Sop 1

Baruah and Talukdar (2007) investigated the static properties of plain concrete (PC) and fibre

reinforced concrete (FRC) with different fibre volume fractions ranging from 0.5% to 2%.

Fibres used were steel, artificial and natural fibres (jute and coir fibres only). Here, discussion

is limited only to PC and the coir fibres reinforced concrete (CFRC). The mix design (cement: sand:
aggregates) for plain concrete was 1: 1.67: 3.64 with water

cement ratio of 0.535. Per cubic meter of concrete mix was cement = 350 kg, fine aggregates

= 568.40 kg, coarse aggregate = 1239.40 kg and water = 182 kg. The maximum size of

aggregates was 20mm. Coir fibres having length of 4cm and diameter of 0.4mm with volume

fraction of 0.5, 1, 1.5 and 2% were added to prepare CFRC.

The sizes of specimens were (1) 150 mm diameter and 300mm height for cylinders (2) 150

mm width, 150 mm depth and 700 mm length for beams, and (3) 150mm cubes having a cut

of 90 mm X 60 mm in cross-section and 150 mm high for L-shaped shear test specimens. All

specimens were cured for 28 days. The investigated properties, compressive strength ( ), splitting tensile
strength (STS),

modulus of rupture (MOR) using four point load test and shear strength ( ), are shown in

Table 4 for PC and CFRC. It can be noted that CFRC with 2 % fibres showed better results
amongst all volume fractions.

The compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, modulus of rupture and shear strength of

coir fibre reinforced concrete with 2% fibres by volume fraction were increased up to 13.7,

22.9, 28.0 and 32.7 %, respectively as compared to those of plain concrete. It is also noted

from their research that all these properties were also improved for CFRC with all other

tested volume fractions of fibres (0.5, 1 and 1.5 %). These properties were increased up to

only 1.3, 4.9, 4.0 and 4.7 %, respectively for CFRC with 0.5% fibres by volume fraction.

Aziz et al. (1981) cited the work of Das Gupta et al. (1978 and 1979) who studied the

mechanical properties of cement paste composites for different lengths and volume fractions

of coconut fibres.

The authors concluded that the tensile strength and modulus of rupture of cement paste

increased up to a certain length and volume fraction; and further increase in length or volume

fraction decreased the strength of composite.

There is a huge difference in some properties, e.g. diameter of coconut fibres is

approximately same and magnitudes of tensile strength are quite different, e.g. compare

tensile strength of coconut fibres mentioned by Ramakrishna et al. (2005a) and Toledo et al.

(2005) in Table 1.

In the recent past many researchers have studied the physical and mechanical characteristics

of coconut shell aggregate and its influence on properties of both fresh and hardened

concrete. [1] Anwar et al. (2016) studied the waste CS may be utilized to replace NCA. M20

grade of concrete was produced by replacing NCA at 0%, 5%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40% and

50% by weight with CS. Total sixty three cubes were cast and their compressive strength was

evaluated at 7, 14 and 28 days. The results showed that CSC can be used in light weight

concrete construction. Utilization of CS will not only be cost effective and Eco friendly, but

also resolve the issues related to shortage of conventional material and problem of disposal of

waste material. [2] Reddy et al. (2014) experimentally investigated the utilization of CS as

coarse aggregate and concluded that addition of CS decreases the workability and addition of

fly ash as cement replacement increases workability of CSC. The compressive strength and

split tensile strength decreases with increase in CS replacement. [3] Ahlawat and Kalurkar

(2014) found the possibility of generating M20 grade of concrete by partial replacement of

aggregate by CS. 45 no of cubes were casted. Percentage of replacement by CS varies 2.5%,

5%, 7.5%, 10%. Compressive strength found out 19.71, 19.53, 19.08, 18.91 N/mm

at 28

days of curing. Workability and compressive strength had been checked at 7, 14 and 28 days.

As the percentage of replacement increased the compressive strength gets reduced. [4] Lenka
and Panda (2017) investigates the fresh, hardened and durability properties of conventional

concrete (CC) and self-compacting concrete (SCC) by partially replacing cement with MK in

different percentages (5-20%). In hardened concrete compressive, split tensile and flexural

strength test carried out at an age of 7, 28 and 90 days with constant (w/b) 0.43%. The

authors concluded that optimum replacement level of MK for cement was 10%, which

increased mechanical properties and robustness properties of concrete. [5] Kim et al. (2012)

experimentally investigated the impacts of MK on lightweight concrete according to various

types of fine aggregate. Three types of fine aggregate used for this purpose, two of them were

by-product of power plant i.e. bottom ash and other one was artificial expanded shale. MK

was added to each fine aggregate at cement substitution of 0%, 5%, 10%, 15% and 20% by

weight. The feasibility of concrete decreased with increased replacement of MK and type of

fine aggregate. [6] Paiva et al. (2012) presented an introduction of MK can have a strong

effective on fresh and hardened properties of concrete. High range water reducer admixture

(HRWRA) was used to cause deflocculating of particles of MK, leading to better efficiency,

improved workability and performance. When HRWRA was used dispersion of MK

agglomerate was more effective and this reflects on hardened and fresh state properties. The

present paper focuses on the influence of MK and CSA on fresh and hardened properties of

CSC.

EXPERIMENTAL ST

Mohammad Hisbany Bin Mohammad Hashim (2005) tested wall panels made of gypsum and cement as
binder

and coconut fiber as the reinforcement. Bending strength, compressive strength, moisture content,
density, and

absorption were investigated.

Coconut fibers did not contribute to bending strength of the tested wall panels. Compressive strength
increased

with the addition of coconut fibers, but the compressive strength decreased with an increase in water
content and

density was increased. There was no significant change of moisture content with coconut fibers.
However,

moisture content increased with time. There was also no significant effect to water absorption on
increasing

coconut fiber content

Li et al. (2007) studied fiber volume fraction and fiber surface treatment with a wetting agent for coir
mesh

reinforced mortar using nonwoven coir mesh matting. They performed a four-point bending test on a
slab

specimen.

They concluded that cementitious composites, reinforced by three layers of coir mesh (with a low fiber
content

of 1.8 %) resulted in a 40 % improvement in the maximum flexural stress, were 25 times stronger in
flexural

toughness, and about 20 times higher in flexural ductility.

Paramasivam et al. (1984) conducted a feasibility study of making coir fiber reinforced corrugated slabs
for use

in low cost housing particularly for developing countries. They gave recommendations for the
production of

coconut fiber reinforced corrugated slabs along with casting technique.

Tests for flexural strength, thermal and acoustic properties were performed. For prodcing required slabs
having

a flexural strength of 22 MPa, a volume fraction of 3 %, a fiber length of 2.5 cm and a casting pressure of
0.15

MPa (1.5 atmosphere) were recommended. The thermal conductivity and sound absorption coefficient
for low

frequency were comparable with those of locally available asbestos boards.

Ramakrishna and Sandararajan (2005) performed the experimental investigations of the resistance to
impact

loading were carried out on cement sand mortar (1:3) slabs. The slab specimens (300 mm x 300 mm x 20
mm)

were reinforced with natural fibers (coconut, sisal, jute and hibiscus cannabin us fibers) having four
different

fiber contents (0.5, 1.0, 1.5 and 2.5% by weight of cement) and three fiber lengths (20, 30 and 40 mm).
Cook et al. (1978) reported the use of randomly distributed coir fiber reinforced cement composites as
low cost

materials for roofing. The studied parameters were fiber lengths (2.5 cm, 3.75 cm and 6.35 cm), fiber
volumes

(2.5, 5, 7.5, 10 and 15%) and casting pressure (from 1 to 2 MPa with an increment of 0.33 MPa).
Different

properties like bending, impact, shrinkage, water absorption, permeability and fire resistance were
investigated.

They concluded that the optimum composite was a composite with a fiber length of 3.75 cm, a fiber
volume

fraction of 7.5 % and cast at pressure of 1.67 MPa. Cost comparison revealed that this composite was

substantially cheaper than the locally available roofing materials.

Agopyan et al. (2005) studied coir and sisal fibers as replacement for asbestos in roofing tiles. Coir fibers
were

more suitable among studied fibers.

Gyu-Yong Kim, Young-Sun Kim, Tae-Gyu Lee:

Recently, the effects of high temperature on

compressive strength and elastic modulus of high

strength concrete were experimentally investigated.

The present study is aimed to study the effect of

elevated temperatures ranging from 200 to 700o C on

the material mechanical properties of high-strength

concrete of 40, 60 and 80 MPa grade. During the

strength test, the specimens are subjected to a 25% of

ultimate compressive strength at room temperature

and sustained during heating, and when the target

temperature is reached, the specimens are loaded to

failure. The tests were conducted at various

temperatures (200 to 700o C) for concretes made with

W/B ratios of 46%, 32% and 25%, respectively. The

results show that the relative values of compressive

strength and elastic modulus decrease with increasing

compressive strength grade of specimen.

SOP 2

Reis (2006) investigated the mechanical characterization (flexural strength, fracture

toughness and fracture energy) of epoxy polymer concrete reinforced with natural fibres

(coconut, sugarcane bagasse and banana fibres).

Fracture toughness and fracture energy of coconut fibre reinforced polymer concrete were

higher than that of other fibres reinforced polymer concrete. And flexural strength was
increased up to 25 % with coconut fibre only.

Ramakrishna and Sandararajan (2005b) investigated the variation in chemical composition

and tensile strength of four natural fibres (coconut, sisal, jute and hibiscus cannabinus fibres),

when subjected to alternate wetting and drying and continuous immersion for 60 days in

three mediums (water, saturated lime and sodium hydroxide). Chemical composition of all

fibres changed for tested conditions (continuous immersion was found to be critical), and

fibres lost their strength. But coconut fibres were reported best for retaining a good

percentage of its original tensile strength for all tested conditions.

Natural reinforcing materials can be obtained at

low cost and low levels of energy using local

manpower and technology. Utilisation of natural

fibres as a form of concrete enhancement is of

particular interest to less developed regions

where conventional construction materials are

not readily available or are too expensive.

Coconut and sisal-fibre reinforced concrete have

been used for making roof tiles, corrugated

sheets, pipes, silos and tanks (Agopyan, 1988).

One of the suggestions in the forefront has been the sourcing, development and use of alternative, non-
conventional local construction materials including the possibility of using some agricultural wastes and
residues as partial or full replacement of conventional construction materials. In countries where
abundant agricultural wastes are discharged, these wastes can be used as potential material or
replacement material in construction industry (Olanipekun et al., 2006; Nor et al., 2010). One such
alternative is coconut fibre, produced in abundance has the potential to be used as substitute coarse
aggregate in concrete (Adeyemi, 1998, Zain et al., 2010).

There is currently a great deal of interest in developing the technology for using natural fibre materials
in cement composites. Natural fibres exist in reasonably large quantities all over the world and natural
vegetable fibres are produced in most developing countries. Natural fibres have been used to reinforce
inorganic materials for thousands of years. Examples include straw for bricks, mud and poles, plaster
and reeds. During this century other fibres such as coconut, bamboo, wood cellulose fibres, wool or
chips, bast fibres, leaf fibres, seed and fruits fibres have been used in cement-sand based products
(Gram, 1983; Paramasivam et al., 1984; Sera et al., 1990; Duvaut et al., 2000; Brahmakumar et al., 2005;
Asasutjarit et al., 2007; Ismail, 2007; Zain et al., 2010; Zain et al., 2011; Mulinari et al., 2011). Fibres may
be classified as either natural or man-made, and the natural fibres further divided into different groups
(Fordos, 1989; Kelly-Yong et al., 2011; Feng et al., 2011). The use of natural fibre as reinforcement in
concrete (cement-sand matrix) has been comprehensively investigated in many countries (Rehsi, 1991;
Atnaw et al., 2011) The natural fibre reinforced materials, which can be used in the production of
building materials, are presently mainly those based on coconut, bamboo, cane, henequen and sisal
fibres (Dawood and Ramli, 2011; Hamid et al., 2011). The main reasons for the use of natural fibres are
abundantly available and are comparatively cheap. Natural fibre composites are also claimed to offer
environmental advantages such as reduced dependence on non-renewable energy/materials sources,
lower pollutant emissions, lower greenhouse gas emissions, enhanced energy recovery and end of life
biodegradability of components (Joshi, 2003; Majeed, 2011; Hamzah et al., 2010). An appropriate
method for manufacturing roof sheets of natural fibre concrete was rapidly developed and spread to
countries in Central America, Africa and Asia through IT Building Materials Workshop in Great Britain
and others. The method which involves reinforcing cement or concrete products with natural fibres such
as coir, sisal and jute has been applied in at least 28 countries. When combining these fibres with the
cement matrix the fibres are utilised in two ways. On one hand, the fibre in the fresh concrete makes it
possible to mould a product in a simple manner. On the other, the fibre increases the toughness of the
material so that the product can withstand handling and a structural load.

SOP 3

The STAR, firm owner Rogelio P. Agtuca, an engineer, said that a roof tile made of coconut fiber
produced by R.P.A. Concrete Rooftiles can bear a 100-kilogram object.

John et al. (2005) studied the coir fiber reinforced low alkaline cement taken from the internal and
external walls

of a 12 year old house. The panel of the house were produced using 1:1.5:0.504 (binder: sand: water, by
mass)

mortar reinforced with 2% of coconut fibers by volume.

Fibers removed from the old samples were reported to be undamaged. No significant difference was
found in

the lignin content of fibers removed from external and those removed from internal walls.
Coconut fibre has been used to enhance concrete

and mortar, and has proven to improve the

toughness of the concrete and mortar (Gram,

1983, and Ramakrishna, et al., 2005).

Previous study by Olanipekun et al. (2006) has shown that coconut shell is suitable as substitute for
conventional aggregates in the structural concrete production. The results also indicated cost reduction
of 30% for concrete produced from coconut shells. Apart from its use in production of fibre-roofing
material, the other possibility of using coconut fibre as an aggregate in concrete production has not
been given any serious attention. However, Adeyemi (1998) carried out for one mix ratio (1:2:4) the
suitability of coconut fibre as substitute for either fine or coarse aggregate in concrete production. It is
examined that the coconut fibres were more suitable as low strength-giving lightweight aggregate when
used to replace common coarse aggregate in concrete production. Coconut fibre is the hard stony
endocarp but lightweight and naturally sized. Due to the stiff surfaces of organic origin, they will not
contaminate or leach to produce toxic substances once they bound in the concrete matrix. In addition,
coconut fibres are lighter than the conventional coarse aggregate so the resulting concrete will be
lightweight. Therefore, it can be used as a good replacement of coarse aggregate to produce structural
concrete in the construction industry.

Gunasekaran and Kumar (2008) have investigated the possibilities of using coconut shell as aggregate in
concrete. The findings indicated that water absorption of the coconut shell aggregate was high about
24% but the crushing value and impact value was comparable to that of other lightweight aggregates.
They found that the average fresh concrete density and 28-day cube compressive strength of the
concrete using coconut shell aggregate were 1975 kg m-1 and 19.1 N mm-1, respectively. It is concluded
that crushed coconut shells are suitable when it is used as substitute for conventional aggregates in
lightweight concrete production