunity for Advancement

Opportunity to develop oneself has some modest effect on job satisfaction

of an employee. This factor includes all those job aspects which the individual sees
as potential sources of betterment of economic position, organisational status, or
professional experience.

13) Participation

Participation is one of the factors that influences job satisfaction of an

employee. It encourages the employees to contribute to organisation goals or
objectives and share responsibilities. It signifies employee's identification with the
progress and development of the organisation.
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14) Challenging and Responsible Assignments

Most of the people prefer challenging and responsible jobs rather than
monotonous and routine type of jobs. If the job is challenging and responsible, it
satisfies people's natural and inherent characteristics and as such it affects the level
of satisfaction of an employee with his job.

15) Sense of Achievements

Generally people have an inner urge to achieve something. The sense of

achievements depend upon opportunity to achieve, level of motivation and
environment prevailing in the organisation. When the employees attain something
remarkable, they feel extremely happy and satisfied. As such, sense of
achievement in the job is one of the factors that moderately affects the level of
satisfaction of employees.

16) Welfare Facilities

Welfare facilities should be provided to the employees for their

maintenance in happiness, health and prosperity. These include medical,
educational, housing, transport, marketing facilities etc. They influence job

satisfaction of the employees.

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c) PERSONAL FACTORS

1) Age

Most of the investigations on the subject revealed that, there is a positive

relationship between age and job satisfaction. As workers grow older, they tend to
be slightly more satisfied with their jobs. There are a number of reasons, such as
lowered expectations and better adjustment to their work situation because of
experience with it. Younger workers, on the other hand, tend to be less satisfied
because of higher expectations, less adjustment and other causes.

2) Sex

The results of several studies relating to job satisfaction seem to indicate

that women are more satisfied with their jobs than men. This is despite the fact that
women are generally discriminated against in job competition and pay. The reason
for it might be that women's ambitions and financial needs are less.

3) Education

There is a relatively consistent trend of evidence which indicates that, there

is a negative relationship between the educational level of the individual and his
job satisfaction. This is because that, the higher the educational level of the
 127

individual, the higher the level of the group he looks to for guidance as to how he
should evaluate his job rewards. The higher the reference point of any group
looked to, the lower the level of satisfaction with any specific job outcome.
Another reason is that if an individual has higher educational qualifications,
naturally his expectations from die job would be high which would result in lower
job satisfaction.

4) Job Level

The higher the level of the job, the greater the job satisfaction. People in
higher-level occupations are better paid and have better working conditions, and
their jobs make fuller use of their abilities ; therefore they have good reasons to be
more satisfied.

5) Experience

Several investigations have revealed that there is a positive relationship

between experience and job satisfaction. Employees with greater experience tend
to be more satisfied with their jobs. This is because their better adjustment to the
work situation stemming from experience with it. The length of service in the
organisation broadens the knowledge of the employees about the organisation and
develops a sort of loyalty and attachment to the concern.
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6) Geographical Background
Employees having urban background are less satisfied with their jobs when
compared to the employees having rural background. This is due to the reason that
employees with urban background have more expectations from the job which
would result in lower satisfaction. On the other hand, the expectations of the
employees with rural background are less and as a result, their job satisfaction
would be high.

JOB SATISFACTION AND JOB BEHAVIOUR

Job satisfaction is related to various aspects of work behaviour such as

turnover, absenteeism, performance, etc.

Satisfaction and Turnover

The higher a worker's satisfaction, the less apt he leaves the job. More
satisfied employees are likely to stay with their employer longer. The reverse is
also true. Those employees who have lower satisfaction are more likely to leave
their employers and seek greener pastures elsewhere. However there are other
factors such as commitment to the organisation, general economic conditions that
play a role in the relationship between satisfaction and turnover.

Satisfaction and Absenteeism

Research has pretty well demonstrated an inverse relationship between

satisfaction and absenteeism. When satisfaction is high, absenteeism tends to be
low; when satisfaction is low, absenteeism tends to be high. This does not mean
that employees who have less satisfaction necessarily plan to be absent, but when
some reason for absence arises, a dissatisfied employee finds it easier to respond to
that reason.

Satisfaction and Performance

Better performance leads to more job satisfaction, which leads back to

better performance.

When people perform well, they are likely to develop more satisfaction with
their work. Better performance typically leads to higher rewards. If these rewards
are seen as fair and equitable, then employees feel satisfied. On the other hand, if
rewards are seen as inadequate for one's level of performance, dissatisfaction tends
to occur. In either case, one's level of satisfaction becomes feedback that affects
future performance, so the result is a continuously operating performance -
satisfaction feedback loop as presented in figure 4.3.
 130

FIGURE - 4.3

PERFORMANCE-SATISFACTION FEEDBACK LOOP17

Better ^ Perception of ______ ^ Greater

Performance ^ewar(ls
equity in rewards Satisfaction

FEEDBACK
j
 131

OTHER EFFECTS OF JOB SATISFACTION

Research reports that highly satisfied employees tend to have better mental
and physical health, learn new job-related tasks more quickly, have fewer on-the
job accidents and file fewer grievances.

Absenteeism and turnover have a bad effect on organisational

effectiveness. Absenteeism is very costly because it interrupts scheduling, creates a
need for overstaffing, increases fringe-benefit costs and so on. Turnover is
expensive because of the many costs incurred in recruiting and training
replacement employees. Because satisfaction is manageable and influences
absenteeism and turnover, organisations can control absenteeism and turnover by
keeping the satisfaction of employees high. Job satisfaction is of much value to the
organisation's overall health and effectiveness.
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REFERENCES

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