Aggression and Violent Behavior 13 (2008) 185–194

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Aggression and Violent Behavior

A critical review of theoretical frameworks for dating violence:

Comparing the dating and marital fields
Ryan C. Shorey a, Tara L. Cornelius a,⁎, Kathryn M. Bell b
a
Grand Valley State University, United States
b
The Warren Alpert Medical School of Brown University, United States

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Recent studies have focused on the widespread problem of violence among adolescent and
Received 11 March 2008 college aged dating couples. Much of this research has focused on identifying risk factors and
Accepted 12 March 2008 correlates of dating violence, along with implementing intervention and prevention programs
Available online 20 March 2008
for the amelioration of this aberrant behavior. However, limited discussion exists within the
literature on theoretical frameworks to explain dating violence or the relationship between
Keywords: dating and marital violence. The present paper sought to critically review existing theories that
Dating
have been postulated for intimate partner aggression in general and specifically for dating
Partner abuse
violence. The similarities and differences between dating violence and marital violence are also
Theories
Physical violence examined, with a discussion on how a theoretical framework developed to examine marital
aggression can be effectively applied to violent dating relationships. Suggestions for future
research on theoretical conceptualizations of dating violence and the co-examination of dating
and marital violence are discussed.
© 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Definitional considerations and prevalence of dating violence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186

2. Theoretical models of dating violence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
3. Social learning theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
4. Feminist theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
5. Attachment theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
6. Coercion hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
7. Behavioral theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
8. Similarities of dating violence to marital violence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192

Abuse that occurs in the context of intimate partner relationships has long been an area of inquiry for researchers, particularly
violence that occurs in the context of marital relationships (Frye & Karney, 2006). Abuse against children has also been studied
extensively, with many resources directed towards the amelioration and prevention of childhood abuse (Klevens & Whitaker,
2007; Rheingold, Campbell, Self-Brown, de Arellano, Resnick, & Kilpatrick, 2007). While these areas of research are certainly

⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 616 331 8702.

E-mail address: cornelta@gvsu.edu (T.L. Cornelius).

1359-1789/$ – see front matter © 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.avb.2008.03.003
186 R.C. Shorey et al. / Aggression and Violent Behavior 13 (2008) 185–194

necessary and important, research examining violence that occurs in the context of dating relationships has, historically, been
relatively sparse. It was not until Makepeace's (1981) seminal investigation of dating violence, which found that a surprising 1 in 5
dating relationships was characterized by violence, that more systematic research into this phenomenon proliferated. Since that
time, researchers have examined many facets of dating violence in young couples, including correlates, possible risk factors, and
the effectiveness of prevention and intervention programs to address violence in dating relationships (Brown, Puster, Vazquez,
Hunter, & Lescano, 2007; Cornelius & Resseguie, 2007; Foshee, 1996; Harper, Austin, Cercone, & Arias, 2005; Lane & Gwartney-
Gibbs, 1985; Marshall & Rose, 1988; Munoz-Rivas, Grana, O'Leary, & Gonzalez, 2007; O'Keefe, Brockopp, & Chew, 1986; Prospero,
2006). Research related to dating violence has suggested that individuals reporting dating violence evidence reduced self-worth,
increased self-blame, cognitive impairment, lower self-esteem, difficulties performing work duties, depression, anger, substance
abuse, chronic gastrointestinal and cardiovascular conditions, and injury (Anderson & Danis, 2007; Campbell, 2002; Cornelius &
Resseguie, 2007; Jackson, Cram, & Seymour, 2000; Jezl, Molidor, & Wright, 1996; Makepeace, 1986; Nightingale & Morrissette,
1993; Rhatigan & Street, 2005; Smith & Donnelly, 2001; Straight, Harper, & Arias, 2003; Truman-Schram, Cann, Calhoun, &
Vanwallendael, 2000). Furthermore, individuals with a history of dating violence often evince signs of decreased abilities to
effectively solve problems and display inferior communication skills than individuals not exposed to such violence (Carlson, 1987;
Frieze, 2000; O'Leary et al., 1989; Robertson & Murachver, 2006; Smith & Donnelly, 2001), including less facilitative communication
(Robertson & Murachver, 2006), and may develop the belief that violence is a successful and normal way to influence ones partner
and gain control in the relationship setting (Carlson, 1987; Cornelius & Resseguie, 2007; Frieze, 2000; Harper et al., 2005; Prospero,
2006; Munoz-Rivas et al., 2007). In fact, there is evidence to suggest that inferior communication skills in childhood are predictive
of perpetration of violence against an intimate partner later in life (Andrews, Foster, Capaldi, & Hops, 2000), and that negative
communications between partners may increase violence in the relationship (Follette & Alexander, 1992). Additionally, the most
concerning and potentially tragic result of these maladaptive relationships is homicide (Block & Christakos, 1995; Field & Caetano,
2005; Morton, Runyan, Moracco, & Butts, 1998; Pflieger & Vazsonyi, 2006; Shackelford & Mouzos, 2005), with female partners the
victims of murder more often than male partners (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2002; Garcia, Soria, & Hurwitz, 2007). Thus, it is clear
that dating violence is a serious and potentially devastating interpersonal process necessitating both clinical and empirical
resources, including research that focuses on developing more effective intervention and prevention programs directed at
ameliorating future occurrences of violence in these relationships.
While preliminary research in the area of dating violence is promising and certainly a step in the right direction, there has been
a dearth of research on possible explanatory theoretical conceptualizations to examine the mechanisms through which violence of
this type manifests in dating relationships. In addition, although research has progressed in both the areas of dating and marital
violence, there has been little examination of the theoretical and practical similarities and differences between these two types of
interpersonal aggression. The purpose of the present paper is therefore threefold. First, we will provide a critical review of the
prevailing theoretical frameworks that have been proposed to explain interpersonal aggression and identify how these might be
uniquely useful for examining dating violence. Second, we will review the extant literature examining the empirical and
theoretical links between dating violence and marital aggression. Lastly, after reviewing these two literatures, we will propose how
a theoretical framework developed to examine the trajectory of marital relationships can be usefully applied to dating violence.
However, before these reviews and analyses are provided, we will provide a brief review of definitional considerations, the
prevalence, and gender considerations of dating violence. The interested reader is referred to Jackson (1999) for a more
comprehensive discussion of these facets of dating violence.

1. Definitional considerations and prevalence of dating violence

Prior to discussing theories of dating violence, it is useful to first explore definitional aspects of the construct of dating
aggression. A significant difficulty in conducting, replicating, and understanding research related to dating violence has been the
lack of consensus on a definition of dating violence (Ismail, Berman, & Ward-Griffin, 2007). There exists a great deal of variability in
definitions adopted by researchers, which in part is due to variability in form, function, severity, and manifestation of violence
amongst dating couples. The most obvious form of dating violence involves physical force, either through threat or an actual act of
physical aggression. Sugarman and Hotaling (1989) offered this early operational definition of dating violence: “the use or threat of
physical force or restraint carried out with the intent of causing pain or injury to another” (p. 5). Recently, however, researchers
have expanded this definition to include both sexual abuse and psychological abuse, since these forms of violence often precede or
occur in concert with physical violence (Anderson & Danis, 2007; Brown et al., 2007; Jackson, 1999; Hanley & O'Neill, 1997; Harper
et al., 2005; Murphy & Hoover, 2001; O'Leary, 1999; Riggs & O'Leary, 1996; Shook, Gerrity, Jurich, & Segrist, 2000). Anderson and
Danis (2007) provided this more inclusive definition of dating violence: “the threat or actual use of physical, sexual, or verbal abuse
by one member of an unmarried couple on the other member within the context of a dating relationship” (p. 88). This definition is
reflective of a more widespread agreement among researchers that there appears to be three facets of dating violence: physical,
psychological, and sexual abuse. While definitional variability contributes to some difficulty in determining prevalence of these
three facets of dating violence, the accumulation of research suggests that a significant proportion of adolescents are experiencing
violence in their dating relationships.
Due in part to the lack of definitional agreement in the dating violence literature, prevalence rates of dating violence are widely
variable, depending on the population sampled and the particular criteria used for denoting the presence of dating violence.
Additionally, it is difficult to make comparisons across studies because of differences in methodology, sampling, and data analytic
strategies. Specifically, most studies designed to assess this problem utilize high school and college aged samples, with older and
 R.C. Shorey et al. / Aggression and Violent Behavior 13 (2008) 185–194 187

younger dating relationships receiving minimal attention. Furthermore, most epidemiological studies on dating violence have
relied solely on self-report measures. Limitations of this methodology are well established, and social desirability must be
considered (Bell & Naugle, 2007), particularly given the social and cultural stigma of interpersonal violence. In addition, the
majority of studies assess only one member of the dyad, and some research has demonstrated that extrapolating data from one
individual is not necessarily representative of the other partner's report (Hanley & O'Neill, 1997).
Bearing these limitations in mind, research suggests that physical violence, which often takes the form of intentionally hitting,
punching, kicking, or throwing an object at ones partner (Eaton, Davis, Barrios, Brener, & Noonan, 2007; Halpern, Oslak, Young,
Martin, & Kupper, 2001), occurs in approximately 20–37% of dating relationships (Bell & Naugle, 2007; Sears, Byers, & Price, 2007;
Silverman, Raj, Mucci, & Hathaway, 2001; White & Koss, 1991). Psychological abuse, which may involve insulting, degrading, or
criticizing one's partner, threatening to break up or making a partner feel guilty or inferior, and saying things that upset or hurt
one's partner (Cyr, McDuff, & Wright, 2006), has been linked as a precursor to physical violence in dating relationships (Hamby &
Sugarman, 1999; Harper et al., 2005; Jackson, 1999; Murphy & O'Leary, 1989; O'Leary, 1999; Ronfeldt, Kimerling, & Arias, 1998;
Ryan, 1995). Further, female victims of dating violence often report that psychological abuse is more damaging than physical abuse
and is the source of most distress in the relationship (Follingstad, Rutledge, Berg, Hause, & Polek, 1990; Vitanza, Vogel, & Marshall,
1995). Rates of psychological abuse are, on average, considerably higher than physical violence for both high school and college
samples. For example, Neufeld, McNamara, and Ertl (1999) found that over 90% of their sample of college women experienced
psychological abuse at some point in their lives from an intimate partner, with almost 60% reporting being the victim of
psychological abuse on at least five separate occasions. Other research has produced similar rates among college students
(Banyard, Arnold, & Smith, 2000; DeKeseredy, Schwartz, & Tait, 1993).
Sexual violence within violent dating relationships is characterized by deliberate intimidation or coercion by one partner
against the other to compel participation in sexual intercourse or other sexual acts, or to compel the partner to participate in sexual
activities at a rate that is greater than desired (Cornelius & Resseguie, 2007; Smith & Donnelly, 2001). The prevalence rates of sexual
abuse in dating relationships are generally lower than physical and psychological abuse for both high school and college
populations. Silverman et al. (2001), using data from the Youth Risk Behavior Survey (1997 and 1999), reported that 18% of high
school girls were involved in sexual abuse with a dating partner, and Ozer, Tschann, Pasch, and Flores (2004) found sexual abuse
prevalence among their sample of adolescents to range from 2.7% to 14.8%.
When examining a complex construct such as dating violence, it is critical to differentiate between factors contributing to
perpetration and victimization, and how these factors are unique for men and women. Although there exists a large body of
research examining gender differences with regard to dating aggression, findings have historically been mixed and inconclusive.
With regard to initiation and receipt of violent behavior, there is ample evidence to suggest that rates of violence are similar across
men and women (Riggs, O'Leary, & Breslin, 1990; Follette & Alexander, 1992; Roscoe & Kelsey, 1986; Burke, Stets, & Pirog-Good,
1988). White and Koss (1991) found that 32% of women reported sustaining violence in a dating relationship, while 35% stated that
they had initiated such behavior. Similarly, while 39% of men reported sustaining violence from their partner, 37% reported
inflicting aggression.
However, there is also contradictory evidence suggesting that females inflict violence more often than males (Foshee, 1996;
Hettrich & O'Leary, 2007; Lane & Gwartney-Gibbs, 1985; Makepeace, 1983). Jezl et al. (1996) found that 67.5% of males reported
receiving violent behavior, compared to 50.8% of females. Sharpe and Taylor (1999) found that in addition to males reporting
receipt of physical violence more frequently than females, females were more likely to report inflicting aggression. Similarly,
Magdol et al. (1997) found that 21% of males and 37% of females reported perpetrating violence in an intimate relationship. Yet, it
appears that this only holds true for psychological and physical aggression, as research has consistently shown that males are
more likely than females to commit acts of sexual violence against a partner (Foshee, 1996; Sears et al., 2007; Wolfe, Wekerle,
Reitzel-Jaffe, & Lafebvre, 1998).
In order to clarify these disparate research findings on the prevalence rates of violence in dating relationships, Archer (2000)
conducted a comprehensive meta-analysis on gender differences in dating violence. In order to obtain accurate and complete data,
the meta-analysis included articles published between 1976 and 1997, dissertations, and solicited unpublished studies on dating or
marital violence. Additionally, Archer (2000) examined supplemental sources of data, including police records, accident and
emergency treatment records, crime surveys and homicide records. The results of the meta-analysis suggested that women were
slightly more likely (d = −.05) than men to use at least one act of physical aggression and to utilize such behaviors with greater
frequency. However, consistent with other studies (Arias & Johnson, 1989; Foshee, 1996; Browne, 1987) men were more likely
(d = .15) to inflict injury, and 62% of those who sustained an injury were women.
The above findings are disconcerting given the media's portrayal and feminist views of interpersonal violence, which
characterize men as perpetrators and women as victims (Dobash & Dobash, 1992; Garcia et al., 2007). There are several possible
explanations for these data, including selection bias and social desirability. One issue worth considering is the degree to which men
and women differentially participate in research on interpersonal violence. Indeed, women participate in violence research more
often than men (Gray & Foshee, 1997; Straus, Gelles, & Steinmetz, 1980). Because male perpetration is generally considered to be
less socially acceptable than female perpetration (Arias & Johnson, 1989; Bookwala, Frieze, Smith, & Ryan, 1992), male perpetrators
may purposely not participate in dating violence research. Additionally, males who do participate in such research may fail to
accurately disclose violent perpetration in their relationships or may minimize such incidents. Thus, social desirability may
contribute to the findings that men perpetrate violence less frequently than women. However, one recent study found that men's
reports of partner aggression were less influenced by social desirability than women's, such that women who reported higher
levels of social desirability were less likely to report violence perpetration (Bell & Naugle, 2007).
188 R.C. Shorey et al. / Aggression and Violent Behavior 13 (2008) 185–194

Measurement problems may also contribute to the higher perpetration prevalence rates reported by women. Merely counting
incidents of aggressive behavior without taking into account the interactional nature of aggression may produce inflated rates of
aggression among women. Most self-report measures utilized in the dating violence literature, most notably, the Conflicts Tactic
Scale (Straus, 1979), fail to consider the functions of, or purposes served by, violent behavior. For example, some violent behavior
may occur as a response to acts of aggression perpetrated by another person, and may be regarded as self-defensive behavior.
Makepeace (1986) indicated that women's dating aggression is more likely than men's to represent perceived acts of self-defense
in response to their partner's violence, an assertion that other researchers have corroborated (Babcock, Miller, & Siard, 2003;
Foshee, Bauman, Linder, Rice, & Wilcher, 2007). However, a recent study by Stuart et al. (2006) that assessed motives for female
perpetrated violence found that self-defense was not the most common reason why their sample of women engaged in violent
behavior towards their partner. Rather, they found that difficulties in emotion regulation, such as using violence as a way to express
anger, were one of the primary reasons for violence perpetration. Additionally, dating violence research suggests that couples are
often mutually violent, with both partners perpetrating and sustaining aggression (Henton, Cate, Koval, Lloyd, & Christopher, 1983;
Foshee et al., 1996). This may suggest a dynamic within aggressive relationships that needs to be examined more completely in
terms of behavioral correlates and multiple functions of violence in these couples. Such factors should be taken into consideration
when examining data regarding gender differences with respect to interpersonal violence.

2. Theoretical models of dating violence

As noted previously, although much work has been conducted related to identifying risk markers (See Lewis & Fremouw, 2001
for a review) and developing prevention and intervention programs for dating violence (See Cornelius & Resseguie, 2007 and
Whitaker et al., 2006), a notable limitation within the field is the relative neglect of theoretical frameworks to explain dating
violence. Although some variables have been postulated as predisposing, moderating, or mediating factors related to dating
aggression, including gender (Monson & Langhinrichsen-Rohling, 2002; Banyard, Cross, & Modecki, 2006), exposure to childhood
aggression (Follingstad, Bradley, Laughlin, & Burke, 1999; Hickman, Jaycox, & Aronoff, 2004; Shook et al., 2000), previous
victimization (Hickman et al., 2004; Smith, White, & Holland, 2003; Banyard et al., 2006), attitudes about interpersonal aggression
(Lewis, Travea, & Fremouw, 2002; Foshee et al., 2005), alcohol use (O'Keefe, 1997; Shook et al., 2000), and low self-esteem and
depression (Capaldi & Crosby, 1997; Foshee et al., 2004; Marshall & Rose, 1990), only a few researchers have developed theoretical
conceptualizations of dating violence (Follingstad et al., 1999; Riggs & O'Leary, 1989). Of those theoretical frameworks developed,
few have been empirically examined (Luthra & Gidycz, 2006) and utilized to inform program development (Foshee, Linger,
MacDougall, & Bangdiwala, 2001). In fact, a recent review of primary prevention programs for dating violence suggested that the
majority of programs did not discuss the theoretical orientation guiding the development and implementation of the program
(Whitaker et al., 2006). To date, a comprehensive unifying framework has yet to be extensively designed and empirically tested
that accurately accounts for dating violence for both genders, thus limiting our efforts in intervention and prevention.
Therefore, what follows is a discussion on the prevailing theories of interpersonal violence, though not necessarily specific to
dating violence. It is our hope that this discussion will facilitate inquiry into the use of these theoretical frameworks for dating
violence and lead to the development of new theories that more appropriately account for violence that occurs in the context of
non-marital relationships.

3. Social learning theory

Social learning theory, introduced by Bandura (1973), contends that behaviors are learned through observation and imitation of
other people's behavior. Behavior is subsequently maintained through differential reinforcement, initially by the parent, and then
later by others and through automatic reinforcement. A fundamental tenet of this theory is that early parental interactions are
particularly salient models from which a child learns a variety of behaviors. In terms of explaining violent behavior, social learning
theory is a potentially parsimonious framework that may significantly contribute to our understanding of dating violence. For
instance, the intergenerational transmission of violence hypothesis, which is based on social learning theory, proposes that
coercive and aversive interpersonal behaviors are learned through violent interactions in one's family of origin (O'Leary, 1988).
Witnessing or experiencing violence in the context of the family may teach the child that violence is potentially reinforcing and
functional, insofar as it enables one to express dissatisfaction, solve problems, and control others. Violence may also result in
immediate reinforcement, such as decreases in the aversive, conflict-laden environment and increases in feelings of self-efficacy
(Wekerle & Wolfe, 1999). Although there is some evidence for increased risk of perpetration when childhood abuse or interparental
violence is reported (Fang & Corso, 2007; Linder & Collins, 2005), the evidence is limited and suggests a more complex set of factors
that lead to dating violence. Follette and Alexander (1992) stated, “In all, the results suggest that the modeling of violence behavior
in the family of origin in not sufficient to explain later violence in dating relationships. The concept of simple modeling, while
attractive because of its parsimony, seems to have outlived its utility. Rather, it will be important to determine a variety of
predictors of aggression” (p. 50).
Riggs and O'Leary (1989) developed a more comprehensive theoretical model of courtship aggression termed the “background-
situational” model, based primarily on social learning and conflict theory. The background component of this model is consistent
with the social learning perspective. They contend that variables causally related to dating violence can be separated into
background variables, such as violence in the family of origin, which in turn encourages greater acceptance of aggression as a
conflict resolution strategy, and situational variables, such as relationship satisfaction, communication skills, and alcohol use. This
 R.C. Shorey et al. / Aggression and Violent Behavior 13 (2008) 185–194 189

model demonstrated preliminary utility in predicting dating violence in college age students (Riggs & O'Leary, 1996), although
recent research using this theoretical framework produced mixed results, finding that it was able to accurately classify female
perpetrators 83.3% of the time, but only accurately classify male perpetrators about 30% of the time (Luthra & Gidycz, 2006). Thus,
further research examining the utility and accuracy of this model is warranted.

4. Feminist theory

A feminist analysis of violent behavior maintains that abuse is the result of an underlying patriarchal societal system that
encourages power and control struggles between men and women (Dobash & Dobash, 1992). Feminist theory views interpersonal
violence as a manifestation of prevailing power structures of male dominance and female subservience, and it is believed that this
power inequality leads to violent behaviors in dating relationships. Lloyd (1991) contends that perpetration and maintenance of
dating violence is the result of a combination of patriarchal values and romanticism, which leads to the view that men are in
control and women are dependent. Based on this conceptualization, men are traditionally considered to be perpetrators, while
women are victims. Though research has identified a large subset of women who report perpetrating dating violence (Hettrich &
O'Leary, 2007; Stuart et al., 2006), feminist theorists contend that this violence represents acts of self-defense and is qualitatively
distinct from male perpetration, which is often intended to evoke fear and to oppress the victim (Herman, 1992).
There is some evidence to suggest that power inequity and control may play contributory roles in the development of dating
violence. Carlson (1987) found that power and dependency increased the likelihood of violence in interpersonal relationships.
Several researchers studying sexual violence have also found a relationship between power factors and dating aggression,
particularly for males. Muehlenhard and Linton (1987) examined operational indices of power, including initiation, payment,
transportation, and age variables involved in a date, and found that these factors predicted male sexual aggression on the date.
Control may further influence dating violence, as researchers have found that female victims attributed power and control motives
to their perpetrators, and female perpetrators often attributed their own initiation behavior as directed toward achieving control in
the relationship (Follingstad, Wright, Lloyd, & Sebastian, 1991). Similarly, Stets and Pirog-Good (1989) demonstrated that
interpersonal control was a significant factor in predicting male and female perpetration. Although there appears to be a
relationship between power and control, it is not clear whether power and control issues are present prior to the violence or are a
natural result of violent perpetration. However, feminist theory has come under fire of late, as there have been numerous research
findings showing that women are as likely, if not more likely, to perpetrate violence against their male partners (Archer, 2000;
Dutton, 2007; Hettrich & O'Leary, 2007). Feminist theorists claim that this high prevalence of female perpetrated violence is the
result of self-defensive behaviors, yet Stuart et al. (2006) recent findings that reasons other than self-defense were endorsed by
females as motives of their violence perpetration are contradictive of feminist theory. Thus, due to mixed findings of feminist
theory beliefs, further research is warranted to elucidate the utility of feminist theory as it pertains to violent behaviors in
courtship relationships.

5. Attachment theory

Bowlby (1969, 1972, 1980) suggested that children form mental representations or prototypes of relationships based on their
experiences with primary caregivers during childhood. These relationship prototypes are relatively consistent over time, and serve
as templates for future relationships. Attachment theory speculates that adolescents tend to select dating partners based on these
prototypes (Waters, Posada, Crowell, & Keng-ling, 1993). Hazan and Shaver (1987) contend that healthy relationships arise as a
result of consistent and responsive caregiving, while unhealthy relationships stem from inconsistent, aversive or unresponsive
childrearing. In a study of adult relationships, they found that individuals with secure attachment styles tended to describe their
most salient love experiences as trusting, friendly, and loving, and tended to have longer relationship durations. In contrast,
insecure individuals described their most important love relationship as jealous and emotionally labile (Hazan & Shaver, 1987).
Based on this theoretical orientation, individuals with insecure attachment styles resulting from childhood mistreatment would be
at particularly high risk for dating violence, since their attachment models become formed along victim–victimizer and
dominance–subordination dimensions (Cicchetti & Howes, 1991; Crittenden & Ainsworth, 1989). Individuals with these
relationship templates may gravitate toward dating relationships that match their prototypal conceptualization of relationships.
Although there is some evidence to suggest that individuals reporting childhood abuse or mistreatment by primary caregivers
are at increased risk to perpetrate or receive violence in dating relationships, the data, in many respects, are mixed and inconsistent
(Loh & Gidycz, 2006). The causal mechanisms at work in the manifestation of violence several years following the formation of the
relationship prototype are unclear. That is, to what degree is the relationship between attachment style and dating violence
mediated by other variables, either individual or contextual? Further, attachment theory does not provide any explanations for
why individuals who are classified as securely attached also perpetrate violence, as these individuals may hold beliefs that are
supportive of the use of aggression against an intimate partner (Schwartz, Hage, Bush, & Burns, 2006).

6. Coercion hypothesis

Some investigators have examined the role of coercive processes in the manifestation and suppression of violent behaviors in
intimate relationships, with advocates of battered women placing an especially high emphasis on controlling tactics of abusive
partners (Dutton & Goodman, 2005). During conflict situations, partners are motivated to influence one another to diffuse conflict.
190 R.C. Shorey et al. / Aggression and Violent Behavior 13 (2008) 185–194

Two conflict diffusion tactics often used are aggression and distress behaviors, and these behaviors are distinct topographically.
Aggression can be conceptualized as acts laden with anger intended to cause emotional distress and physical harm. In contrast,
distress behaviors, which include complaints, self-denigration and reassurance-seeking statements, are responses with overtones
of sadness and unhappiness. Both elicit negative affective responses in the other person and are methods to gain social control,
power in the relationship, and demonstrate dominance (Dutton & Goodman, 2005; Katz, Jones, & Beach, 2000). These coercive
conflict resolution strategies may be more prevalent in distressed or aggressive couples, and there is evidence to suggest that
women's distress behaviors function to suppress violence in the context of marital relationships (Biglan et al., 1985; Nelson &
Beach, 1990). However, this has not been examined extensively with nonmarried couples to determine if coercive conflict
resolution strategies are differentially prominent in aggressive compared to nonaggressive dating couples. Katz et al. (2000)
examined these coercive processes with a nonclinical population of college students who were currently involved in an exclusive
dating relationship. The results suggested that women reported engaging in higher levels of distress behaviors in response to
verbal aggression than in other situations with their partner, with both men and women expecting distress behaviors to suppress
partner verbal aggression in later conflicts. However, participants were no more likely to engage in distress behavior as a function
of partner violence. Therefore, the coercion hypothesis may be no more applicable to violent dating couples than nonviolent
couples. In addition, recent research has relatively ignored the coercion hypothesis as an explanation for violence in intimate
relationships, limiting our ability to determine the usefulness of this framework.

7. Behavioral theories

Although behavioral theories have not historically been used to explain partner aggression, there has been increased attention
directed towards behavioral explanations of violence in intimate relationships (Bell & Naugle, in press; Myers, 1995). Myers (1995)
was one of the first to propose that behavioral principles could be operating in abusive relationships and that positive and negative
reinforcement paradigms could be functioning to increase the likelihood of future violence. For example, perpetration of violence,
either verbal or physical, may be reinforced by increased compliance, acquiescing to demands, or tangible reinforcers from the
victimized partner. This situation is also potentially reinforcing for the perpetrator of violence and, thus, may increase the chances
of future violence in the relationship. It may be that insufficient punishers are operating for the abusive behavior in the context of
reinforcement that is being received, such that the violent behavior is likely to persist in the face of these concurrent consequences.
Expanding on Myers (1995) behavioral explanation of intimate partner violence, Bell and Naugle (in press; see also Bell &
Naugle, 2005 for application of framework to explaining stay/leave decisions in violent relationships) offered an integrated
contextual framework grounded in behavioral pedadogy that bridges together other interpersonal violence theories in an attempt
to provide a more parsimonious framework for examining partner aggression. The framework identifies distal and proximal
antecedents, motivating factors, discriminative stimuli, behavioral repertoire skills deficits, verbal rules, and reinforcing and
punishing consequences thought to be implicated in the development and maintenance of partner aggression perpetration. A
potential strength of this framework is its focus on potentially changeable, testable variables associated with perpetration and
victimization of partner violence, rather than on more static, historical variables that can be more difficult to change. To date there
has been no empirical research that has specifically examined the contextual framework established by Bell and Naugle (in press),
however research is in progress to identify key contextual variables associated with partner aggression perpetration (Bell &
Cornelius, in preparation).

8. Similarities of dating violence to marital violence

Even with a growing body of literature examining dating violence, there have been relatively few reviews of the possible
similarities between this form of violence and marital violence. Because of the similarities between courtship and marriage, it is
reasonable to suspect that similarities between marital and dating aggression may exist. From a research and intervention
standpoint, it would be fruitful to examine the similarities and differences between dating and marital violence in an effort to
identify the variables that appear in both forms of violence or uniquely in one, which could then be targeted in prevention
programs and interventions.
Many researchers have speculated that dating violence may be a precursor to marital aggression, and that such a pattern of
marital violence could reasonably be established during the dating period (Frieze & Browne, 1989; Carlson, 1987; Frieze, 2000;
Makepeace, 1981; Smith & Donnelly, 2001; Sigelman, Berry, & Wiles, 1984). O'Leary et al. (1989) conducted a longitudinal study of
aggression and found that men were up to three times more likely to use aggression in marriage if violence had occurred during the
dating period. However, Follingstad et al. (1999) pointed out that although dating violence may be a precursor to marital violence
in some cases, many individuals who use violence in dating relationships do not continue to do so in marriage. Therefore, the link
between marital violence has not been as systematically evaluated as we would expect and the literatures have largely progressed
independent of each other.
Researchers have, however, noted many similarities between marital and dating violence, suggesting continuity of aggression.
Carlson (1987) noted several commonalities between spousal and dating aggression, including spending large amounts of time
together on a wide range of activities, sharing substantial personal information that leads to emotional vulnerability, high levels of
emotional investment and involvement, and a presumed right to influence the partner. Additionally, in both violent dating and
marital relationships, women are often identified as victims as well as perpetrators and reciprocal violence is frequently reported.
Follingstad et al. (1999), using a nationally representative sample, noted that alcohol use and poor communication skills were risk
 R.C. Shorey et al. / Aggression and Violent Behavior 13 (2008) 185–194 191

factors for both dating and marital violence. Similarly, research has shown alcohol abuse to be a predictor of both marital and
dating violence (Carlson, 1987; Hines & Straus, 2007), along with higher degrees of relationship conflict (Lloyd, 1991; Makepeace,
1981; Carlson, 1987). Several other risk factors, including SES, area of residence, and interparental violence have also been shown to
be associated with both types of aggression (Lewis & Fremouw, 2001). Furthermore, there is evidence to suggest that jealousy plays
a contributory role in the manifestation of violence in both marriage and dating relationships (Coleman, 1980; Follingstad et al.,
1991; O'Leary, Smith-Slep, & O'Leary, 2007; Roscoe & Callahan, 1985).
Despite their similarities, marital and dating aggression each has unique features, highlighting the importance of investigating
each form of violence separately. Marital relationships are likely characterized by greater familial and economic attachment,
making investment and enmeshment in the relationship greater. For example, married partners are often economically bound to
each other, may have children, and are more likely to be involved in each other's families of origin (Carlson, 1987). That dating
relationships do not involve a legal binding relationship suggests that, at least theoretically, alternative relationships are more
accessible to dating couples than to married individuals. With regard to intrapersonal variables, Follingstad et al. (1999) found that
self-esteem, fear of negative evaluation, and problem-solving skills did not predict dating violence in her sample of dating college
students, yet these factors have been shown to be related to marital violence (Burke, Stets, & Pirog-Good, 1988; Holtzworth-
Munroe & Hutchinson, 1993). Several researchers have examined factors related to adolescent dating abuse, and have noted several
unique factors associated with adolescent dating violence. First, adolescents may experience intense peer pressure to conform to
social norms, which strongly encourage participation in intimate dating relationships. Deviating from that norm by terminating a
dating relationship may lead to ostracism and, therefore, a teen may feel pressure to continue even a violent relationship (Sousa,
1999; Smith & Donnelly, 2001). Furthermore, gender roles may be more pronounced in adolescents, and may support strongly
stereotypical behaviors, such as male dominance and female subordination (Sousa, 1999; Smith & Donnelly, 2001). As Levy (1991)
put it, “the sexism inherent in these norms makes adolescent women particularly vulnerable to relationship violence”(p. 5). Teen
women may interpret violent or controlling responses in dating relationships as indicators of love and masculinity, rather than as
inappropriate behaviors. This is likely facilitated by the fact that adolescents may be naïve with respect to dating relationships, and
may be unable to identify potential danger signs that indicate abuse or violence (Smith & Donnelly, 2001).
Despite the differences between dating and marital violence, the literature on marital abuse provides a useful model for
theoretical and research directions in dating aggression. In particular, the typology proposed by Holtzworth-Munroe and Stuart
(1994) provides a framework for examining perpetration of marital violence that may explain the heterogeneity within dating
aggression perpetration. In order to gain a more complete understanding of dating aggression, as well as better target high risk
individuals and initiate prevention efforts effectively, it is important to investigate variation within violent behavior, as opposed to
considering the group to be homogeneous. Holtzworth-Munroe and Stuart (1994) proposed a typology of male batterers,
containing three subtypes of perpetrators: family only, dysphoric/borderline, and generally violent/antisocial. These subtypes of
perpetrators provide potentially important information regarding heterogeneous etiological factors for violent behavior. Research
findings have supported the Holtzworth-Munroe and Stuart typologies, as researchers have been able to identify and classify the
majority of perpetrators into one of the three typologies (Holtzworth-Munroe, Meehan, Herron, Rehman, & Stuart, 2000;
Langhinrichsen-Rohling, Huss, & Ramsey, 2000). For instance, Langhinrichsen-Rohling et al. (2000) were successfully able to
classify over three-fourths of their male perpetrators into one of the three Holtzworth-Munroe and Stuart typologies.
However, to date, similar typological models as applied to dating violence are limited. Based on published research, the dating
violence literature has introduced only a single typological model of perpetration of violence against a dating partner. Utilizing a
cluster-analytic approach, Stith, Jester, and Bird (1992) proposed an empirical typology of male and female perpetrators based on
relationship functioning, negotiation style, and coping strategies utilized in the relationship. Based on these variables, four clusters
of physically aggressive individuals emerged: secure lovers, stable minimizers, hostile pursuers, and hostile disengaged. These four
subtypes were compared to each other to determine if variables such as severity of violence, level of emotional and verbal abuse,
length of relationship, and self-esteem differentiated between different subtypes. The results suggested that secure lovers reported
the most love and least amount of conflict, and physical and emotional abuse was rare and less severe. This subgroup reported
higher self-esteem and longer involvement in the relationship. Stable minimizers reported moderate levels of love and conflict,
low levels of emotional and physical abuse, and more often utilized coping strategies of avoidance and denial than secure lovers. In
contrast, hostile pursuers reported the highest level of emotional abuse and moderate levels of physical abuse, and reported
significant ambivalence about the relationship. Lastly, the hostile-disengaged group reported the most severe and frequent use of
physical violence, lowest reported love, high levels of conflict, and shortest relationship duration. Although research examining
dating violence within a typological framework is a useful first step toward understanding and treating dating violence, this
research is limited. It does not examine factors unique to male and female perpetrators, and was not replicated on other samples of
violent dating couples. While this research provides direction for future research, the conclusions should be considered
preliminary and inconclusive at this time.
In recent years, dating violence has received increased attention from researchers due to the harmful consequences of this violence,
both in the current relationship and as a precursor to future violence. Yet, even with numerous studies demonstrating the high
prevalence of this form of violence, little attention has been paid towards developing theories specific to dating violence and examining
the relationship between dating and marital violence. It is clear from the review of partner violence theories that more work is
necessary in this area, as there has been a lack of cohesion between theories and few consistent findings. The contextual approach of
Bell and Naugle (in press) may offer a promising direction for theories of dating and marital violence due to its more parsimonious
framework and focus on more proximal variables associated with partner aggression; yet there have been no reports on empirical
studies using this framework, with only one known project in the early stages of examination (Bell & Cornelius, in preparation).
192 R.C. Shorey et al. / Aggression and Violent Behavior 13 (2008) 185–194

Thus, future research is needed to examine the adequacy of this theory, along with other partner violence theories, in uniquely
explaining episodes of marital and dating violence. In addition, the relationship between dating and marital violence is an important
area of research that has received minimal attention. Future research should focus on the links between these forms of violence in an
attempt to identify the characteristics that are present in both marital and dating aggression. Research in this area may offer valuable
information that could influence partner violence prevention programs for individuals in dating relationships, thus decreasing the
chances of aggression continuing into marriage.

References

Anderson, K. M., & Danis, F. S. (2007). Collegiate sororities and dating violence: An exploratory study of informal and formal helping strategies. Violence Against
Women, 13, 87−100.
Andrews, J. A., Foster, S. L., Capaldi, D., & Hops, H. (2000). Adolescent and family predictors of physical aggression, communication, and satisfaction in young adult
couples: A prospective analysis. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68, 195−208.
Archer, J. (2000). Sex differences in aggression between heterosexual partners: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 126, 651−680.
Arias, I., & Johnson, P. (1989). Evaluations of physical aggression among intimate dyads. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 4, 298−307.
Babcock, J. C., Miller, S. A., & Siard, C. (2003). Toward a typology of abusive women: Differences between partner-only and generally violent women in the use of
violence. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 27, 153−161.
Bandura, A. (1973). Aggression: a social learning analysis. Oxford, England: Prentice-Hall.
Banyard, V. L., Arnold, S., & Smith, J. (2000). Childhood sexual abuse and dating experiences of undergraduate women. Child Maltreatment, 5, 39−48.
Banyard, V. L., Cross, C., & Modecki, K. L. (2006). Interpersonal violence in adolescence: ecological correlates of self-reported perpetration. Journal of Interpersonal
Violence, 21, 1314−1332.
Bell, K. M., & Cornelius, T. L. (in preparation). Antecedents, consequences, and possible functional processes in perpetration of intimate partner violence.
Bell, K. M., & Naugle, A. E. (2005). Understanding stay/leave decisions in violent relationships: A behavior analytic approach. Behavior and Social Issues, 14, 21−45.
Bell, K. M., & Naugle, A. E. (2007). Effects of social desirability on students' self-reporting of partner abuse perpetration and victimization. Violence and Victims, 22,
243−256.
Bell, K.M., & Naugle, A.E. (in press). Intimate partner violence theoretical considerations: Moving towards a contextual framework. Clinical Psychology Review.
Biglan, A., Hops, H., Sherman, L., Friendman, L., Arthur, J., & Osteen, V. (1985). Problem-solving interactions of depressed women and their husbands. Behavior
Therapy, 16, 431−451.
Block, C. R., & Christakos, A. (1995). Intimate partner homicide in Chicago over 29 years. Crime & Delinquency, 41, 496−526.
Bookwala, J., Frieze, I. H., Smith, C., & Ryan, K. (1992). Prediction of dating violence: A multivariate analysis. Violence and Victims, 7, 297−311.
Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and loss: Vol. 1: Attachment. New York, NY: Basic Books.
Bowlby, J. (1972). Attachment and loss: Vol. 2: Seperation, anxiety, and anger. New York, NY: Basic Books.
Bowlby, J. (1980). Attachment and loss: Vol 3: Loss, sadness, and depression. New York, NY: Basic Books.
Brown, L. K., Puster, K. L., Vazquez, E. A., Hunter, H. L., & Lescano, C. M. (2007). Screening practices for adolescent dating violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence,
22, 456−464.
Browne, A. (1987). When battered women kill. New York, NY: Free Press.
Bureau of Justice Statistics (2002). Homicide trends in the United States: Intimate homicide. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs.
Burke, P. J., Stets, J. E., & Pirog-Good, M. A. (1988). Gender identity, self-esteem, and physical and sexual abuse in dating relationships. Social Psychology Quarterly, 51,
272−285.
Campbell, J. C. (2002). Health consequences of intimate partner violence. Lancet, 359, 1331−1336.
Capaldi, D. M., & Crosby, L. (1997). Observed and reported psychological and physical aggression in young, at-risk couples. Social Development, 6, 184−206.
Carlson, B. E. (1987). Dating violence: a research review and comparison with spouse abuse. Social Casework, 68, 16−23.
Cicchetti, D., & Howes, P. W. (1991). Developmental psychopathology in the context of the family: Illustrations from the study of child maltreatment. Canadian
Journal of Behavioral Science, 23, 257−281.
Coleman, K. H. (1980). Conjugal violence: What 33 men report. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 6, 207−213.
Cornelius, T. L., & Resseguie, N. (2007). Primary and secondary prevention programs for dating violence: A review of the literature. Aggression and Violent Behavior,
12, 364−375.
Crittenden, P., & Ainsworth, M. (1989). Attachment and child abuse. In D. Cicchetti & V. Carlson (Eds.), Child maltreatment: Theory and research on the causes and
consequences of child abuse and neglect (pp. 432−462). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Cyr, M., McDuff, P., & Wright, J. (2006). Prevalence and predictors of dating violence among adolescent female victims of child sexual abuse. Journal of Interpersonal
Violence, 21, 1000−1017.
DeKeseredy, W. S., Schwartz, M. D., & Tait, K. (1993). Sexual assault and stranger aggression on a Canadian university campus. Sex Roles, 28, 263−277.
Dobash, R. W., & Dobash, R. P. (1992). Women, violence, and social change. New York, NY: Routledge.
Dutton, D. G. (2007). Female intimate partner violence and developmental trajectories of abusive females. International Journal of Men's Health, 6, 54−70.
Dutton, M. A., & Goodman, L. A. (2005). Coercion in intimate partner violence: Toward a new conceptualization. Sex Roles, 52, 743−756.
Eaton, D. K., Davis, K. S., Barrios, L., Brener, N. D., & Noonan, R. K. (2007). Associations of dating violence victimization with lifetime participation, co-occurrence, and
early initiation of risk behaviors among U.S. high school students. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 22, 585−602.
Fang, X., & Corso, P. S. (2007). Child maltreatment, youth violence, and intimate partner violence: Developmental relationships. American Journal of Preventative
Medicine, 33, 281−290.
Field, C. A., & Caetano, R. (2005). Intimate partner violence in the U.S. general population: Progress and future directions. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 20,
463−469.
Follette, V. M., & Alexander, P. C. (1992). Dating violence: current and historical correlates. Behavioral Assessment, 14, 39−52.
Follingstad, D. R., Bradley, R. G., Laughlin, J. E., & Burke, L. (1999). Risk factors and correlates of dating violence: The relevance of examining frequency and severity
levels in a college sample. Violence and Victims, 14, 365−380.
Follingstad, D. R., Rutledge, L. L., Berg, B. J., Hause, E. S., & Polek (1990). The role of emotional abuse in physically abusive relationships. Journal of Family Violence, 5,
107−120.
Follingstad, D. R., Wright, S., Lloyd, S., & Sebastian, J. (1991). Sex differences in motivations and effects in dating violence. Family Relations, 40, 51−57.
Foshee, V. A. (1996). Gender differences in adolescent dating abuse prevalence, types and injuries. Health Education Research, 11, 275−286.
Foshee, V. A., Bauman, K. E., Ennett, S. T., Linder, G. F., Benefield, T., & Suchindran, C. (2004). Assessing the long-term effects of the safe dates program and a booster
in preventing and reducing adolescent dating violence victimization and perpetration. American Journal of Public Health, 94, 619−624.
Foshee, V. A., Bauman, K. E., Ennett, S. T., Suchindran, C., Benefield, T., & Linder, G. F. (2005). Assessing the effects of the dating violence prevention program “safe
dates” using random coefficient regression modeling. Prevention Science, 6, 245−258.
Foshee, V. A., Bauman, K. E., Linder, F., Rice, J., & Wilcher, R. (2007). Typologies of adolescent dating violence: Identifying typologies of adolescent dating violence
perpetration. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 22, 498−519.
Foshee, V. A., Linder, G. F., Bauman, K. E., Langwick, S. A., Arriaga, X. B., Heath, J. L., et al. (1996). The safe dates project: Theoretical basis, evaluation design, and
selected baseline findings. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 12, 39−47.
 R.C. Shorey et al. / Aggression and Violent Behavior 13 (2008) 185–194 193

Foshee, V. A., Linger, F., MacDougall, J. E., & Bangdiwala, S. (2001). Gender differences in the longitudinal predictors of adolescent dating violence. Preventive
Medicine, 32, 128−141.
Frieze, I. H. (2000). Violence in close relationships – Development of a research area: Comment on Archer (2000). Psychological Bulletin, 126, 681−684.
Frieze, I. H., & Browne, A. (1989). Violence in marriage. In L. Ohlin & M. Tonry (Eds.), Family Violence (pp. 163−218). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Frye, N. E., & Karney, B. R. (2006). The context of aggressive behavior in marriage: A longitudinal study of newlyweds. Journal of Family Psychology, 20, 12−20.
Garcia, L., Soria, C., & Hurwitz, E. L. (2007). Homicides and intimate partner violence: A literature review. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 8, 370−383.
Gray, H. M., & Foshee, V. (1997). Adolescent dating violence: Differences between one-sided and mutually violent profiles. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 12,
126−141.
Halpern, C. T., Oslak, S. G., Young, M. L., Martin, S. K., & Kupper, L. L. (2001). Partner violence among adolescents in opposite-sex romantic relationships: Findings
from a national longitudinal study of adolescent health. American Journal of Public Health, 91, 1679−1685.
Hamby, S. L., & Sugarman, D. B. (1999). Acts of psychological aggression against a partner and their relation to physical assault and gender. Journal of Marriage & the
Family, 61, 959−970.
Hanley, M. J., & O'Neill, P. (1997). Violence and commitment: A study of dating couples. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 12, 685−703.
Harper, F. W. K., Austin, A. G., Cercone, J. J., & Arias, I. (2005). The role of shame, anger, and affect regulation in men's perpetration of psychological abuse in dating
relationships. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 20, 1648−1662.
Hazan, C., & Shaver, P. (1987). Romantic love conceptualized as an attachment process. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 511−524.
Henton, J., Cate, R., Koval, J., Lloyd, S., & Christopher, S. (1983). Romance and violence in dating relationships. Journal of Family Issues, 4, 467−482.
Herman, J. L. (1992). Trauma and recovery. New York, NY: Basic Books.
Hettrich, E. L., & O'Leary, D. K. (2007). Females' reasons for their physical aggression in dating relationships. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 22, 1131−1143.
Hickman, L. J., Jaycox, L. H., & Aronoff, J. (2004). Dating violence among adolescents: Prevalence, gender distribution, and prevention program effectiveness. Trauma,
Violence, & Abuse, 5, 123−142.
Hines, D. A., & Straus, M. A. (2007). Binge drinking and violence against dating partners: The mediating effect of antisocial traits and behaviors in a multinational
perspective. Aggressive Behavior, 33, 441−457.
Holtzworth-Munroe, A., & Hutchinson, G. (1993). Attributing negative intent to wife behavior: The attributions of martially violent versus nonviolent men. Journal
of Abnormal Psychology, 102, 206−211.
Holtzworth-Munroe, A., Meehan, J. C., Herron, K., Rehman, U., & Stuart, G. L. (2000). Testing the Holtzworth-Munroe and Stuart (1994) batterer typology. Journal of
Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68, 1000−1019.
Holtzworth-Munroe, A., & Stuart, G. L. (1994). Typologies of male batterers: Three subtypes and differences among them. Psychological Bulletin, 116, 476−497.
Ismail, F., Berman, H., & Ward-Griffin, C. (2007). Dating violence and the health of young women: A feminist narrative study. Health Care for Women International,
28, 453−477.
Jackson, S. M. (1999). Issues in the dating violence research: A review of the literature. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 4, 233−247.
Jackson, S. M., Cram, F., & Seymour, F. W. (2000). Violence and sexual coercion in high school students' dating relationships. Journal of Family Violence, 15, 23−36.
Jezl, D. R., Molidor, C. E., & Wright, T. L. (1996). Physical, sexual and psychological abuse in high school dating relationships: Prevalence rates and self-esteem issues.
Child and Adolescent Social Work, 13, 69−87.
Katz, J., Jones, D. J., & Beach, S. R. H. (2000). Distress and aggression during dating conflict: A test of the coercion hypothesis. Personal Relationships, 7, 391−402.
Klevens, J., & Whitaker, D. J. (2007). Primary prevention of child physical abuse and neglect: Gaps and promising directions. Child Maltreatment, 12, 364−377.
Lane, K., & Gwartney-Gibbs, P. (1985). Violence in the context of dating and sex. Journal of Family Issues, 6, 45−56.
Langhinrichsen-Rohling, J., Huss, M. T., & Ramsey, S. (2000). The clinical utility of batterer typologies. Journal of Family Violence, 15, 37−53.
Lewis, S. F., & Fremouw, W. (2001). Dating violence: A critical review of the literature. Clinical Psychology Review, 21, 105−127.
Lewis, S. F., Travea, L., & Fremouw, W. (2002). Characteristics of female perpetrators and victims of dating violence. Violence and Victims, 17, 593−606.
Linder, J. R., & Collins, W. A. (2005). Parent and peer predictors of physical aggression and conflict management in romantic relationships in early adulthood. Journal
of Family Psychology, 19, 252−262.
Lloyd, S. A. (1991). The darkside of courtship: Violence and sexual exploitation. Family Relations, 40, 14−20.
Loh, C., & Gidycz, C. A. (2006). A prospective analysis of the relationship between childhood sexual victimization and perpetration of dating violence and sexual
assault in adulthood. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 21, 732−749.
Luthra, R., & Gidycz, C. A. (2006). Dating violence among college men and women: Evaluation of a theoretical model. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 21, 717−731.
Magdol, L., Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A., Newman, D. L., Fagan, J., & Silva, P. A. (1997). Gender differences in partner violence in a birth cohort of 21-year olds: Bridging the
gap between clinical and epidemiological approaches. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 65, 68−78.
Makepeace, J. M. (1981). Courtship violence among college students. Family Relations, 30, 97−102.
Makepeace, J. M. (1983). Life events stress and courtship violence. Family Relations, 32, 101−109.
Makepeace, J. M. (1986). Gender differences in courtship violence victimization. Family Relations, 35, 383−388.
Marshall, L. L., & Rose, P. (1988). Family of origin violence and courtship abuse. Journal of Counseling & Development, 66, 414−418.
Marshall, L. L., & Rose, P. (1990). Premarital violence: The impact of family of origin violence, stress, and reciprocity. Violence and Victims, 5, 51−64.
Monson, C. M., & Langhinrichsen-Rohling, J. (2002). Sexual and nonsexual dating violence perpetration: Testing an integrated perpetrator typology. Violence and
Victims, 17, 403−428.
Morton, E., Runyan, C. W., Moracco, K. E., & Butts, J. (1998). Partner homicide–suicide involving female homicide victims: A population based study in North
Carolina, 1988–1992. Violence and Victims, 13, 91−106.
Muehlenhard, C. L., & Linton, M. A. (1987). Date rape and sexual aggression in dating situations: Incidence and risk factors. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 34,
186−196.
Munoz-Rivas, M. J., Grana, J. L., O'Leary, D. K., & Gonzalez, M. P. (2007). Aggression in adolescent dating relationships: Prevalence, justification, and health
consequences. Journal of Adolescent Health, 40, 298−304.
Murphy, C. M., & Hoover, S. A. (2001). Measuring emotional abuse in dating relationships as a multifactorial construct. Psychological abuse in violent domestic
relations New York, NY: Springer Publishing.
Murphy, C. M., & O'Leary, D. K. (1989). Psychological aggression predicts physical aggression in early marriage. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 57, 579−582.
Myers, D. L. (1995). Eliminating the battering of women by men: Some considerations for behavioral analysis. Journal of Applied Behavioral Analysis, 28,
493−507.
Nelson, G., & Beach, S. R. H. (1990). Sequential interaction in depression: Effects of depressive behavior on spousal aggression. Behavior Therapy, 21, 167−182.
Neufeld, J., McNamara, J. R., & Ertl, M. (1999). Incidence and prevalence of dating partner abuse and its relationship to dating practices. Journal of Interpersonal
Violence, 14, 125−137.
Nightingale, H., & Morrissette, P. (1993). Dating violence: Attitudes, myths, and preventive programs. Social Work in Education, 15, 225−232.
O'Keefe, M. (1997). Predictors of dating violence among high school students. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 12, 546−568.
O'Keefe, M., Brockopp, K., & Chew, E. (1986). Teen dating violence. Social Work, 46, 3−8.
O'Leary, D. K. (1988). Physical aggression between spouses: A social learning theory perspective. Handbook of family violence New York, NY: Plenum Press.
O'Leary, D. K. (1999). Psychological abuse: A variable deserving critical attention in domestic violence. Violence and Victims, 14, 3−23.
O'Leary, D. K., Barling, J., Arias, I., Rosenbaum, A., Malone, J., & Tyree, A. (1989). Prevalence and stability of physical aggression between spouses: A longitudinal
analysis. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 57, 263−268.
O'Leary, D. K., Smith-Slep, A. M., & O'Leary, S. G. (2007). Multivariate models of men's and women's partner aggression. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology,
75, 752−764.
Ozer, E. J., Tschann, J. M., Pasch, L. A., & Flores, E. (2004). Violence perpetration across peer and partner relationships: Co-occurrence and longitudinal patterns
among adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health, 34, 64−71.
194 R.C. Shorey et al. / Aggression and Violent Behavior 13 (2008) 185–194

Pflieger, J. C., & Vazsonyi, A. T. (2006). Parenting processes and dating violence: The mediating role of self-esteem in low- and high-SES adolescents. Journal of
Adolescence, 29, 495−512.
Prospero, M. (2006). The role of perceptions in dating violence among young adolescents. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 21, 470−484.
Rhatigan, D. L., & Street, A. E. (2005). The impact of intimate partner violence on decisions to leave dating relationships: A test of the investment model. Journal of
Interpersonal Violence, 20, 1580−1597.
Rheingold, A. A., Campbell, C., Self-Brown, S., de Arellano, M., Resnick, H., & Kilpatrick, D. (2007). Prevention of child sexual abuse: Evaluation of a community media
campaign. Child Maltreatment, 12, 352−363.
Riggs, D. S., & O'Leary, D. K. (1989). A theoretical model of courtship aggression. Violence in dating relationships: emerging social issues New York, NY: Praeger
Publishers.
Riggs, D. S., & O'Leary, D. K. (1996). Aggression between heterosexual dating partners: An examination of a causal model of courtship aggression. Journal of
Interpersonal Violence, 11, 519−540.
Riggs, D. S., O'Leary, D. K., & Breslin, F. C. (1990). Multiple correlates of physical aggression in dating couples. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 5, 61−73.
Robertson, K., & Murachver, T. (2006). Intimate partner violence: Linguistic features and accommodation behavior of perpetrators and victims. Journal of Language
and Social Psychology, 25, 406−422.
Ronfeldt, H. M., Kimerling, R., & Arias, I. (1998). Satisfaction with relationship power and the perpetration of dating violence. Journal of Marriage & the Family, 60,
70−78.
Roscoe, B., & Callahan, J. (1985). Adolescents' self-report of violence in families and dating relations. Adolescence, 20, 545−553.
Roscoe, B., & Kelsey, T. (1986). Dating violence among high school students. Psychology: A Journal of Human Behavior, 23, 53−59.
Ryan, K. M. (1995). Do courtship-violent men have characteristics associated with a “battering personality”? Journal of Family Violence, 10, 99−120.
Schwartz, J. P., Hage, S. M., Bush, I., & Burns, L. K. (2006). Unhealthy parenting and potential mediators as contributing factors to future intimate violence: A review
of the literature. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 7, 206−221.
Sears, H. A., Byers, E. S., & Price, L. (2007). The co-occurrence of adolescent boys' and girls' use of psychologically, physically, and sexually abusive behaviours in their
dating relationships. Journal of Adolescence, 30, 487−504.
Shackelford, T. K., & Mouzos, J. (2005). Partner killing by men in cohabiting and marital relationships: A comparative, cross-national analysis of data from Australia
and the United States. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 20, 1310−1324.
Sharpe, D., & Taylor, J. K. (1999). An examination of variables from a social-developmental model to explain physical and psychological dating violence. Canadian
Journal of Behavioral Science, 31, 165−175.
Sigelman, C. K., Berry, C. J., & Wiles, K. A. (1984). Violence in college students' dating relationships. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 5, 530−548.
Silverman, J. G., Raj, A., Mucci, L. A., & Hathaway, J. E. (2001). Dating violence against adolescent girls and associated substance use, unhealthy weight control, sexual
risk behavior, pregnancy, and suicidality. Journal of the American Medical Association, 286, 572−579.
Shook, N. J., Gerrity, D. A., Jurich, J., & Segrist, A. E. (2000). Courtship violence among college students: A comparison of verbally and physically abusive couples.
Journal of Family Violence, 15, 1−22.
Smith, D. M., & Donnelly, J. (2001). Adolescent dating violence: A multi-systemic approach of enhancing awareness in educators, parents, and society. Journal of
Prevention and Intervention in the Community, 21, 53−64.
Smith, P. H., White, J. W., & Holland, L. J. (2003). A longitudinal perspective on dating violence among adolescent and college-age women. American Journal of Public
Health, 93, 1104−1109.
Sousa, C. A. (1999). Teen dating violence: The hidden epidemic. Family and Conciliation Courts Review, 37, 356−374.
Straight, E. S., Harper, F. W. K., & Arias, I. (2003). The impact of partner psychological abuse on health behaviors and health status in college women. Journal of
Interpersonal Violence, 18, 1035−1054.
Straus, M. A. (1979). Measuring intrafamily conflict and violence: The conflict tactics (CT) scales. Journal of Marriage & the Family, 41, 75−88.
Straus, M. A., Gelles, R. R., & Steinmetz, S. K. (1980). Behind closed doors: Violence in the American family. New York, NY: Doubleday.
Stets, J. E., & Pirog-Good, M. A. (1989). Sexual aggression and control in dating relationships. Journal of College Student Development, 33, 75−86.
Stuart, G. L., Moore, T. M., Gordon, K. C., Hellmuth, J. C., Ramsey, S. E., & Kahler, C. W. (2006). Reasons for intimate partner violence perpetration among arrested
women. Violence Against Women, 12, 609−621.
Sugarman, D. B., & Hotaling, G. T. (1989). Violent men in intimate relationships: An analysis of risk markers. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 19, 1034−1048.
Truman-Schram, D. M., Cann, A., Calhoun, L., & Vanwallendael, L. (2000). Leaving an abusive dating relationship: An investment model comparison of women who
stay versus women who leave. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 19, 161−183.
Vitanza, S., Vogel, L. C. M., & Marshall, L. L. (1995). Distress and symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder in abused women. Violence and Victims, 10, 23−34.
Waters, E., Posada, G., Crowell, J., & Keng-ling, L. (1993). Is attachment theory ready to contribute to our understanding of disruptive behavior problems?
Development and Psychopathology, 5, 215−224.
Wekerle, C., & Wolfe, D. A. (1999). Dating violence in mid-adolescence: Theory, significance, and emerging prevention initiatives. Clinical Psychology Review, 19,
435−456.
Whitaker, D. J., Morrison, S., Lindquist, S., Hawkins, S. R., O'Neil, J. A., Nesius, A. M., et al. (2006). A critical review of interventions for the primary prevention of
perpetration of partner violence. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 11, 151−166.
White, J. W., & Koss, M. P. (1991). Courtship violence: incidence in a national sample of higher education students. Violence and Victims, 6, 247−256.
Wolfe, D. A., Wekerle, C., Reitzel-Jaffe, D., & Lefebvre, L. (1998). Factors associated with abusive relationships among maltreated and nonmaltreated youth.
Development and Psychopathology, 10, 61−85.