MODELS OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

INTRODUCTION
The excellence in the program in any institution reflects the quality of program planning and
development. Education is no exception: the quality of individual school programs varies quite
directly with the quality of program planning. The programs of individual schools, classrooms
and of individual students usually mirror distinctly the nature and extent of the planning and
development of these programs by teacher and students (Saylor and Alexander, 1966).

Curriculum development is a complex undertaking. Its complexity and difficulty are perhaps
heightened by the usual absence of a set of clear ideas or models and planning and the how and
theory of curriculum planning and development (Beauchamp, 1961).

The term “model” as discussed by Oliva (1982) rates with scenario as one of the most abused
words in current English usage. While a scenario may turn out to be any plan or series of events,
a model may be a tried or untried scheme. It may be a programmed solution to specific problems
or it may be a microscopic pattern proposed for replication or a grander scale.

Some of the models are simple, others are very complex. Within a given area of specialization
(administration, instruction, supervision, or curriculum development), models may differ but
bear great similarities. The individual models are often refinements or revisions, frequently
major, often minor, of already existing models.

The educational consumer, i.e., the practitioners to whom the model is directed has the heavy
responsibility of selecting one model in their particular field. If the practitioners are not disposed
to apply models they discovered, they may as well design their own or, as the case may be, to put
all together and come out with a working model as guide in curriculum planning.

By examining models for curriculum development, we can analyze the phases the originators or
authors conceived as essential to the process of curriculum development. A model must show
phases or components, not people. The specification of curriculum goals must chart a
progression of steps from departmental committee to school faculty curriculum committee or
extended school committee, to principal, to district curriculum committee, to superintendent and
to school board (Oliva, 1982).
THE TYLER MODEL

One of the best known models for curriculum development with special attention to the planning

phases is shown in Figures 1 and 2.

SOURCES SOURCES SOURCES

Student Society Subject

Tentative general objectives

SCREEN SCREEN

Philosophy Psychology
of education of learning

Precise

Instructional

Objective
Figure 2: Tyler’s model (expanded from Figure 1)

Selection of learning
experiences

Organization of
learning experiences

Direction of learning
experiences

Evaluation of
learning experiences

It proposed a comprehensive model for curriculum development. The first part of this model: the
selection of objectives receives the greatest attention from other educators. Tyler recommended
that curriculum planners identify general objectives by gathering data from the sources: the
learners, contemporary life outside the school, and the subject matter. The numerous general
objectives are refined by filtering them through two screens: (1) educational and social
philosophy of the school and (2) the psychology of learning and become specific instructional
objectives.

In describing general objectives Tyler referred them as “goals”, “educational objectives”, and
“educational purposes”. He further stated that the curriculum worker must begin analyzing data
relevant to student needs and interest. These are educational, social, occupational, physical,
psychological and recreational. He recommended observations by teachers, interviews with
students, interviews with parents, questionnaires and tests as techniques for collecting data about
students. By examining these needs, the curriculum developer identifies a set of potential
objectives.
The next step in the process of general objectives is the analysis of contemporary life in both the
local community and the society. From the needs of society flow many potential educational
objectives.

For the source the curriculum planner turns to the subject matter, the disciplines themselves.
From the three aforementioned sources, curriculum planners derived a multiplicity of general or
broad objectives. Once this array of possible objectives is determined, a screening process is
necessary to eliminate unnecessary and unimportant and contradictory objectives. Tyler advises
the use of the schools educational and social philosophy as the first screen of these goals.

In Philosophical screen Tyler advise teachers of a particular schools to formulate educational and
social philosophy and to outline values by emphasizing four democratic goals:

 The recognition of every individual as a human being regardless of his race,

national, social and economic status;
 Opportunity for wide participation in all phases of activities in the social groups in the
society;
 Encouragement of variability rather than demanding a single type of personality;
 Faith and intelligence as a method of dealing with important problems rather than
depending upon the authority of an autocratic or aristocratic group.

In the Psychological screen, the teachers must clarify the principles of learning that they believed
to be sound. “A psychology of learning as emphasized by Tyler not only includes specific and
definite findings but it unified formulation of theory of learning which helps to outline the nature
of the learning process, how it takes place, under what conditions, what sort of mechanism
operate and the like.” Tyler explains the significance of the psychological screen in the following
statements:
 Knowledge in the psychology of learning enables us to distinguish changes in human
beings that can be expected to result from a learning process from those that cannot.
 Knowledge in the psychology of learning enables us to distinguish goals that are feasible
from those that are likely to take a very long time or are almost impossible of attainment
at the age level contemplated.
  Psychology of learning gives us some idea of the length of time required to attain an
objective and the age levels at which the effort is most efficiently employed.
In Fig.2 Tyler’s model describes three more steps in curriculum planning: selection,
organization, and evaluation of learning experiences. He defined learning experiences as “the
interaction between the learner and the external conditions in the environment to which he can
react”. And teachers must give attention to learning experiences in order to:
 Develop skill in thinking
 Helpful in acquiring information
 Helpful in developing social attitude
 Helpful in developing interest

THE TABA MODEL

The Taba Model was developed by Hilda Taba (1902 - 1967), an architect, a curriculum theorist,

a curriculum reformer, and a teacher educator. She was born in the small village of Kooraste,

Estonia. Taba believed that there has to be a definite order in creating a curriculum.

She advocated that teachers take an inductive approach to curriculum development which meant
starting with the specifics and building toward a general design, rather than the traditional
deductive approach (starts with the general design and work towards the specifics) which was
rooted in Tyler's model. Hilda Taba followed the grass-roots approach in developing curriculum.
For her, it should be the teachers who should design the curriculum rather than the higher
authorities. More specifically, the Taba approach believes in allowing the curriculum to be
developed and/or authored by the teachers. Under the Taba Model teachers are expected to begin
each curriculum by creating specific teaching-learning units and building to a general design.

The Taba model was an attempt to ensure that decisions about curriculum are made on the basis
of valid criteria and not whim or fancy. Her model of developing a curriculum consisted of seven
main steps and over the years, these seven steps have formed the basis for Hilda Taba's model.
Step 1: Diagnosis of Needs
The diagnosis involved in curriculum development, according to Taba, would center on the
thought that there is a need to accommodate different types of learners, to introduce new content,
and to emphasis different aspects through learning. Taba explains that teachers cannot determine
students' needs or what content they should teach without “diagnostic checks.” These checks
determine a diagnosis of achievement, and without these checks they would be overreaching on
the curriculum or underestimating and re-teaching what students already know. Taba likens this
to closing the gap of what students know and what teachers need to teach them.
Step 2: Formulation of Objectives
Taba found that the function of objectives was twofold – one the one hand, school-wide
outcomes and on the other hand, more specific objectives that describe behaviors to be obtained
in a certain unit, subject area, course or program. The primary function of the latter type of
objective would be what would guide decisions on what to “cover” or to “emphasize” in a
curriculum. Objectives, according to Taba, also serve to provide a common, consistent focus for
the activities included in a curriculum as well as a guide for the evaluation of achievement.
Taba stated that objectives should describe the kind of behavior expected, and the content to
which the behavior applies if one is attempting to create clear objectives. She elaborated by
stating that objectives are developmental, representing the roads to travel rather than terminal
points. Teachers, in her opinion, would use the objectives as a blueprint of sorts, then, as a guide
to what they are building with their students. And, again, this building would have a window
through which one could see today's use of objectives.
Step 3: Selection of Content
Taba stated that in teacher selection of the content, students need to be involved; they must be
able to make the content their own. In other words, the learners need to be able to connect to the
curriculum. If they are unable to do so, the content is meaningless in their world. The students
must employ their own experiences and background knowledge to build upon when learning new
material. This connects well with the philosophy of most educators today; finding ways to
connect the content to the lives of students is essential in modern classrooms. Taba appears to be
forward-thinking when making these statements in regard to content selection, because teachers
work toward this goal when selecting content today as well.
Step Four: Organization of Content
In this step, and the previous step, Taba states that teachers should not work alone. That teachers
need an outside perspective when selecting and organizing content is her caution. And, in
determining how to organize content, she criticizes what curriculum books at the time suggested.
She states that using interests, experiences, life problems or content topics are ineffective.
Instead, she encourages organizing content based on focus, and writes, that focusing the unit on
core notions means student are the recipients of a more enriching scope of content development.
The term “depth not breadth” could be applied to her ideas on content development; she writes
that trying to cover all elements of a content topic results in a reduction in learning.
Additionally, Taba's thoughts on organizing the content involve making certain that teachers
understand that not all students learn the same way, and that it is our responsibility to provide a
variety of instructional methods to our students. The ideal approach, in her opinion, would be to
have a balance of experiences and activities when organizing content. Some of the organization
of content should consider the social aspects of the classroom as well.
Learning activities should include reading, analyzing, researching, observing, writing,
experimenting, manipulating, and finally (not surprising for a curriculum architect), constructing.
Further, Taba feels as if students also need time to absorb new material, and that teachers should
account for time for students to reflect on new learning. In the windows that are built, we often
see ourselves. Taba creates this window not for others to look in, but for students to look within
themselves, and to reflect on their learning. This is an important aspect of instruction today as
well.
Step Five: Selection of Learning Experiences
Taba states that selection has always been a problem in curriculum development, and that there is
never enough class time for all of the things students must learn and therein lies the dilemma.
What to choose? Taba feels that educators “seem to be confused about the criteria” and that there
has been an explosion of new knowledge that should be incorporated into curricula; equally
troublesome is the fact that during the lesson, teachers must incorporate the improved
technology.
Taba also stresses that curriculum consists of two different things: content and learning
experiences or in other words, how students retain new content. She stated that if curriculum is a
plan for learning, and if objectives determine what learning is important, then it follows that that
adequate curriculum planning should involve selecting and organizing both content and learning
experiences.
Step Six: Organization of Learning Experiences
Once learning experiences are selected, they must be organized before instruction can occur.
Taba's statement regarding this organization process is interesting; she again feels as if there is a
dualism that exists in this part of the process. One must organize the content and the learning
experiences, and she writes that a typical curriculum lists the subject, topics, and the sequence
teachers should use for these topics. She takes issue with the fact that usually only an
unorganized list of learning activities at most is offered from which teachers choose when lesson
planning.
Taba's forward thinking stated that students' needs are important when we organize what they
will learn. She provides a window to what is today termed differentiated instruction. A balanced
variety of learning techniques makes flexibility possible when working with heterogeneous
groups, and teaching to the most able students leaves others behind, while teaching to the “less
able” provides no challenge for the more able students. Taba's proposal is that teachers “design
methods of learning according to differences in needs, level of comprehension, or ability”. This
approach is used today in classrooms nationwide; teachers strive to meet students where they are,
and to help them grow academically.
Step Seven: Determining of what to evaluate and of the ways and means of doing it
In the final step of curriculum development, Taba finally mentions the role of parents in
education. She begins by stating that teachers use evaluations to assess progress toward the
objectives while students should “make judgments” about what they have learned. Then, parents
should evaluate their children and whether or not they feel their students have learned the
material. Evaluations, to Taba, were not just pencil-and-paper-write-in-a-blue-book types of
tests; she takes a broader approach in her definition of evaluation. She feels that clarifying the
objectives to describe student behaviors, developing a variety of ways to evaluate students,
summarizing the evaluations or evidence, and using the information gained from these
assessments are all in the evaluation process. These steps, she believed, were essential to
curriculum developing. Evaluation, in fact, was the blueprint. Without analyzing where students
start, and what they achieve throughout a certain period of time, and then adjusting their
instruction based on what is learned is teaching blindly in her mind.
Taba also wrote that there are three types of tests: standardized tests, non-standardized tests, and
informal devices. And, that overuse of one of these three will result in poor student data. Were
Taba to look through the window of today's talk on assessments, she would see many
similarities. Today, teachers are expected to utilize a variety of assessments – both formal and
informal. They are to “assess for learning” if they are keeping up with that trend. They are to
“use student data to inform instruction” and they are to focus on a new educational acronym (as
if another is needed) FIP (Formative Instructional Practices). This model is summarized in the
figure below;
Teacher Input

Evaluation

Diagnosis of
needs Organization
of learning
activities

Formulation of
objectives
Selection of
Teacher Input learning
activities

Selection of
content

Organization
of content

Teacher Input
TABA CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT MODEL
Wheeler model
A continuum of Curriculum Development Models The Wheeler model (1967) The Wheeler
model of curriculum development (1967), or cyclic model, asserts that curriculum should be a
continuous cycle which is responsive to changes in the education sector and makes appropriate
adjustments to account for these changes. It focuses on situational analysis: the context in which
the curriculum decisions are taken is considered important, as this is believed to help make the
most effective decisions. This model is comprised of five interconnected stages:
i. Aims, goals and objectives
ii. Selection of learning experiences
iii. Selection of content
iv. Organisation and integration of learning experiences
v. content
Evaluation Once the cycle has been followed once, it begins again at step one and continues
onward to continuously improve the curriculum in the face of any changes that may have been
imposed or come about naturally. It is different from other models in that ‘selection of learning
experiences’ comes before ‘selection of content’: it specifically gears the content in the
curriculum to learners, where most models follow the opposite structure. Wheeler viewed
evaluation as particularly important, stating that ‘[e]valuation enables us to compare the actual
outcomes with the expected outcomes […] [without it] it is impossible to know whether
objectives have been realized, and if they have, to what extent’ (Wheeler, 1976, cited in Carl,
2009). While Wheeler’s approach, like other cyclical models, has been popular in teaching
practice for its flexibility and relevance to learners in particular situations, it is not always
practical to use because of time constraints. Undertaking a detailed situational analysis that
Wheeler advocates is a time-consuming process that can be difficult to put into practice in the
hectic conditions in modern educational practice.

Outline of Wheeler’s phases of the curriculum process Outline of Wheeler’s phases of the
curriculum process

Wheeler (1967) described the curriculum as a process which consists of five phases which are
interested. The phase one is that of the selection of aims goals and objectives. Here, Wheeler
categorized goals into ultimate, mediate and proximate goals. He also recognized general and
specific objectives. The phase two is that of the selection of learning experiences. The author
locates learning experiences in the attainment of aims, goals and objectives. He cited play and
field trips as examples of learning experiences. He categorized learning experiences into three
categories: physical, mental and emotional experiences. The phase three is that of the selection of
the content. That selection involves the selection of the subject matter which must be the reflect
of the content. The content, explicit or implicit is established with respect to the subject matter.
The phase four is that of the organization and integration of learning experiences and content.
This phase is done depending on the design of the curriculum chosen. That is either Whether it
subject curriculum and broad field, activity or core curriculum. The last phase is the phase five
entitled evaluation. This phase is that of the evaluation of the effectiveness of phases 2, 3 and 4
in attaining what is set out in phase 1. In this phase, answer

SIGNIFICANCE OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPEMNT MODELS

a) It is a guide

Curriculum development models are very important in guiding teachers, administrators and

educational planners to verify whether the institution is implementing the needs of the clientele

they are serving.

b) Skills in setting goals and objectives

Every model has its own goals and objectives based from the needs of individuals, community

and the society as a whole. The implementation process lies on the teachers as disseminators of

learning and education.

c) Provides curriculum implementation techniques

No matter how simple or complicated model is the process of implementation lies the life of any

curricular model. One must take into consideration that whatever model wants to adapt use, some

maybe good for one, but some do not follow suit. In this case, educators must not confine only to

just one model but be receptive to other types of models that one thinks will suit to the type of

curriculum offerings.

d) Improvement of human beings and society

Home Economics is a curriculum, which contribute to the improvement of human beings and

society. Its aim and goals are oriented in this direction; improvement of life. In this regard, the

curriculum must always evaluate its goals and objectives. Realign if necessary these goals and

objectives to the needs of the students, community and society to fit in with the new technology

that are taking place in the world. The curriculum must be dynamic and adaptable to change,

versatile and practical to be readily implemented.

e) Change adoption skills

At this point, teachers as implementers of change must be ready to accept changes, willing to

learn and adapt changes, must be knowledgeable to current issues and the needs of the students,

community and society as a whole.

f) Preservation or the transformation of society

As one Educator says “Education is one institution that plays a peculiar role in the preservation

or the transformation of society”. This role all the more very crucial considering mass education

today. Given therefore, this role in education, teachers must take on the general task in

promoting social transformation, value education and economic upliftment of the people.

g) Teachers Participation in Curriculum Development Process

The present task calls for teachers to be encouraged to participate seriously in the development

of curriculum that would contribute to the ultimate improvement of the people it serve. And this

is achieve only through organize efforts of each of us in the educational profession.

WHEELER MODEL

A continuum of Curriculum Development Models The Wheeler model (1967) The Wheeler

model of curriculum development (1967), or cyclic model, asserts that curriculum should be a
continuous cycle which is responsive to changes in the education sector and makes appropriate

adjustments to account for these changes. It focuses on situational analysis: the context in which

the curriculum decisions are taken is considered important, as this is believed to help make the

most effective decisions. This model is comprised of five interconnected stages:

1. Aims, goals and objectives

2. Selection of learning experiences

3. Selection of content

4. Organisation and integration of learning experiences

5. Evaluation .

Evaluation Once the cycle has been followed once, it begins again at step one and continues
onward to continuously improve the curriculum in the face of any changes that may have been
imposed or come about naturally. It is different from other models in that ‘selection of learning
experiences’ comes before ‘selection of content’: it specifically gears the content in the
curriculum to learners, where most models follow the opposite structure. Wheeler viewed
evaluation as particularly important, stating that ‘[e]valuation enables us to compare the actual
outcomes with the expected outcomes [without it] it is impossible to know whether objectives
have been realized, and if they have, to what extent’ (Wheeler, 1976, cited in Carl, 2009). While
Wheeler’s approach, like other cyclical models, has been popular in teaching practice for its
flexibility and relevance to learners in particular situations, it is not always practical to use
because of time constraints. Undertaking a detailed situational analysis that Wheeler advocates is
a time-consuming process that can be difficult to put into practice in the hectic conditions in
modern educational practice.

Outline of Wheeler’s phases of the curriculum process

Wheeler (1967) described the curriculum as a process which consists of five phases which are
interested. The phase one is that of the selection goals and objectives of aims. Here, Wheeler
categorized goals into ultimate, mediate and proximate goals. He also recognized general and
specific objectives. The phase two is that of the selection of learning experiences. The author
locates learning experiences in the attainment of aims, goals and objectives. He cited play and
field trips as examples of learning experiences. He categorized learning experiences into three
categories: physical, mental and emotional experiences. The phase three is that of the selection
of the content. That selection involves the selection of the subject matter which must be the
reflect of the content. The content, explicit or implicit is established with respect to the subject
matter. The phase four is that of the organization and integration of learning experiences and
content. This phase is done depending on the design of the curriculum chosen. That is either
whether it subject curriculum and broad field, activity or core curriculum. The last phase is the
phase five entitled evaluation. This phase is that of the evaluation of the effectiveness of phases
2, 3 and 4 in attaining what is set out in phase 1. In this phase, answers should be sought to
question such as: - Has the student acquired the knowledge, skill and abilities intended? – Were
the experiences chosen suitable for attaining the objectives or would other

DIFFERENCIATE BETWEEN RALPH TYLER’S LINEAR OR OBJECTIVE MODEL AND

WHEELER’S CYCLIC MODEL, TABA MODEL AND THE SITUATIONAL MODEL.
INTRODUCTION
Models are several concepts that can guide the development and review of all types of curricula
at both the state and national levels.
RALPH TYLER’S LINEAR OR OBJECTIVE MODEL
Objective model; proposed by Ralph Tyler in 1949, is also referred to as the classical, rational or
academic model which contains content that is based on specific objectives (Urebvu, 1990). It
follows a logical and sequential as well as shows a relation among curriculum components. The
objectives specify the expected learning outcomes in terms of specific measurable behaviors.
The model is comprised of four main steps which include, agreeing on broad aims which are
analyzed into objectives, secondly, constructing a curriculum to achieve these objectives,
followed by the refining of the curriculum in practice through testing its capacity in achieving its
objectives, and lastly, communicating the curriculum to implementers through the conceptual
framework of the objectives (Urebvu, 1990).
It is important to note that the objective model was an eye opener to the scholars such as Tyler
and therefore contributes massively in Tyler’s model of curriculum design and it is for this
reason that Tyler’s model of curriculum process is sometimes called the means-objective model.
The model is linear in nature, starting from objectives and ending with evaluation. In this model,
evaluation is terminal in the sense that, objectives form the basis for the selection and
organization of learning experiences. Objectives also form the basis for assessing the curriculum
and are derived from the learner’s contemporary life and subject specialist (Tyler, 1949).
Tyler’s model for curriculum designing is based on the following four questions: What
educational purposes should the school seek to attain? What educational experiences can be
provided that is likely to attain these purposes? How can these educational experiences be
effectively organized? How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained?
To Tyler, evaluation is a process by which one matches the initial expectation with the outcomes.
It is done at each stage of the curriculum design and content, materials and methodology are
derived from the objectives.
WHEELER’S CYCLIC MODEL
Wheeler’s model is a cyclical model. The key elements are analyzing the initial situation,
identifying aims and objectives, selecting and organizing content, selecting and organizing
learning activities, and selecting an evaluation or assessment process. This model which Wheeler
called the circular model has five procedures which are: Selecting an objective, choosing
learning experience, choosing content, organizing and integrating learning experience and
content, and evaluating.
Wheeler (1967) contends that, aims should be discussed as behaviors referring to the end product
of learning which yields the ultimate goals and these ultimate goals can as well be thought of as
outcomes, additionally wheeler says that aims are formulated from the general to the specific in
curriculum planning. This results in the formulation of objectives at both an enabling and a
terminal level. Content is distinguished from the learning experiences which determine that
content.
TABA MODEL AND THE SITUATIONAL MODEL.
Does the Situational Model bring us any closer to a workable and useful model to guide our
curriculum work? Certainly it asks us to consider the context of curriculum and this is important.
If we go back to our original view of curriculum as the translation of educational ideas into
practice then we simply cannot discount the importance of context and the external and internal
factors that impinge on the contexts in which we work. But does the Situational Model lock us
into another series of five steps which cannot deal with all the complexity that Holt portrays?
I would argue that we should abandon the search for models. What we could do is to use the
work of Skilbeck and others to define the essential Elements of curriculum. These would be
Situational analysis
Statements of intent (aims, objectives, outcomes)
Content
Implementation and organisational strategies
Assessment
Monitoring and evaluation.

THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ALL

Firstly the cyclical model has a feedback mechanism as compared to the objective model, in the
sense that it provides students with ways to measure their progress or accuracy.
Whenever there is new information which needs to be incorporated in the curriculum, the cyclic
model readily incorporates it in the curriculum which is never the case in the objective model
which seems to be impossible to receive or incorporate more information. This makes the
spherical model to be more flexible as compared to the objective model which is more on a rigid
side.
The other difference is that cyclical models present the curriculum design process as a continuing
activity, which is constantly in a state of change as new information, and practices become
available, while in the objective model it is hard to determine continuity is possible or not.
In addition Cyclical models emphasize the importance of Situational Analysis, so that the
subsequent curriculum will accurately reflect the needs of the learners for whom it is intended
and at the right time and the right place, which is a difficult thing to do in the objective model
because of the its rigidity to adjust and suite the intended learners.

CONCLUSION
Probably the most well-known curriculum model is Ralph Tyler’s Objectives or Rational
Planning Model. This is clearly a model for the curriculum or a prescriptive model. It sets out
what curriculum workers should do. Tyler’s work Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction
was first published in 1949. Rumour has it that Tyler left his lectures notes lying around and his
students thought they were so good that they had them published. Perhaps this is something to
which we should all aspire!
For Tyler the curriculum process involved four fundamental questions. It was a rational and
orderly process of answering the following questions.
• What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?
• What educational experiences are likely to attain the purposes?
• How can these educational experiences be organised effectively?
• How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained?
The ‘purposes’ in the first of these questions became known as objectives and hence the model
became known as the Objectives Model. Objectives were to be written in terms of changed
learner behaviour which could be readily measured. Tyler’s work advocated a broad view of
objectives but many of those that followed him supported a more narrow view. In the United
States, in particular, there was strong support for the use of ‘behavioural objectives’ where
behaviours had to be clearly specified in objectives which used verbs such as to write, to recite
and to identify. Verbs such as to know, to understand and to appreciate were not to be used.
The Objectives Model attracted much criticism. It was claimed that writing objectives was
difficult and time consuming, particularly in the form demanded by writers like Mager (1962)
who argued that each objective had to contain a statement of the ‘behaviour’ to be attained, the’
conditions’ under which it would be demonstrated and the ‘standards’ by which it would be
judged.

REFERENCES
Norton, J.K., & Norton, M.A. (1976). Foundations of Curriculum Building. Boston: Ginn.
Tyler, R.W (1949). Basic Principles of curriculum and Instruction. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press.
Urevbu, A. (1994). Curriculum Studies. Harlow: Longman House.
Wheeler, D.K (1967). Curriculum Process. London: University of London Press.
Http//www. wikipedia.org/wiki/Creative-curriculum studies and organization, accessed: 23-10-
2009