Definitions

Life span – the period from birth to the natural death of an

organism
Reproduction – a biological process in which an organism gives
rise to young ones similar to itself
Asexual reproduction – offspring is produced by a single parent
with or without the involvement of gamete formation
Sexual reproduction-formation of male and female gametes
either by the same individual or by different individuals of the
opposite sex which fuses to form the zygote which then
develops into a new organism
Clone – morphologically & genetically similar individuals
-identical offspring formed by asexual reproduction
Cell division - the parent cell divides into 2 to give rise to new
individuals
Binary fission – a cell divides into 2 halves & each rapidly grows
into an adult
Budding – the division of the cell is unequal & small buds are
produced that remain attached initially to the parent cell which
eventually gets separated and mature into new organisms
Fragmentation – in some organisms if the body breaks into
distinct pieces each fragment grows into an adult capable of
producing offspring
Encystation- the phenomenon in which, under unfavorable
conditions amoeba withdraws its pseudopodia & secretes a 3
layered hard covering or cyst around itself
Sporulation – the phenomenon in which under favorable
conditions
the encysted amoeba divides by multiple fission & produces
many minute amoebae or pesudopodiospores,
the cyst wall bursts out and spores are liberated into the
surrounding medium to grow up into many amoebae
Vegetative propagation – the process of reproducing plants
from any portion of the vegetative organs of the plant without
involving the seeds or spores
Vegetative propagules – units of vegetative propagation
structures of a plant which are capable
of giving rise to new offspring
Zoospore – microscopic motile asexual reproductive structure
Juvenile/vegetative phase – stage of growth and maturity in
life of all organisms before they can reproduce sexually
Reproductive phase – the period during which an organism is
sexually mature & can produce gametes that can give rise to
new organisms
Senescent phase – the period from the end of reproductive
phase till death
Oestrus /menstrual cycle – The cyclical changes in the activities
of ovaries accessory ducts as well as hormones during the
reproductive phase in the females of placental mammals
Seasonal breeders – mammals especially those living in natural
wild conditions which exhibit cyclical changes during
reproduction only during favourable seasons in their
reproductive phase
Continuous breeders – mammals which are reproductively
active throughout their reproductive phase
Pre fertilization – all the events of sexual reproduction prior to
the fusion of gametes
Syngamy/fertilization – the process of fusion of male & female
gametes which results in the formation of a diploid zygote
Post fertilization events- events in sexual reproduction after
the formation of gametes
Parthenogenesis – the phenomenon in which female gamete
undergoes development to form new organisms without
fertilization
External fertilization – type of gametic fusion which occurs in
the external medium (water) i.e. outside the body of the
organism
Internal fertilization –syngamy occurs inside the body of the
organism
Gametogenesis – process of formation of 2 types of gametes
male & female
Gametes – haploid cells which are product of meiotic division
Homogametes/isogametes – two gametes are similar in
appearance that it is not possible to categorise them into male
& female gametes
Heterogametes – gametes produced are of 2 morphologically
distinct types
Unisexual/heterothallic/dioecious plant – male & female
reproductive structures are present on different plants
Bisexual/homothallic/monoecious plant - both male & female
reproductive structures present in the same plant
Staminate – unisexual male flower bearing stamens
Pistillate – unisexual female flower bearing pistils
Hermaphrodites – bisexual animals that possess both male &
female reproductive organs
Meiosis/reduction division – diploid body produces 4 haploid
gametes
Meiocytes –specialised gamete mother cell in diploid organisms
which undergo meiosis
Pollination – transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the
stigma of the same or diff flowers
Zygote –the diploid cell which is formed by fusion of male and
female gametes
Vital link that ensures continuity of species b/w
organisms of one organism & next
Single cell
Embryo – progenitor of next generation
Embryogenesis – the process of development of embryo from
the zygote
Cell division – increase in number of cells in the developing
embryo
Cell differentiation – group of cells undergo certain
modifications to form specialized tissues and organs to form an
organism
Oviparous animals –development of zygote takes place outside
the body of the female parent
 animals which lay fertilized/unfertilized
eggs
Viviparous animals – development of zygote into a young one
takes place inside the body of the female organism
Examples
Asexual reproduction – Single celled organisms
Plants & animals with simple body organisation
Cell division - Protists Monerans
Binary fission – Single celled organisms
amoeba paramecium
Budding –Yeast
Fragmentation – hydra
Fungi algae- special asexual reproductive structure
Vegetative propagules – runner sucker tuber rhizome offset
bulb
Buds/eyes – potato tuber
Rhizomes – banana ginger
Bryophyllum – notches at margins of leaf
Bamboo – flowers once in lifetime (50 – 100 yrs)
Strobilanthus kunthiana (neela kurinji) flowers once in 12 yrs
sep oct 2006
Kerala Karnataka TN
Primates – monkeys apes humans - menstrual cycle
Non primates cows sheep rats dogs tiger deers
Homogametes - cladophora
Heterogametes - fucus, homosapiens
Monoecious plants – cucurbits coconuts chara
Dioecious plants – papaya date palm marchantia
Bisexual flower – sweet potato
Unisexual species – cockroach
Bisexual species – earthworm sponge tapeworm leech
Haploid- Monera fungi algae bryophytes
Diploid- Pteridophytes gymnosperms angiosperms human
beings
both gametes – motile – few fungi & algae
both gametes – non motile - Seed plants
Bisexual self-fertilizing plant – peas
Parthenogenesis –Rotifers honeybees lizards turkey
External fertilization – Aquatic organisms - Algae fishes
amphibians
Internal fertilization –Terrestrial organisms- fungi reptiles birds
mammals
Bryophytes pteridophytes gymnosperms
angiosperms
Fungi algae – zygote – thick wall – resistant to dessication &
damage
Period of rest – germination
Oviparous animals –reptiles birds
Viviparous animals – humans kangaroo
lifespans of organisms
elephant 60-90 yrs
rose 5 – 7 yrs
dog 20-30 yrs’
butterfly 1-2 weeks
crow 15 yrs
banana tree 25yrs
cow 20-25yrs
parrot 140yrs
crocodile 60 yrs
horse 60yrs
fruit fly 30days
rie plant 3-4months
banyan tree 200yrs
asexual reproductive structures
chlamydomonas –zoospores
penicillium-conidia
hydra-buds
sponge-gemmules
vegetative propagules in angiosperms
potato –eyes
ginger – rhizome
agave – bulbil
bryophyllum- leaf buds
water hyacinth – offset
Progeny formed from asexual Progeny formed from sexual
reproduction reproduction
Since there is no fusion of There is fusion of gametes
gametes progeny are therefore progeny are not
morphologically & genetically identical to parents
identical to single parent
Variations absent Variations present
Progeny is less adaptable to
changes in environment
Asexual reproduction
Does not involve fusion of
male & female gametes
Single parent is involved
Offspring are identical to the
parent & are called clones
Common in single celled
organisms or organisms with
simple structure
Only mitosis
Rate of reproduction is faster
Does not play imp role in
evolution process
Zoospore
Asexual reproductive
structure
Motile asexual spore that uses
flagella for movement
Haploid/diploid
Progeny is more
adaptable to changes in
environment
Sexual reproduction
It involves fusion of gametes
2 parents of opposite sex are
involved
Offspring are not identical to
their parents and show
variations from each other &
their parents
Common in high level
organisms with complex
structure
Both meiosis & mitosis
Rate of reproduction is
slower
Play imp role in evolution
process
Zygote
Sexual reproductive structure
Non motile cell
Diploid
Germinates to directly give Develops into an embryo that
rise to new plants further differentiates to form
a new individual

Gametogenesis
Process of formation of
haploid gametes
Meiosis
Results into fertilization
Pre fertilization event
Embryogenesis
Process of development of
embryo from the zygote
Mitosis
Results into birth
Post fertilization event

Factors affecting mode of reproduction

Habitat of organism
Internal physiology
Factors affecting development of zygote
Lifecycle of organism
Environment it is exposed to
Concepts
Life span ≠ size of organisms
Peepal tree > mango tree
Single celled organisms – immortal
Reproduction – Continuity of a species
Life cycle - Birth growth death
Asexual reproduction – offspring identical to each other
Exact copies of parent
Animals – asexual reproduction
Plants – vegetative reproduction
Water hyacinth - Scourge of water bodies /terror of Bengal
Most invasive weeds
Standing water
drains oxygen from water
Death of fishes
Beautiful flowers & shape of leaves
Nodes – develop into new plant
Buds – adventitious roots
Sexual reproduction –Complex slow
Offspring – not identical to parents/ among themselves
Senescence/ old age – end of reproductive phase
-slowing of metabolism
Hormones – transition b/w 3 phases
Factors which regulate reproductive processes & behavioural
expressions of organisms
Interaction b/w hormones
Environmental factors
Antherozoid/sperm – male gamete
Egg/ovum – female gamete
Parent plant body – haploid/diploid
Haploid parent MITOSIS gametes’
Diploid parent MEIOSIS gametes
Seed plants – both gametes – non motile
male gamete is carried to the female gamete by pollen tube
Algae bryophytes pteridophytes: water – medium for gamete
transfer
No of male gametes produced > no of female gametes
produced
1000 times
To compensate the loss of male gametes during transport
Seed plants
Pollen grains – carriers of male gametes
Ovule – egg
Anther – site of production of pollen grains
Bisexual self-fertilizing plant – peas
Transfer of pollen grains – easy – anther & stigma located close
to each other
External fertilization – Large no of gametes are released into
the surrounding
Great synchrony b/w sexes
Large no of gametes are released into the surrounding medium
in order to enhance the chances if syngamy
Large no of offspring produced
Major disadvantage: offsprings produced during external
fertilization are extremely vulnerable to predators threatening
their survival upto adulthood
Less chances of fusion of male & female gametes
Internal fertilization – No of ova produced are less but large no
of male gametes are reelased & they travel towards the ovum
Fungi algae – zygote – thick wall – resistant to dessication &
damage
Period of rest – germination
Haplontic life cycle: zygote MEIOSIS spores individuals
fertilized eggs – calcareous shell
laid in safe place in environment
incubation – hatch out
Chances of survival: viviparous animals > oviparous animals
Proper embryonic care & protection
Flowering plants – formation of zygote – inside ovule
Post fertilization changes in flower
Sepals petals stamens wither and fall off
Pistil remains attached to plant
Zygote  embryo
Ovule seed
Ovary fruit – thick wall – pericarp – protective function
Sexuality in plants(angiosperms) – varied – production of
diverse types of flowers
Plants monoecious dioceious
Flowers bisexual unisexual
Transfer of male gametes
Bisexual organisms – easy
Unisexual organisms – copulation / simultaneous release
Angiosperms – pollination – transfer of pollen grains to stigma
Why do we say that there is no death in single celled
organisms?
A single celled organism keeps on dividing into 2 by asexual
reproduction. So at the end of their life cycle they simply divide
& not die naturally. They only die because of the external
factors like high temp or pH. So until and unless these forces
comes into play the cell keeps dividing & we can say that there
is no natural death in single celled organism
Why is reproduction essential for organisms?
Continuation of species
Each & every organism – definite lifespan
Absence of reproduction – species will not exist for long time &
get extinct
Which reproduction is better?
Sexual mode – fusion of male & female gametes
Results in genetic variations in offspring
Survival advantages under stressful conditions
Contributes to evolution
Why is offspring formed by asexual reproduction referred to as
clone?
In asexual reproduction there is no fusion of gametes as only
single parent is involved
So the young one produced is morphologically and genetically
identical to each other as well as they are exact copies of the
parent.
Offspring formed due to sexual reproduction has better
chances of survival. Why? is it always true?
Sexual reproduction involves fusion of male & female gametes
antherozoid or sperm and egg or ovum
In the formation of zygote there are exchange of genes & traits
b/w gametes
In the process of crossing over & segregation of chromosomes
13there are much more chances of elimination of unfavourable
traits from offspring
As a result offspring will not be identical to parent & will have
better chances of survival
No the statement may not be always true because if the
mother is suffering from any major disease like aids then
offspring will not survive

Vegetative reproduction – type of asexual reproduction

Single parent is involved
No fusion of male & female gametes
Offspring are identical
Vegetative propagation – the process of reproducing plants
from any portion of the vegetative organs of the plant without
involving the seeds or spores
Involves only single parent & considered as asexual
reproduction
Eg eyes of potato tuber
Adventitious buds on the leaves of bryophyllum
Reproductive phase – the period during which an organism is
sexually mature & can produce gametes that can give rise to
new organisms
Senescent phase – the period from the end of reproductive
phase till death
Plants – yellowing of leaves withering of leaves
Animals – slowdown of metabolism breakdown of proteins
immobilization of nutrients
Higher organisms have resorted to sexual reproduction in spite
of its complexity
Allows genetic variation through the combination of different
genetics in gametes & improves genetic makeup in offspring
These factors give survival advantages to species and
contribute to evolution
Meiosis & gametogenesis always linked
Haploid gametes can be produced only through meiosis
Gametogenesis is the process of formation of gametes
The gametes produced by gametogenesis are always haploid
while the body of an organism is diploid
Therefore it is necessary that meiosis has to occur for the
formation of haploid gametes which ensures half no of
chromosomes in the developing gametes
Ovary 2n
Anther 2n
Zygote 2n
Male /female gamete n
Pollen n
Egg n
Zoospore Zygote
Asexual reproductive Sexual reproductive structure
structure
Motile asexual spore that uses Non motile cell
flagella for movement
Haploid/diploid Diploid
Germinates to directly give Develops into an embryo that
rise to new plants further differentiates to form
a new individual

Gametogenesis Embryogenesis
Process of formation of Process of development of
haploid gametes embryo from the zygote
Meiosis Mitosis
Results into fertilization Results into birth
Bisexual flowers
Rose – rose alba
Water lily – nymphaea odorata
Sunflower – helianthus annus
China rose – rosa sinensis
Mustard – brassica nigra