1

To book transport and accommodation

To register customers

To book restaurants

To make online transactions

– CRUD functions (create, retrieve, update & delete)

– Data dictionary - a set of information describing the contents, format, and structure of a
database and the relationship between its elements, used to control access to and
manipulation of the database.
– Transaction management - A database transaction is a sequence of actions that
are treated as a single unit of work. These actions should either complete entirely
(committed) or take no effect at all (rolled back). Transaction management is an
important part of DBMS-oriented enterprise application to ensure data integrity
and consistency.
– Concurrency control - Concurrency control is a database management systems
(DBMS) concept that is used to address conflicts with the simultaneous accessing or
altering of data that can occur with a multi-user system.

– Recovery - Data
recovery is the process of restoring data that has
been lost, accidentally deleted, corrupted or made inaccessible.
– Authorisation - Authorization is the function of specifying access rights/privileges to
resources related to information security and computer security in general and
to access control in particular.

– Data communication - This refers to how a DBMS can accept different end user
requests through different network environments. An example of this can be easily
related to the internet. A DBMS can provide access to the database using the
Internet through Web Browsers (Mozilla Firefox, Internet Explorer, Netscape).

– Data integrity - The DBMS enforces these rules to reduce things such as data
redundancy, which is when data is stored in more than one place unnecessarily, and
maximizing data consistency, making sure database is returning correct/same
answer each time for same question asked.

– Administration utilities - A DBMS normally provides various utilities for aiding

database administration that includes utilities for loading data into their respective
database and finally monitoring the system. The utilities allow system monitoring
 give information on and query execution strategy. The Database Administrator
(DBA) is the one who can use this information to tune the system to give better
performance result to the database, by generating additional indexes to speed up
queries, by altering storage structures, or by combining or splitting tables.

Designing an entity relation diagram (ERD) could actually be considered both a top-
down approach and a bottom-up approach.

It is top-down in that you likely would have some high level concept for the database you
are designing before you start designing it - and you may begin to break various entity
sets apart as you go, perhaps realizing that some subset of attributes for a given entity
set constituted a new standalone entity set. So you’d be starting with a final product in
mind and working down.

But it is also bottom-up in that as you create all of your entity sets and relationships, you
are building a complete system from a bunch of smaller pieces. So your be starting from
small, individual items and working up.

Types of Attributes
 Simple attribute − Simple attributes are atomic values, which cannot be divided
further. For example, a student's phone number is an atomic value of 10 digits.

 Composite attribute − Composite attributes are made of more than one simple
attribute. For example, a student's complete name may have first_name and
last_name.

 Single-value attribute − Single-value attributes contain single value. For

example − Social_Security_Number.

 Multi-value attribute − Multi-value attributes may contain more than one

values. For example, a person can have more than one phone number,

email_address, etc.

(1) Duplication
When you create tables in a database, you may want to create duplication:

CREATE TABLE user (name TEXT, id INTEGER);

CREATE TABLE friends (name TEXT, friend_of_id INTEGER);
Here you would duplicate the name of the user in both tables. That way when you display
the list of friends, you do not have to access the user table to read the name. This is a
simple example, but it shows what we call data duplication.

Duplication means YOU are responsible for also updating the name parameter in the
friends table, when you change the name in the user table. If you do not do that
consistently, then your data becomes inconsistent and users start seeing "strange things
happening."

A database system is referred to as self-describing because it not only contains the database itself, but
also metadata which defines and describes the data and relationships between tables in the database.
This information is used by the DBMS software or database users if needed.

There is data redundancy and data duplication. The is a possibility that the name would be spelled
differently in the other table which would result in data inconsistency. Loss of data integrity.

– Metadata is data that is about data.

– It is the way in which the database keeps information about its own structure.

– It is important in understanding how data can be independent of applications in the

database approach.

– Metadata is stored in the data dictionary.

Name Type Length Description

Student Name Character 50 Student’s
name
Student ID Number 8 Unique identification
number for a student
Date of Birth Date 8 Student’s date of birth
in the format
’01.01.80’

C
There can be any case in database system like any computer system when database failure
happens. So data stored in database should be available all the time whenever it is needed.
So Database recovery means recovering the data when it get deleted, hacked or damaged
accidentally. Atomicity is must whether is transaction is over or not it should reflect in the
database permanently or it should not effect the database at all. So database recovery and
database recovery techniques are must in DBMS.

1. Entities, which are objects or concepts that can have data stored about
them.

2. Attributes, which are properties or characteristics of entities. An ERD

attribute can be denoted as a primary key, which identifies a unique
attribute, or a foreign key, which can be assigned to multiple attributes.

3. The relationships between and among those entities.

B

 Simple attribute − Simple attributes are atomic values, which cannot be divided
further. For example, a student's phone number is an atomic value of 10 digits.

 Composite attribute − Composite attributes are made of more than one simple
attribute. For example, a student's complete name may have first_name and
last_name.
7

To store countries

Cities

Locations

Offices

Collections

Services

Proccessing

B
 • Integrated data

• Reduced data duplication

• Program/data independence

• Easier representation of users’ perspectives

• Database systems are self-describing

• A database is a model of a model.

A database management system stores, organizes and manages a large amount of information within a
single software application. ... Database management systems are important in businesses and
organisations because they provide a highly efficient method for handling multiple types of data.
B

 Store
 Manipulate
 Retrieve

• Single user databases on a PC

• Small office database with everyone doing the same sorts of tasks

• Medium size database system with core data but people doing different tasks

• Corporate databases spread over many sites

• Very large databases and data-warehouses

File vs Database. Summary: Difference Between File and Database is that a data file is a collection of
related records stored on a storage medium such as a hard disk or optical disc. While a database is a
collection of data organized in a manner that allows access, retrieval, and use of that data.

– CRUD functions (create, retrieve, update & delete)

– Store, manipulate and retrieve

C
A conceptual schema or conceptual data model is a map of concepts and their relationships used for
databases. This describes the semantics of an organization and represents a series of assertions about its
nature.
10

A
Definition - What does Tuple (Database) mean?
In the context of relational databases, a tuple is one record (one row). The information
in a database can be thought of as a spreadsheet, with columns (known as fields or
attributes) representing different categories of information, and tuples (rows)
representing all the information from each field associated with a single record.

Cardinality. ... Many different types of cardinality exist, and need to be used correctly to
properly design database. Cardinalities are used when we are creating an E/R diagram, and
show the relationships between entities/ tables. The first typeof cardinality is a very basic 1:1
(one to one).
C

1 : 1 – one to one

1 : M – one to many

M : M – many to many

0 : 1 – zero to one

0 : M – zero to many