What is a case study?

According to Yin :

1. A case study is an empirical inquiry that

a. investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-
life context, especially when
b. the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not
clearly evident
2. The case study inquiry
a. copes with the technical distinctive situation in which
there will be many more variables of interest than data
points, and as one result
b. relies on multiple sources of evidence, with data needing
to converge in a triangulating fashion, and as another
result
c. benefits from the prior development of theoretical
propositions to guide data collection and analysis
According to Gerring:

Case: a spatially delimited phenomenon (a unit) observed at a

single point in time or over some period of time. Comprises the
type of phenomenon that an inference attempts to explain.

Case study: the intensive study of a single case where the

purpose of that study is – at least in part – to shed light on a
larger class of cases (a population)

Case study research: may incorporate more than one case,

because of methodological considerations

Single-outcome study: seeks to explain (as much as possible of) a

single outcome within a single case, using as much evidence as
possible (can include more than one case)

Cross-case study: Extensive study of cases, Large N

Qualitative vs Quantitative?

Cross-case study: Large N-analysis quantitative by

definition

Case study: Qualitative but quite often also quantitative

(many observations within a case study)

Single outcome: Qualitative and often quantitative

Rather: Intensive vs Extensive

The case and cross-case approaches are complementary, both

aims at shedding some light of a population of cases, but through
different means.
Generalization with the case study method (one or a few cases):

Yin: Analytical generalization

Case studies can be generalized to theoretical propositions but not

to populations. The case study, in contrast to a survey, does not
represent a sample. The goal is to develop and expand theories.

Gerring: shedding light on a longer class of cases

What distinguishes the case study method from all other methods
is its reliance on evidence drawn from a single case and its attempt,
at the same time, to illuminate features of a broader set of cases.

Both a study of something particular and something general;

investigating the particular to (in part) understand something
general

Thus, the case(s) is indeed a sample from a (imagined) population

What is the case a case of?

The unit: what is the case?

A hypothesis, statement, proposition, etc defines a case; deductive

Can be
 Individuals
 Organizations
 States
 Processes
 Rules
 Decisions
 Intervention
 Treatment
 etc…

Each case provides one or many (within-case) observations

What’s the population? Can we speak of a population?

Case study researchers often reluctant to generalize to a population

- fear of claiming too much, according to Gerring.

However, also a risk of claiming too little.

“One must accept the assumption of unit homogeneity

among the chosen cases and unit heterogeneity among
the class of excluded cases” (p. 81)
 Why case study?

Explanatory (X/Y-centred), Descriptive and Explorative (X or Y-

centred)

Below due to methodological affinities, but not by definition

Research Goals:
 Hypothesis: generating rather than testing
 Validity: internal rather than external
 Causal insight: causal mechanisms rather than causal
effects (good for insight into causal relationships)
 Scope of proposition: deep rather than broad (good for
richness, detail, completeness, wholeness)
Empirical universe:
 Population of cases: heterogeneous rather than
homogenous (cross-unit comparability; unit homogeneity)
 Causal strength: strong rather than weak
 Useful variation: rare rather than common
 Data availability: concentrated rather than dispersed

Causal complexity? Doesn’t favour any type of analysis; always

problem with “too many variables” that cannot be controlled for
State of the field – research tradition?
A typology of basic case study research designs

Dynamic comparison (the classical experiment)

Longitudinal: One or more cases observed through time where X
undergoes a manipulated change.
Spatial: Additional case(s) that are not subject to manipulation.

Longitudinal comparison
Why not spatial? For example, not possible to find a comparable
case, which should be (close to) similar in all other respects

Spatial comparison
Why not longitudinal? For example, not possible to study a
phenomenon over time, i.e. observing how X affect Y. The varied
effects are observable, which is assumed to be caused by certain
differences between the cases.

Counterfactual comparison
Intervention is imagined – what would have happened if… ?;
strong reliance on theory, reflection, and contextual assumptions

Very common in “process tracing”, which usually involves long

causal chains, and relies on many non-comparable observations
Selecting cases

Number of cases?

 replication logic (finding the same result in the other, third,

fourth case)
 comparative logic (analysis of similarities and differences)

Methodological criteria for selecting cases?

1. Typical –a representative case

2. Diverse - achieving variance re key-variables

Each case typical of the respective category

3. Extreme

Extreme value of an X- or Y-variable – explorative reasons

E.g. Idealtypes, paradigmatic cases
4. Deviant

Based on surprising value on an X/Y-relationship

Model dependent; aim to modify an existing model.

5. Influential

Similar to deviant-case, but aim to confirm existing

theoretical model by scrutinizing a problematic case.

6. Crucial

Most-difficult test, which gives strongest sort of evidence

A) The confirmatory (least-likely) crucial case – if it fits

even in these circumstances, then the proposition is very
likely to be general

B) The disconfirmatory (most-likely) crucial case – if it

doesn’t work in these circumstances, then the theory is of
little value; or for claiming that a phenomenon is not
universal or necessary
7. Pathway

Clarifying causal relationships, chains, insight into causal

mechanisms; builds on prior cross-case analysis

8. Most-Similar

Possible to conclude (and generalize) diff in Y due to diff in

X, because the cases are similar in all other respects

Can also be used in single outcome studies

9. Most-Different

Possible to conclude (and generalize) sim in Y due to sim in

X, because the cases are different in all other respects
Selecting cases in practice

 Research design – initial methodological considerations: a

mixture of these selection-approaches

 Re-design: The research design normally change over time,

in light of knowledge gained from the initial cases, and

revision of research problem

E.g. start with explorative aims, end with explanatory aims

“the perfect case study research design is usually apparent

only ex post facto” (Gerring p. 149) Research design is often

more of an ex post justification, rationalization than an ex

ante planning.

 Benefits with an inductive approach?

“Something funny is going on there”

 Cases independent of each other?

 Pragmatic/logistical reasons: familiarity, access, research

money, time, language etc

 Paradigmatic cases
Charles Ragin:

“By examining differences and similarities in context it is

possible to determine how different combinations of conditions
have the same causal significance and how similar causal
factors can operate in opposite directions.”
Just one case – any rationale?

Common argument: not useful for explanatory purposes

because Y and X does not vary. Any explanation requires
comparison. However:

 Longitudinal Comparison

 Counterfactual Comparison

 Within case variation

 Typical case

 Crucial case

 Single outcome study

 A truly unique case?