Machine Design File A

ME362-Part1.1.
pptx
ME362-Part1.2.pptx
ME362-Part1.3.pptx
ME362-Part2.1.pptx
ME362-Part2.2.pptx
ME362-Part3.1.pptx
ME362-Part3.2.pptx
ME362-Part4.1.pptx
ME362-Part4.2.pptx
ME362-Part4.3.pptx
ME362-Part5.1.pptx
ME362-Part5.2.pptx
ME362-Part6.1.pptx
ME362-Part6.2.pptx
ME362-Part6.3.pptx
ME362-Part7.1.pptx
ME362-Part7.2.pptx
ME362-Part7.3.pptx
ME362-Part8.1.pptx
ME362-Part8.2.pptx
ME362-Part8.3.pptx
ME362-Part9.1.pptx
ME362-Part9.2.pptx
ME362-Part10.1.pptx
ME362-Part10.2.pptx
ME362-Part11.1.pptx
ME362-Part11.2.pptx
ME362-Part11.3.pptx
ME362-Part12.1.pptx
ME362-Part12.2.pptx
ME362-Part12.3.pptx
ME362-Part13.1.pptx
ME362-Part13.2.pptx
ME362-Part14.1.pptx
ME362-Part14.2.pptx
ME362-Part15.1.pptx
ME – 362
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DESIGN
Part 1.1
Muhammad Ilyas
INTRODUCTION
 Instructor
Muhammad Ilyas
PhD (ISAE-SUPAERO)
Assistant Professor
Office: G15 at FME
Ext. 2228
ilyas@giki.edu.pk
Availability:
Monday to Thursday: 1500-1700 Hrs.
Experience: Design for Manufacturing

Research: Rapid Dynamics, Material Characterization,
Predictive Simulations (FEA)
COURSE CONTENTS
 Philosophy and concept of engineering design

 Engineering creativity
 Phases and procedures in design
 Management of engineering projects
 Computer aided design (CAD)
 Case studies in design with emphasis on
 System modelling,
 Optimization and
 Reliability
 Application of industrial design codes
COURSE OUTLINE
 Philosophy and concept of engineering design

 Engineering creativity
 Phases and procedures in design
 Management of engineering projects
 Computer aided design (CAD)
 Case studies in design with emphasis on
 System modelling,
 Optimisation and
 Reliability
 Application of industrial design codes
COURSE/REFERENCE BOOKS
 Mechanical Engineering Design by G E Dieter and L C

Schmidt, 4th Edition, Published by McGraw Hill, (ISBN
978-0-07-339814-3)
 Product Design for Manufacture and Assembly, Second
Edition revised and expanded. By Geoffrey Boothroyd,
Peter Dewhurst and Winston Knight Published by Marcel
and Dekker, Inc (ISBN 0-8247-0584-X)
 Any Engineering Design related book (e.g., Mechanical
Engineering Design (Shigley’s MED) by Budynas−Nisbett)
 www…
ME362 ...
 CLO_1
 Understand the methods for problem identification,
need analysis, information gathering to provide a
viable economical solution.
 CLO_2
 Identify various steps of the design process and
methods used for material selection, risks and costs
evaluation.
 CLO_3
 To communicate and implement effectively the
design process
ME362 ...
 Monday - Friday
 Timings-time table
 Final class grade will be based on:

 4~8 Quizzes 10%
 01 Mid Exams 25%
 Case Studies & Course Project 25%
 01 Final 40%
 Total 100%
CASE STUDIES & COURSE PROJECT
 Case Studies / Design Projects have a major role

in this subject for practical problem solving
 Discussion can be arranged with the instructor as per
request from students
 Project may include
 Theory / Analysis
 Experimental work
 Both
 Assessment
 Report
 Presentation
 Viva…
CASE STUDIES & COURSE PROJECT
 Proposed Projects
 Split Hopkinson’s Pressure Bar Apparatus
 Drop Tower Test Apparatus
 Bring your ideas / project
 Title Submission : Next week!
 Projects should have two phases:
 Before mid term phase
 Until final term
 The 1st phase of project should include all steps / design
studies, covered before mid term
 The 2nd phase of project should cover methodologies
covered till final term
COURSE TOPICS
 The Product Design Process
 Need Identification and Problem Definition
 Gather Information (as assignment)
 Concept Generation and Evaluation
 Embodiment Design
 Modeling and Simulation
 Materials Selection and Materials in Design
 Materials Processing and Design
 Risk, Reliability and Safety
 Robust and Quality Design
 Cost Evaluation
 Detailed Design
 Communicating the Design (as assignment)
COURSE TOPICS
 Chapter 1 to 6 are related to general steps
involved in design process planning
 Chapter 7 to 14 are related to the application of
knowledge already gained above
 Chapter 16 is concerned with filling in the
details to ensure that a proven and tested
design can be manufactured
 Chapter 17 is most important because as a
Design Engineer you must be able to
communicate your peers, your subordinates,
and your superiors as a successful Project
manager
COURSE TOPICS
 Mechanical Engineering Design by G E Dieter
and L C Schmidt
TODAY’S LECTURE
This lecture will mainly cover the following topics
 Engineering Design – Introduction

 Design (Definition) / Product / Good Design …
 Design Process
 Importance of design process
 Types of design
 Static vs Dynamic product
 Problem solving methodology in design process
 Description of Design Process
INTRODUCTION
 Design is a practice used not only by engineers but also

by other creative members of the society
 artist, a sculptor, a composer, a playwright etc.
 Everyday we see so many examples of designing same

part in different ways
 Design examples of general and engineering applications?

DESIGNS OF A DUSTBIN IN PUBLIC PLACES
MORE…….
http://www.3dlabz.com/3d-product-animation-
company.htm
INTRODUCTION
 As practiced by many professionals, design has many
definitions
 To fashion after a plan
 To decide upon the look and functioning of a part / object
 Realization of a concept
 To create something that has never been
Then what is the … Formal Definition of Design..?
“Design establishes and defines solutions to, and
pertinent structures, for problems not solved before, or
new solutions to problems which have previously been
solved in a different way.”
Conclusion  Essence of Engineering is ‘DESIGN’
DESIGN
 Generally we design to;

– Meet specified requirements and solve problems
 But sometimes;
– It is possible to create a need!!
“I like it, I want it … now, what is it?”
seymour powell
????
????
DESIGN AND SOCIETY
Design is something we do in social,

economic and cultural realms
NOT JUST
something we do to things!!
Christopher Frayling,
Chairman of the Design Council
DESIGN AND SOCIETY
Design is something we do in social,

economic and cultural realms
To design is to pull together

something
new or to arrange existing things
in a new way to satisfy a
recognized need of society
NOT JUST
something we do to things!!
DESIGN
Engineering Design is a purposeful activity directed

purposeful activity
towards the goal
goal of fulfilling human needs, particularly
those which can be met by technological factors of our
technological factors
civilisation
process of seeking a match between a set of customer
The process
derivedproduct
derived product requirements and a way of meeting those
requirements
requirements or finding an acceptable compromise
Total Design – the systematic activity necessary from the

systematic activity
identification of the market/user need to the selling of the
market user need
successful product to satisfy
satisfy that need – an activity that
that need
encompasses product,product,process, peopleand
process, people and organisation
organisations
DESIGN SPECIALISM
Design specialties have a wide range of applications
building product industrial
graphic engineering
packaging defence manufacturing

WHAT IS A PRODUCT
Something created by physical labour
and/or intellectual effort
Design Product could be
• Consumer goods, Appliances,

• Missiles, Jets, Planes
It may be complex engineering

system
• Electric power generating system
• Petrochemical plants
• Building/bridge design
DESIGN PRODUCT – GROWTH
A design product grows based on the requirements of
Society, Culture
Environment,
Economy
It also pays attention to
the
Problems,
Requirements,
Needs, Desires
Strive to Improve
~ Quality of Life ~
Innovation ~ Performance ~
Evolution
Variant
Redesign
Original Adaptive
ENGINEERING DESIGN
Is Design a Science or Art?

Is it a Discovery or Invention?
Examples…
ENGINEERING DESIGN
Ability to Design is both a Science and an Art
Science : can be learned by techniques and methods
(covered in textbook)
Art : is best learned by performing the activities (design)
Discovery : is getting the first sight of, or first knowledge of
something (e.g. North America, Graphene)
We can discover what has already existed but has not been
known before
“Design should not be confused with Discovery”
Design is the product of “Planning and Work”
Invention:
“Design may or may not involve invention”
(e.g Patent – one step beyond limits of existing knowledge)
ENGINEERING DESIGN
Conclusion
“Engineering Design extends beyond the boundaries of
Science”
Why??
Because…
As a Design Engineer during professional career, you may
have the opportunity”
• To create dozens of designs
• Have satisfaction of seeing them become working reality
As a Scientist during professional career, you may have the
opportunity:
• To make one creative addition to human knowledge in your
whole life and many never do so
• Can discover a new star but can not make one
• Have to ask an Engineer to do it (e.g CERN)
ENGINEERING DESIGN
What is a Good Design…… ?

“Good design requires both Analysis and Synthesis”
Analysis
Decomposing problem into manageable parts
• To understand performance/behavior of parts in service
using appropriate discipline of science/engineering and
computational tools
• Usually involves simplification of real world problems
through models
Synthesis
Identification of Design Elements that will comprise
• Product
• Sometimes, its decomposition into parts
• Combination of part solutions into a total workable system
ENGINEERING DESIGN
Analysis offers a science of parts – you take portions of

a part and study / work on it
Synthesis a science of the integration of parts – you

combine parts and study / work on it
Electronic
ENGINEERING DESIGN Design
Industrial
What is a Real World Problem that you Design

Civil
intend to design…? Design
Partial Design Vs Total Design

• Rarely neat and defined
Electronic
• May need many engineering (fluid, Hydraulic
Mechanical
Electrical
solid mechanics etc) and non- Biochem Civil
engineering discipline (economics,

finance, law etc)
• Input data may be best but out of the
scope of the individual
• Constraints may be time, money,
societal, environmental or energy
regulations etc.
ENGINEERING DESIGN
How the Final Design will fare…… ?
• Is it the best, most efficient?
• The correct answer -- rarely known (a priori)
• Only time will tell….!!!!!
• One is hopeful that “His Design will Work”
DESIGN PROCESS
 The process through which a product is designed from

scratch to the product realization : Engineering Design
Process
 Engineering design process can be used to achieve
several different outcomes:
 Design of products
 consumer goods (e.g. refrigerators, power tools, DVD
players etc) or
 complex products (e.g. a missile system, jet transport plane)
 Design of complex engineered systems
 such as an electrical power generating station or a
petrochemical plant, a building or a bridge
THE DESIGN PROCESS
Problem identification Specifications

(Market analyst)
Conceptual design Concepts

(Product designer)
Embodiment design Layouts

(Design Analyst)
Detail design Drawings

(Development & Research Engineer)
Manufacture Product
(Process Planner and Production Engineer)
IMPORTANCE OF DESIGN PROCESS
 Any product development involves
 Planning
 Design
 Manufacturing & QC
 Marketing
 It is important to devote due time to all of the above
 The quality of a product is dependent on all of the phases
involved in the development
 Design process is one of the major contributors towards
achieving the quality products!
 Although, the cost of design may be smaller compared to
manufacturing costs… the decisions made during design
stage affects 70 to 80% of manufacturing cost of the product
 In the early 80s,
 US companies start to feel pressure of quality products from
overseas
 Response: emphasis is placed on reducing the
manufacturing costs
 US NRC study (1991)
 Companies realize: the key to world-competitive products
lies in high-quality product design
 The competitiveness of product based on design can be
seen through the following three parameters:
 Cost
 Quality
 Product cycle time
IMPORTANCE OF DESIGN PROCESS–DESIGN COST
Product cost commitment during phases of design process
manufacturing
70~80% = for Design commitment decisions are
25% = for manufacture responsible for about
~ 25% cost of the
product
~ 95% of cost incurred

Design decisions are
responsible for about
~ 70% cost of the
product
5% = for design
95% = for material,
manufacture, labor,
capital
IMPACT OF DESIGN – DESIGN COST
Decision made in the design process are very important and it
will affect the cost of the product
• Although design costs are very little in terms of the overall

product cost but have a major effect on the cost of the
product
• If the design proves to be faulty just before the product
goes to market, it will cost a great deal of money to
correct the problem
IMPACT OF DESIGN – PRODUCT QUALITY
• The conventional concept of product quality : inspect the

product as it comes off the production line
• However, today quality of the product means that quality
should be built into the design
• One cannot compensate for the defects introduced in
the design phase in the manufacturing of the product
• To incorporate quality within the product the
performance and features that are truly desired by the
customer who purchases the product are to be
incorporated in the product
IMPACT OF DESIGN – PRODUCT CYCLE TIME
• Cycle time : the development time required to bring a new

product to market
• The use of new organizational methods, the widespread use
of computer-aided engineering, and rapid prototyping
methods are contributing to reducing product cycle time
• Not only does reduced cycle time in-crease the
marketability of a product, but it reduces the cost of
product development
• The design process should be conducted so as to develop
quality, cost-competitive products in the shortest time
possible
STATIC PRODUCT VS DYNAMIC PRODUCT
Static Product Dynamic Product
Products for which change in design Basic design concept varies frequently
concept takes long time period e.g., as the original technology changes e.g.,
refrigerators, automobiles etc telecom systems, software etc
Exists in market where customer is not Customers may even drive change.
eager to change and does not demand Customer seeks to reduce product cycle
significant improvement time
Market characterized by stable number Market is characterized by many small
of large producers producers
High price competition and little
Involves active market research
research
Products are similar to each other Companies seek new product
Technology is stable and mature Technology is rapidly advancing
Users don’t demand significant
There is a high product differentiation
improvement Industries standards may
and low industry standardization
even restrict change
Because of importance of cost, emphasis
More emphasis is placed on product
is more on process research than on
research than on process research
product research
TYPES OF DESIGN
Original design
Engineering design Adaptive design
Redesign
Selective design
Industrial
design
TYPES OF DESIGN
Original design: Original and Innovative concept to achieve a
need e.g. the design of the microprocessor was an original
design
Adaptive design: The design team adapts a known solution to
satisfy a different need, aim: to produce a novel application.
e.g. adapting the ink-jet printing concept to spray binder/glue to
hold particles in place in a rapid prototyping machine
Redesign: Improve an existing design. The task may be to redesign
a component in a product that is failing in service, or redesign
a component to reduce its cost of manufacture e.g. the change
in the shape of a part to reduce a stress concentration, or a new
material substituted to reduce weight or cost
TYPES OF DESIGN
Selection design: In this case, the design task consists of

selecting the components with the desired performance,
quality, and cost from the catalogs of potential vendors
e.g. to select nuts and bolts of available sizes
prescribed in the from the fortress-fasteners catalogue
Industrial design: This form of design deals with improving
the appeal of a product to the human senses, especially
its visual appeal. While this type of design is more
artistic than engineering, it is a vital aspect of many
kinds of design. e.g., design of office wares
TODAY’S LECTURE
This lecture will mainly cover the following topics

 Engineering Design – Introduction
 Design Definition/ Product/ Good Design/ …
 Design Process
 Importance of design process
 Types of design
 Static vs Dynamic product


ME – 362
DESIGN
Part 1.2
Muhammad Ilyas
ENGINEERING DESIGN
Is Design a Science or Art?

Is it a Discovery or Invention?
Examples…
ENGINEERING DESIGN
Ability to Design is both a Science and an Art
Science : can be learned by techniques and methods
(covered in textbook)
Art : is best learned by performing the activities (design)
Discovery : is getting the first sight of, or first knowledge of
something (e.g. North America, Graphene)
We can discover what has already existed but has not been
known before
“Design should not be confused with Discovery”
Design is the product of “Planning and Work”
Invention:
“Design may or may not involve invention”
(e.g Patent – one step beyond limits of existing knowledge)
ENGINEERING DESIGN
Conclusion
“Engineering Design extends beyond the boundaries of
Science”
Why??
Because…
As a Design Engineer during professional career, you may
have the opportunity”
• To create dozens of designs
• Have satisfaction of seeing them become working reality
As a Scientist during professional career, you may have the
opportunity:
• To make one creative addition to human knowledge in your
whole life and many never do so
• Can discover a new star but can not make one
• Have to ask an Engineer to do it (e.g CERN)
ENGINEERING DESIGN
What is a Good Design…… ?

“Good design requires both Analysis and Synthesis”
Analysis
Decomposing problem into manageable parts
• To understand performance / behavior of parts in service
using appropriate discipline of science / engineering and
computational tools
• Usually involves simplification of real world problems
through models
Synthesis
Identification of Design Elements that will comprise
• Product
• Sometimes, its decomposition into parts
• Combination of part solutions into a total workable system
ENGINEERING DESIGN
Analysis offers a science of parts – you take portions of

a part and study / work on it
Synthesis a science of the integration of parts – you

combine parts and study / work on it
Electronic
ENGINEERING DESIGN Design
Industrial
What is a Real World Problem that you Design

Civil
intend to design…? Design
Partial Design Vs Total Design

• Rarely neat and defined
Electronic
• May need many engineering (fluid, Hydraulic
Mechanical
Electrical
solid mechanics etc) and non- Biochem Civil
engineering discipline (economics,

finance, law etc)
• Input data may be best but out of the
scope of the individual
• Constraints may be time, money,
societal, environmental or energy
regulations etc.
ENGINEERING DESIGN
How the Final Design will fare…… ?
• Is it the best, most efficient?
• The correct answer -- rarely known (a priori)
• Only time will tell….!!!!!
• One is hopeful that “His Design will Work”
DESIGN PROCESS
 The process through which a product is designed from

scratch to the product realization : Engineering Design
Process
 Engineering design process can be used to achieve
several different outcomes:
 Design of products
 consumer goods (e.g. refrigerators, power tools, DVD
players etc) or
 complex products (e.g. a missile system, jet transport plane)
 Design of complex engineered systems
 such as an electrical power generating station or a
petrochemical plant, a building or a bridge
THE DESIGN PROCESS
Problem identification Specifications

(Market analyst)
Conceptual design Concepts

(Product designer)
Embodiment design Layouts

(Design Analyst)
Detail design Drawings

(Development & Research Engineer)
Manufacture Product
(Process Planner and Production Engineer)
 Any product development involves
 Planning
 Design
 Manufacturing & QC
 Marketing
 It is important to devote due time to all of the above
 The quality of a product is dependent on all of the phases
involved in the development
 Design process is one of the major contributors towards
achieving the quality products!
 Although, the cost of design may be smaller compared to
manufacturing costs… the decisions made during design
stage affects 70 to 80% of manufacturing cost of the product
 In the early 80s,
 US companies start to feel pressure of quality products from
overseas
 Response: emphasis is placed on reducing the
manufacturing costs
 US NRC study (1991)
 Companies realize: the key to world-competitive products
lies in high-quality product design
 The competitiveness of product based on design can be
seen through the following three parameters:
 Cost
 Quality
 Product cycle time
IMPORTANCE OF DESIGN PROCESS–DESIGN COST
manufacturing
~ 25% cost of the
product

~ 70% cost of the
product
5% = for design
95% = for material,
manufacture, labor,
capital
IMPACT OF DESIGN – DESIGN COST
Decisions made in the design process are very important and it
will affect the cost of the product
• Although design costs are very little in terms of the overall

product cost but have a major effect on the cost of the
product
• If the design proves to be faulty just before the product
goes to market, it will cost a great deal of money to
correct the problem
• The conventional concept of product quality : inspect the

product as it comes off the production line
• Cycle time : the development time required to bring a new

product to market
• Not only does reduced cycle time increase the
marketability of a product, but it reduces the cost of
product development
possible
STATIC PRODUCT VS DYNAMIC PRODUCT
Static Product Dynamic Product
Products for which change in design Basic design concept varies frequently
concept takes long time period e.g., as the original technology changes e.g.,
refrigerators, automobiles etc telecom systems, software etc
Exists in market where customer is not Customers may even drive change.
eager to change and does not demand Customer seeks to reduce product cycle
significant improvement time
Market characterized by stable number Market is characterized by many small
of large producers producers
High price competition and little
Involves active market research
research
Products are similar to each other Companies seek new product
Technology is stable and mature Technology is rapidly advancing
Users don’t demand significant
There is a high product differentiation
improvement Industries standards may
and low industry standardization
even restrict change
Because of importance of cost, emphasis
More emphasis is placed on product
is more on process research than on
research than on process research
product research
TYPES OF DESIGN
Original Design
Engineering Design Adaptive

Design
Redesign
Selective
Design
Industrial
Design
TYPES OF DESIGN
Original design: Original and Innovative concept to achieve a
need e.g. the design of the microprocessor was an original
design
Adaptive design: The design team adapts a known solution to
satisfy a different need, aim: to produce a novel application.
e.g. adapting the ink-jet printing concept to spray binder/glue to
hold particles in place in a rapid prototyping machine
Redesign: Improve an existing design. The task may be to redesign
a component in a product that is failing in service, or redesign
a component to reduce its cost of manufacture e.g. the change
in the shape of a part to reduce a stress concentration, or a new
material substituted to reduce weight or cost
TYPES OF DESIGN
Selection design: In this case, the design task consists of

selecting the components with the desired performance,
quality, and cost from the catalogs of potential vendors
e.g. to select nuts and bolts of available sizes
prescribed in the from the fortress-fasteners catalogue
Industrial design: This form of design deals with improving
the appeal of a product to the human senses, especially
its visual appeal. While this type of design is more
artistic than engineering, it is a vital aspect of many
kinds of design. e.g., design of office wares
DESIGN PROCESS
PROBLEM SOLVING METHODOLOGY IN DESIGN
PROCESS
• Problem Definition
• Gathering Information
• Generation of Alternative Solution
• Evaluation of Alternatives
• Communication of Results
DESIGN PROCESS
PROCESS
PROBLEM DEFINITION
• Most critical step in the solution of a problem
• True Problem is not always as it seems at first glance
• As this step takes a very small time as compared to total time
for finding a solution, this step is normally overlooked
• Example
PROBLEM DEFINITION
Different solutions (or final design) of a problem based on
individual who defines the problem…
PROBLEM DEFINITION
• The Formulation of a problem should start by writing
down ‘problem statement’
o This document should express as specifically as
possible what the problem is
o Should include objectives and goals
o The current state of affairs and the desired state
o Any constraint placed on solution of the problem
o Definition of any special technical terms
DESIGN PROCESS
PROCESS
GATHERING INFORMATION
• Most frustrating for solving the problem
• Problem may be of the technical area not related to your
previous background or you may not have even a single
basic reference on the subject
• You may get a mountain of reports of previous work
• So whatever the situation is, the immediate action is to
identify needed pieces of information and find or develop
that information
• The important thing in gathering information for design is that
• Textbooks and articles published in the scholarly technical
journals usually are of lesser importance
• The need often is for more specific and current information
such as
➢ Technical reports published as a result of government-sponsored
R&D,
➢ Company reports
➢ Trade Journals / Patents
➢ Catalogs / handbooks and literature published by vendors and
suppliers of material and equipment
➢ Internet search or a telephone call or an e-mail to a key supplier
➢ Discussions with in-house experts and outside consultants
• Questions concerned with obtaining information
• What do I need to find out?
• Where can I find it and how can I get it?
• How credible and accurate is the information?
• How should the information be interpreted for my specific
need?
• When do I have enough information?
• What decisions result from the information?
DESIGN PROCESS
PROCESS
GENERATION OF ALTERNATIVE SOLUTIONS
➢ The ability to generate high-quality alternative solutions is vital
to a successful design
➢ Generating alternative solutions or design concepts involves
• Use of creativity
• Application of physical principles and qualitative reasoning
• Ability to find and use information
DESIGN PROCESS
PROCESS
EVALUATION OF ALTERNATIVES
• The evaluation of alternatives involves systematic methods for
selecting the best among several designs, often in the face of
incomplete information
• Evaluation basis involve
• Engineering analysis (about service
performance)
• Cost estimation (cost comparison)
• Design for manufacture (life cycle)
• Simulation and simulated service testing
• Experimental testing of full sized
prototypes
DESIGN PROCESS
PROCESS
COMMUNICATION OF RESULTS
• Purpose of design is to satisfy the needs of a customer / client
• Final design must be communicated properly
• Communication is usually oral or in written design report form
• Typically design engineers spend their time:
• 60% in discussing designs and preparing written
documentation of designs
• 40% in analyzing / testing design and doing designs (detailed
drawings, 3D models etc)
• Deliverables: detailed engineering drawings, computer programs,
working models
• Not only one time occurrence but a continual oral and written
dialogue
ME – 362
DESIGN
Part 1.3
Muhammad Ilyas
WEEK 1
 Organization for design
 Concurrent engineering
 Elements of concurrent engineering

DESCRIPTION OF DESIGN PROCESS
A design process generates a conceptual solution A series of actions, changes, or
for a problem stated in the form of requirements. functions bringing about a result
 The detailed description or morphology of the design

can be described in seven phases (Morris Asimow):
1. Conceptual design
2. Embodiment design Can be understood from the flow diagram
3. Detail design
4. Planning for manufacture
5. Planning for distribution
6. Planning for use
7. Planning for retirement of product
The detailed description or morphology of the design can be described in seven
phases (Morris Asimow):
2. Embodiment design
3. Detail design
 Process Sheet: a sequential list of all manufacturing
operations that must be performed on the component
 the shipping package, shelf life
6. Planning for use
 ease of maintenance, durability, reliability, product safety,
convenience in use (human factors engineering), aesthetic
appeal, and economy
 Useful life may be determined by actual deterioration and
wear to the point at which the design can no longer function
WEEK 1

ORGANIZATION FOR DESIGN
 The organization of a business enterprise can
have a major influence on how effectively design
and product development are carried out
 There are two fundamental ways for organizing
a business:
 with regard to function or
 with respect to projects
• There may be some other types

of organization/ teams
• hybrid / matrix
• concurrent team
FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATION
High Low
Low High
 Each individual has only one boss
 All Research and Engineering reports to single vice
president
 As everyone has common professional background,
they have
 opportunities to develop deep expertise, and clear career paths
for specialists
 Organizational links are between people of similar
functions
 Interactions are forced at level of unit manager
 Acceptable for a business with a narrow and slowly
changing set of product line
 Can be a problem for a dynamic product situation
PROJECT ORGANIZATION
 People with different functional

expertise are grouped together for
product development (development
team)
 Each development group reports to a project

manager (overall responsibility)
 Chief advantage is that it focuses the needed
specialty talents on attainment of goals of the
project
 Often project organization is time limited
 People are reassigned back to the functional
units after the goal is achieved
 Disadvantages of Project Organization
 Experts tend to loose their ‘cutting edge’ functional
capabilities with such intense focus on project goal
 Less economical than functional organization
 Very common in start up companies where the company
and the project is synonymous
 Large corporations establish project organization for large
critical projects
HYBRID/MATRIX ORGANIZATION
 Combines the advantages of both functional and
project organizations
 Each person is linked according to the function
and project they work on
 While this may be true in theory, in practice either the
functional manager or the project manager
predominates
HYBRID/MATRIX ORGANIZATION – LIGHTWEIGHT PROJECTS
 Consider the case of projects of short duration;

low person hours; small team; small size of the
budget
• In this case, functional

links are stronger than
project links (so- called
Functional links
project links
functional organizations)
• Works well in stable
business environment
where product pre-
dominates in market due
to technical excellence
HYBRID/MATRIX ORGANIZATION – LIGHTWEIGHT PROJECTS
 In this case, each individual may have two

supervisors ( Functional manager & Project
manager ), the responsibilities of these managers
may be
Project Manager Functional

Manager
Responsible For Responsible For
Functional links
project links
 Scheduling  Budget
 Coordination  Personnel
 Arranging matters
meetings  Performance
evaluation
HYBRID ORGANIZATION – HEAVYWEIGHT PROJECTS
 In this case, the project manager has complete

budgetary authority, makes most of the resource
allocation decisions, and plays a strong role in
evaluating personnel
• Although each participant
belongs to a functional unit, the
functional manager has little
authority and control over project
Functional links
decisions. project links
• However, he continues to write

his people’s reviews, and they
return to his organization at the
end of the project
• Heavyweight project organization
has advantages in introducing
completely new products,
especially where speed is
important
WEEK 1

CONCURRENT ENGINEERING
 The conventional way of doing product design has
been to carry out all of the steps serially
 Thus product concept, product design and product
testing has been done prior to process planning,
manufacturing system design and production
 Commonly, these serial functions have been carried
out in distinct and separate organizations with
little interaction between them
CONCURRENT ENGINEERING
 Concurrent engineering is a team-based
approach in which all aspects of the product
development process are represented on a closely
communicating team
 Team members perform their jobs in an
overlapping and concurrent manner so as to
minimize the time for product development
 Concurrent engineering is greatly facilitated by
the use of computer-aided engineering (CAE)
CONCURRENT ENGINEERING - IMPORTANCE
 Trends in Product Development
 Increased variety, “mass customization”
 Increased focus on customer requirements
 Decreased product lifecycles
 Increased product complexity
 Decreased time to market
 More design by suppliers
SHRINKING PRODUCT LIFETIMES
Since 1970’s, the product
development has a trend of
decreasing
• Product life
• Time to market
e.g., Intel has at least three
processor generations at
different lifecycle stages at one
time
1970’s 1980’s 1990’s

IN THE PAST... (CONVENTIONAL APPROACH)
 Instructions to supplier:
 Here are the engineering drawings for a set of brakes.
 Supplier submits bid, and if accepted makes
brakes according to the drawings
TODAY (CONCURRENT DESIGN)
 Instructions to supplier:
 “Design a set of brakes that can stop a 2200
pound car from 60 miles per hour in 200 feet
ten times in succession without fading. The
brakes should fit into a space 6” x 8” x 10” at
the end of each axle and be delivered to the
assembly plant for $40 a set.”
 Supplier submits design specifications and
prepares a prototype for testing.
THE TRADITIONAL PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
PROCESS (SERIAL DESIGN PROCESS)
 All functions carried out serially in distinct and separate departments with
little interaction between them
 Easy to see how design teams will make decisions
 Cost for serial design process is high (large percentage cost is committed at
conceptual and embodiment stage when changes become necessary)
 The use of serial design process means that as changes become necessary,
there is a repetition of works
Detailed design
Customer requirements Conceptual design
and analysis
(sales and marketing) (Industrial designers)
(engineering)
Serial
design
process Distribution Support and
Manufacturing and Sales Service
Disposal
CONCURRENT PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
(SYSTEMATIC INTEGRATED PRODUCT DESIGN APPROACH)
 Simultaneous decision making by design teams
 Integrates product design & process planning
 Details of design more decentralized
 Needs careful scheduling - tasks done in parallel
Design
Support Engineering
Customer
Sales Manufacturing
BREAKING DOWN BARRIERS
SEQUENTIAL VS. CONCURRENT PRODUCT
DEVELOPMENT
Activity A
Sequential Activity B
Activity C
Time to market
Concurrent
Competitive
Advantage!
ROLE OF DESIGN ENGINEER (CONCURRENT
ENGINEERING)
 No longer totally responsible for product design

 Responsible for more than what was traditionally
considered “design”
 Merging of design engineer and manufacturing
engineer
WEEK 1

MAIN ELEMENTS OF CONCURRENT ENGINEERING
 Concurrent engineering has three main elements:

 Cross-functional teams
 Parallel design
 Vendor partnering
 Cross-functional teams
• A heavy weight project organization is used most frequently
with Concurrent Engineering
• Skills from functional areas are embedded in the design teams
• Functional units and cross-functional teams must build

mutual respect and understanding for each other’s needs,
requirements and responsibilities
 Parallel design
• Refers to each functional area
• Implementing their aspect of design at the earliest
possible time roughly in parallel
• All groups provide input to the development of product
design specifications
• Nearly continuous communication between functional
units and design teams is necessary
• Absolutely different from the old practice of making
complete design before manufacturing
 Vendor partnering (a form of parallel engineering)
• Technical expertise of vendor for certain components is
employed as an integral member of cross-functional design
teams
• In conventional process vendors are selected by a bidding
process after the design has been finalized
• In concurrent engineering, key vendors, known for proficient
technology, reliable delivery and reasonable costs are selected
only in design process before parts have been designed
• So a strategic partnership is developed
• It reduces the amount of part design that must be done in
house
• Integrates vendor’s manufacturing expertise into the design
• Ensures a degree of commitment and cooperation that should
minimize the time for receipt of parts
CONVENTIONAL VIRTUAL
COLLABORATION COLLABORATION
Communication  Communication
– fax, telephone, mail
 face-to-face discussion,
memos, telephone, – email, discussion groups,
shared whiteboard,
whiteboard, bulletin
videoconferencing
board, wall charts, etc.
 Collaboration
Collaboration
– application sharing, shared
 meetings, side by side network workspace (files in
workgroup shared directories)
Knowledge management  Knowledge management
 notebooks, binders, – Product data management
printed reports, system, document
photocopies, drawings, management system,
distributed databases
forms, data files
GEOGRAPHICALLY DISTRIBUTED TEAMS
CONVENTIONAL
COLLABORATION
Company A Company B
VIRTUAL
COLLABORATION
Enterprise data Transparent
and information global network
Company A Company B
ME – 362
DESIGN
Part 2.1
Muhammad Ilyas
COURSE PROJECT
Assignment No.1 (submission: 20.01.17, 2000hrs)
 Differentiate between
 Functional organization
 Project organization
 Matrix organization
 Draw a block diagram for each type of
organization
 Describe Advantages and Disadvantages of each
type of organization
 Submit to your respective TA/GA
 Section – A : jalal@giki.edu.pk
 Section – B : gme1624@giki.edu.pk
 Late submissions = No Marks!
COURSE PROJECT
 Objectives:
 To enable you to understand the various steps of the
design process
 To apply these steps in the design process of a project
 What is desired from you?
 Not a hi-fi design project (design of space shuttle etc.)
 Any reasonable project – apply all the stages of the
design process
COURSE PROJECT
 Project may include
 Theoretical stuff
 Experimental work (Manufacturing)
 Both
 Deliverables for assessment
 Report
 Presentation
 Viva…
 Marks will be awarded to proper report
writing and presentations
GUIDELINES
 Examples…
 Design of a test rig for tension and compression testing of
automobile connecting rod
 Design of a solar motorcycle
 Design of a robotic tea / coffee trolley for FME
 Design of a manipulator for handling waste drums at GIKI
 Design and manufacturing of a water / crash proof case for a
laptop / camera / cell phone
 Design and manufacturing of a solar charger for cell phones
 Design of an automated Dak system within FME and
administration block of GIKI
 Design and manufacturing of a prototype impact testing machine
 Design of a snow blower machine for Murree Municipal
Corporation
 Design of an orange crate filling process for an orange farm
 Design and manufacturing of a lead shielding for a camera to be
installed in X-Ray room
GUIDELINES
 Typical Steps…
 Gather Information
 Materials Processing and Design
 Risk, Reliability and Safety
 Cost Evaluation
 Detail Design
 Communicating the Design
GUIDELINES
 Example…Design of solar motorcycle
 Objectives, need analysis, problem statement
 Gather Information
 Preliminaries of solar panel, how much current /
voltage? How it stores? Company / vendor specifications
 Preliminary sketch, Size, availability, Where the panel
should be located? How to charge in the evening?
 Product architecture, placement of links, manufacturing
possibilities, assembly etc.
 modeling of parts, thermal loading, output requirement
GUIDELINES
 Chapter 1 to 6 are related to general steps involved in

design process planning
 Chapter 7 to 14 are related to the application of
knowledge already gained above
 Chapter 16 is concerned with filling in the details to
ensure that a proven and tested design can be
manufactured
 Chapter 17 is related to design communication
PREVIOUS TOPICS
 Design definition
 Design and society
 Product growth
 Design – science or art?
 Good design practices – analysis and synthesis
 Design process
 Importance of design process
 Cost, quality, product cycle time
 Static product vs dynamic product
 Types of design
 Original, adaptive, redesign, selective, industrial
PREVIOUS TOPICS
manufacturing
~ 25% cost of the
product

~ 70% cost of the
product
5% = for design
95% = for material,
manufacture, labor,
capital
• The conventional concept of product quality was that it can
be achieved by inspecting the product as it came off the
production line
• Cycle time refers to the development time required to bring
a new product to market
• The reduced cycle time not only increases the marketability
of a product, but it also reduces the cost of product
development
possible
PREVIOUS TOPICS
 Problem Definition
 Gathering Information
 Generation of Alternative Solution
 Evaluation of Alternatives
 Communication of Results
2. Embodiment design
3. Detail design
6. Planning for use
PREVIOUS TOPICS
 Function organization
 Project organization
 Matrix organization

 One boss for each
 All reports to their VP
 common professional
Interactions background
 Organizational links
between people of
similar functions
Functional links
 Interactions at level of
unit manager
 for a business with a
narrow and slowly
changing set of product
line
 Can be a problem for a
dynamic product
situation
 All decisions/ budgets,
personnel evaluation
with the functional
Interactions
manager
 Usually the position of
the project manager
does not exist in this
type of organization
Functional links
structure
 Advantages
 Employees similar background/ work  getting skills/
expertise, good performance
 responsibilities fixed  easy accountability of work
 Clear hierarchy employees don’t have to report to multiple
bosses
 no duplication of work
 Disadvantages
 monotonous, repeated type of work  employees may become
bore/ lazy
 The departments have a self-centered mentality  functional
manager pays more attention to only his department
 not good among the department  decreases flexibility and
innovation, lack of team work
 functional structure is rigid, and therefore is slow to adapt to
changes
 People with different
functional expertise
grouped together for
product development
Interactions  Each development group
reports to a project
manager (Overall
responsible)
 Often project
organization is time
limited
 People are reassigned
Interactions
back to the functional
units after the goal is
Example: GIKI faculties, each Dean may take achieved
some specialists for the development / R&D
work e.g a collaboration of mat. / mech.
 Advantages
 team members directly report to project manager  decision
making faster, project goals achievable
 sense of urgency, milestones, good communication, and
cooperation  the learning curve is faster for any new
member
 Team members become versatile and flexible due to
experience in different kinds of projects
 Disadvantages
 project manager has full authority  may become arrogant
and a lack of power could be a problem within functional
people
 In projects, there is always a deadline and usually a tight
schedule, which makes the work environment stressful
 sense of insecurity in team members, they feel that they may
lose their jobs after project completion  less loyal towards
the organization
MATRIX ORGANIZATION
 Combination of
functional and project
organization
 For example, we can
have a functional
structure and then
assign a manager for
each product
 Each person is linked
according to the function
and project he works on
 The authority of a  Some employees will
functional manager flows have two managers:
vertically downwards, functional manager and
and the authority of the product manager
project manager flows
sideways
MATRIX ORGANIZATION
• This type of structure tries to get the benefits of

functional structure and also of divisional structure;
• however, it is not easy to implement because of the
dual authority.
• This structure is very useful for multinational
companies
MATRIX ORGANIZATION
Example: An Engineering
Procurement Construction
(EPC) company manufactures
various products:
Heat exchangers, vessels,
For a plant all the teams have
coordination
Imagine you are working in a functional department.

Your organization gets a project and they need a
mechanical engineer to assist the project manager on
certain tasks. In this case, you may be assigned to the
project for a short time, or they may transfer you there
while your services are required. If you’re assigned there
for a short time, you will have to report to two bosses
MATRIX ORGANIZATION
 Advantages
 Resources can be shared between the functional units and
projects
 More dynamic because it allows employees to communicate
more readily across the boundaries
 Provides a good environment for professionals to learn and
grow their career
 Disadvantages
 Report to two bosses, which adds confusion
 Competition for limited resources
 Employees have to do their regular work along with the
additional project related work
PREVIOUS TOPICS

 Concurrent engineering has three main elements:

 Cross-functional teams
 Parallel design
 Vendor partnering
 Cross-functional teams
• A heavy weight project organization is used most frequently
with Concurrent Engineering
• Skills from functional areas are embedded in the design teams
• Functional units and cross-functional teams must build

mutual respect and understanding for each other’s needs,
requirements and responsibilities
 Parallel design
• Refers to each functional area
• Implementing their aspect of design at the earliest
possible time roughly in parallel
• All groups provide input to the development of product
design specifications
• Nearly continuous communication between functional
units and design teams is necessary
• Absolutely different from the old practice of making
complete design before manufacturing
 Vendor partnering (a form of parallel engineering)
• Technical expertise of vendor for certain components is
employed as an integral member of cross-functional design
teams
• In conventional process vendors are selected by a bidding
process after the design has been finalized
• In concurrent engineering, key vendors, known for proficient
technology, reliable delivery and reasonable costs are selected
only in design process before parts have been designed
So a strategic partnership is developed
• It reduces the amount of part design that must be done in
house
• Integrates vendor’s manufacturing expertise into the design
• Ensures a degree of commitment and cooperation that should
minimize the time for receipt of parts
CONVENTIONAL VIRTUAL
COLLABORATION COLLABORATION
 Communication  Communication
 face-to-face discussion, – fax, telephone, mail
memos, telephone, – email, discussion groups,
whiteboard, bulletin shared whiteboard,
board, wall charts, etc. videoconferencing
 Collaboration
 Collaboration
– application sharing, shared
 meetings, side by side network workspace (files in
workgroup shared directories)
 Knowledge management  Knowledge management
 notebooks, binders, – Product data management
printed reports, system, document
photocopies, drawings, management system,
forms, data files distributed databases
GEOGRAPHICALLY DISTRIBUTED TEAMS
CONVENTIONAL
COLLABORATION
Company A Company B
VIRTUAL
COLLABORATION
Enterprise data Transparent
and information global network
Company A Company B
NEED IDENTIFICATION
 The aim is not to solve the problem but to understand

what the problem is.
 What does this client want?
 What is the problem that the design is to solve?
Whose my Neighbor?
NEED IDENTIFICATION
 The objectives and constraints of the problem should
be identified.
 Objective: summary of the needs that the design is to
satisfy e.g what is to be maximized or minimized?
 Constraint: the design must satisfy (takes logical values,
0 or 1, helps to decide acceptable or not) e.g what non-
negotiable conditions must be met?
Or what negotiable but desirable conditions ...?
Constraints…
NEED IDENTIFICATION (…HOW??)
 Question the customer:

 To define the design problem
 To understand budget and schedule
constraints
 Reliability and maintenance constraints
 Explore resources
 Expertise (knowledge and experience)
 Technical literature (books, journals, www)
 Measurement and testing equipment
(equipment suppliers)
 Similar designs (competitors, patent
search)
NEED IDENTIFICATION (…HOW??)
 Search legal and regulatory restrictions

 Allocation of frequency bands
 Restriction on tower heights
 Environmental impact
 Safety
 Manufacturability issues
PROBLEM STATEMENT
 In the language of the customer,

normally straightforward, non
technical and non quantifiable
(measurable).
 When asked to write a problem
statement, one should…
 Re-write the original problem in
one’s own words without using Homer: Oh my God, I’m gonna
highly technical terms. be eaten alive by a SHARK!
The SHAARK: Oh my God,
 The problem statement Homer Simpson is gonna
paragraph, typically, contains 3-5 land on my head!!
sentences!
PROBLEM STATEMENT
 Differentiate Needs (Musts) and Desires (Wants)
Most of the times the customer himself does not know

what he wants exactly nor what is tangible (realistic)
in his case and
the engineer therefore
needs to
clarify the situation…

EXAMPLE PROBLEM – 1
 I don't want my electric iron to tip

over easily causing water to spill out
and possibly break the iron, should
it fall off the ironing table.
 Can be retrofitted to existing irons

 Does not damage ironing table
 Easy to install and remove
 Cannot occupy a large area on ironing table
 Cannot interfere with operation of iron
 Cannot be damaged by iron (heat, water)
 Should not cost more than $2 and may, probably,
be included with ironing table or iron.
Target market: People who iron clothes on an

unstable ironing surface
• Customer needs a (design) solution to a problem :

a guitar tuner
EXAMPLE PROBLEM – 2 (OBJECTIVE TREE)
Fast
Good performance
for beginners
Accurate
Guitar Tuner
Inexpensive
Marketable Portability
Convenience
(ease of operation)
Maintanence
You are a design engineer working for a natural gas

transmission company. You are assigned to a design team
that is charged with preparing the proposal to the state
Public Utility Commission to build a plant to receive
liquefied natural gas from ocean-going tankers and
unload it into your company’s gas transmission system.
What technical issues and societal issues will your team
have to deal with?
 Technical Background:
❖ Natural gas is liquefied with refrigeration techniques to
-260 F, which reduces its volume by a factor of 600.
❖ Impurities such as water, Hydrogen sulfide, and Carbon
dioxide are removed (~100% methane).
❖ The liquefied natural gas (LNG) is transported in
special doubled-hulled tankers with insulated tanks to
maintain the LNG at proper temperature.
 Technical Background:
❖ At the tanker terminal the LNG is transferred to
double-walled storage tanks with insulation between the
walls.
❖ The pressure must be regulated to minimize
vaporization, for both economic and environmental
reasons.
❖ The next step in the process is to pump the LNG to the
vaporizer units, where it is heated under controlled
conditions and introduced into the gas transmission
pipeline.
 Technical Issues:
▪ Design of Transfer Piping System.
▪ Design of Storage Vessels.
▪ Design of Vaporizer unit.
▪ Balance between safety and cost.
 Societal Issues:
▪ Becomes flammable when exposed to 5 – 15% air
▪ US safety standard 49-CFR-193, 33-CFR Part 127 and
NFPA-59A
▪ Result: Highly constrained by codes, regulations and
standards.
▪ Natural gas – global warming???
ME – 362
DESIGN
Part 2.2
Muhammad Ilyas
EXAMPLE PROBLEM
Design a better mousetrap
▪ Is the statement adequate or vague?
▪ Research : existing mousetraps don't provide protection
from the deadly Hantavirus carried by mice.
▪ A better mousetrap may be one that is sanitary and does

not expose human beings to the virus.
▪ "Design a mousetrap that allows for the sanitary
disposal of the trapped mouse, minimizing human
exposure to the Hantavirus."
EXAMPLE PROBLEM
A Better Mousetrap:
Certain rodents such as the common mouse are carriers
and transmitters of an often fatal virus, the Hantavirus.
Conventional mousetraps expose people to this virus as
they handle the trap and dispose of the mouse.
Design a mousetrap that allows a person to trap and
dispose of a mouse without being exposed to any
bacterial or viral agents being carried on the mouse.
© Seyyed Khandani
EXAMPLE PROBLEM
There is a need of building block (4x6x12 in)
making machine in the country from highly
compacted soil. Your assignment is to design
a block-making machine with the capacity for
producing 600 blocks per day at a capital cost
of less than Rs30,000. Develop a need
analysis, a problem statement and a plan for
the information that will be needed to
complete the design.
EXAMPLE PROBLEM
Under developed countries need building materials.

or
Building materials are needed in underdeveloped countries
due to lack of urbanization. However, the materials must
be cost-effective and made from soil. A block-making
machine will be ideal for this situation.
EXAMPLE PROBLEM
EXAMPLE PROBLEM
Need Analysis:
• Total cost should be less than Rs30,000
• Must be capable of being constructed with local
recourses.
• Should be easily transportable to different locations
• Must be powered with human labor (Why?).
• Hydraulic components must be avoided (Why?).
EXAMPLE PROBLEM
PROBLEMS AND EXERCISE
Need Analysis:
• Things needed (Must)

1. Cost less than Rs30,000
2. Weight less than 60 kg
3. Human powered
4. Made from local resources
5. Easily manufactured
6. Produce 4x6x12 in blocks
7. Produce 600 blocks/day
8. Compressive strength at least 2 MPa
Need Analysis:
• Things needed (Wants)

1. Able to make block 2x6x12 in
2. Easily maintained
3. Easy and Safe operation
4. Should handle different types of soil and cement mixture
Need Analysis:
Must Wants
1. Cost less than Rs30,000 1. Able to make block 2x6x12 in
2. Weight less than 60 kg 2. Easily maintained
3. Human powered 3. Easy and Safe operation
4. Made from local resources 4. Should handle different types
of soil and cement mixture
5. Easily manufactured
6. Produce 4x6x12 in blocks
7. Produce 600 blocks/day
9. Compressive strength at least
2 MPa
Problem statement:
The objective of the project is the design and construction of
a prototype block making machine. The blocks are to be
made of soil cement and are 4x6x12 inches. The machine
must be human powered, weigh less than 60kg, cost less
than Rs30,000 to build and capable of producing 600
blocks/day with 5 person crew.
Blocks must have a compressive strength of 2Mpa when
cured. The machine should be constructed from local
recourses. The machine also should be adaptable to a verity
of soil cement mixtures, and to making blocks 2x6x12 in. A
crew of 3 persons should be capable of operating the machine
to produce 600 block per day.
Information to be gathered:
1. Determination of the processing condition
• What pressure must be generated?
• Curing temperature and time
• Effect of different soil cement mixtures on pressure
2. Mechanism for generating pressure
3. Human factors
• Magnitude of force that can be produced by a human
• Human fatigue
4. Materials handling
5. Materials for the machine, availability and their properties
ME – 362
Mechanical Engineering
Design
Part 3.1
Muhammad Ilyas
Today’s topics
• A quick review of concurrent engineering

• CAE
• Codes and Standards
• Design Review
• Re-Design
• Technology innovation
• Product life cycle
Concurrent Engineering
• As we have discussed that a product goes
through several processes during its life
time
• These processes include
• Research
• Marketing
• Planning
• Design
• Manufacturing
• QC
• Sales
• Maintenance
• …
• …
• The conventional way of doing product design has

been to carryout all of the steps serially
• Thus product concept, product design, and product
testing has been done prior to process planning,
manufacturing system design, and production
• Commonly, these serial functions have been
carried out in distinct and separate organization
with little interaction between them
• Such practice is called as sequential design process
• Concurrent engineering is
a team-based approach in
which all aspects of the
product development
process are represented on
a closely communicating
team
• Team members perform
their jobs in an
overlapping and
concurrent manner so as to
minimize the time for
product development
• Concurrent engineering
uses the following three
main elements for the
development of a
product:
• Cross-functional teams
• Parallel design
• Vendor partnering
Computer Aided Engineering (CAE) in Design
One of the major contributor to concurrent engineering is CAE
• CAE is the use of computers / software in engineering
• As a matter of fact, engineers were the first professional group to
use computer
• (FORTRAN since 1950  Numeric computations, FEA, CFD etc.)
Sketching
Modeling
Stress calculations
Thermal analysis
Optimization
Mechanical testing software
Image analysis
Metallographic studies
Statistical calculations
CAE Examples?
• 2D Drafting (AutoCad)
• 3D Modeling (Solidworks)
• CAD/CAM (ProE-Siemens/Fanuc)
• Use of dedicated software (e.g, for meshing  PATRAN)
• FEA: simulations of engineering problems (ANSYS)
• Mathematical tools (Maple/ MATLAB)
• Spreadsheets (MS Excel)
• Curvefitting (DataFit, CurveExpert)
• Mechanical design of process equipment (PV Elite, Autopipe)
• Fracture mechanics (NASGRO)
• …
• CAE Application Example: BOEING 777

• 1st paperless complete design using CAD
• Started in 1990 and completed in April 1994
• CATIA 3D CAD
• Linked with all design and manufacturing
activities (~7000 workstations)
• So design, manufacturing, procurements etc
 everyone was seeing each other through
CAE!
Design to Codes and Standards
• Much of the design is not very different from what has
been done in the past
• In many cases, the design practices have been captured
and documented for the benefits (cost and time)
• Such practices are documented in the form of codes and
standards
Designing with codes and standards has two chief aspects:

i. Makes the best practice available to everyone, ensuring
efficiency and safety
ii. Promotes interchangeability and compatibility
Examples:
if everyone follows his own special material
composition, it would be difficult for material
manufacturer
Interchangeability
220 volts / 110 volts
2 pin / 3pin plugs
Standardization
• An activity giving solutions for repetitive

application to problems related to science,
technology and economics
• The goal is to achieve the optimum degree of
order (i.e., same product) for that application
• The setting up of process parameters so that
it constantly produces a product of uniform
characteristics
Aims of Standardization
• Provision of means of communication amongst all

interested parties (example A240 304L)
• Promotion of economy in human effort, materials
and energy in the production and exchange of goods.
• Protection of consumer interests through adequate
and consistent quality of goods and services.
• Promotion of quality of life, safety, health and the
protection of the environment
• Promotion of trade by removal of barriers caused by
differences in national practice
Standard
A technical document available to the public is called

a standard if it is:
• Drawn up with the cooperation and consensus or
general approval of all interested
• Based on the consolidated (combined) results of
science, technology and experience
• Aimed at the promotion of optimum community
benefits
• Approved by a body recognized on the regional,
national or international level
Codes
Codes are type of standards that use the verbs

shall or will to indicate the mandatory use of
certain materials or actions or both. The use of
codes is mandated with the force of law by
governmental jurisdiction.
e.g., our national boiler inspection/
operation regulation (PAKISTAN BOILER
RULES 2009)
Specification
Specifications are also a type of standards but

they differ from code in that their use is not
mandatory except when they are referred by a code
or contractual documents (client specification).
CODE STANDARD
Collection of laws and rules that A general agreed upon set of
assists a Government agency in procedures, criteria, dimensions,
meeting its obligation to protect materials and parts
the general welfare by preventing
damage to property or injury or
loss of life to persons
• Tell the engineer what to do and • Tell engineer how to do it
when under what circumstances
• Usually regarded as
to do it
recommendations, that do not
• Usually are legal requirements, have force of law
e.g. building code, fire code etc.
• Often a national standard is
• Often incorporate national incorporated in a code as a
standards into them by reference and by this way
reference standards become legally
enforceable
• Types of design standards:
• Performance standard
• Test methods
• Codes of practice
PERFORMANCE TEST METHOD CODE OF
STANDARDS STANDARDS PRACTICE
Published for For measurement of Provides detailed

many products properties design methods for
a repetitive
technical problem
Examples: Examples: Examples:

For seat belts, Yield strength, Mechanical Design
auto crash safety thermal of process
etc. conductivity, equipment (ASME,
sensitivity etc. BS-PD)
STANDARDS PREPARATION
❖ Often prepared by individual companies for their

own proprietary use e.g. dimensions, tolerances, forms,
processes etc. (dimensions of SANDVIK tool holders)
❖ By group of companies of the same industrial sector
(Sponsored by Industry Trade Association) AISC,
ANSI, ISO etc.)
❖ Government Specification Standards, as Govt. is
the purchaser of large number of goods and services
❖ Defense Product Standards e.g., MIL standards and
handbooks of the Department of Defense
Advantages of Standards
Standards play an important role for

• Protecting public
• Providing firm basis for negotiation and better
understanding between buyer and seller
• Reducing cost of design of products stock
(standardized components and tools etc)
• Easy availability of products
• Avoiding repetition of design
Role of CAE, Group Technology and CAD/CAM in
Design Standardization
In addition to Codes and Standards, other techniques also play

a role in standardization
• CAE use of computers/ software facilitates the design
standardization (e.g., PV Elite uses ASME B&PV Code)
• Group Technology
• Provides formal way of recognizing and exploiting similarities
in design (shape, manufacturing process)
• Coding and classification systems used to identify similarities
• Computerized GT database provides quick methodology (so
duplication avoided)
• Provides standardization for creating parts and part features
• Due to feed back of manufacturing costs, high cost design
features are avoided
Role of CAE, Group Technology and CAD/CAM in
Design Standardization
• CADCAM
• Interfacing and communication between various computer devices
and manufacturing machines (Example: m/c codes)
• National Institute of Standards. Technology (NIST) has worked for
the development of
• Initial graphics Exchange Specifications (IGES) and Product
Data Exchange Specification (PDES)
• IGES and PDES represent a ‘Neutral Data Format’ for
transferring geometric data between equipment from different
CAD systems
ME – 362
Design
Part 3.2
Muhammad Ilyas
Today’s topics
• Design Review
• Re-Design
• Technology innovation
• Product life cycle

Design Review
➢ A vital aspect of Design Process :
specialists review the design
➢ Provides an opportunity for
specialists from different disciplines
to interact with generalists to ask
critical questions and exchange vital
information
➢ Provides a systematic method for
identifying
• Problems with the design
• Aids in determining possible
courses of action
• Initiates action to correct the
problem areas
Design Review
➢ Design review teams consist of representatives
from
• Design, manufacturing, marketing, purchasing,
quality control, reliability engineering and field
service
➢ Design Reviewer should

• Have broad technical and products knowledge
• Not have direct responsibility for design under review
• Depending on the size and complexity of the product,
Design Review should be held 3~6 times in the life of
the project
Design Review
➢ Minimum review schedule consists of

• Conceptual Reviews
• It has a greater impact on design
• Changes can be made at this stage at lower costs
• Interim Reviews
• Performed when embodiment design is finalized
• Product architecture, subsystems and performance
characteristics are established
• Final Reviews
• At the completion of detailed design
• Establishes whether the design is ready for transfer to
manufacture
Design Review
➢ Outcome of review
• Each review of the product design may have two outcomes
• Technical aspect
• Business aspect
Design review – Technical aspect
Product Design Specification (PDS)
• PDS is the basic reference document for both product
design and design review
• Essence of Technical Review of design is to compare the
finding against detailed PDS formulated at the product
definition stage of the project
• PDS is a detailed document that describes what the
design must be in terms of
• performance requirements,
• environment in which it must operate,
• product life, cost,
• reliability
• …..
Re-design
• A common situation in Design
Process
• The task may be to improve an Original design
Engineering design
existing design.
• Or it may be due to reason that a Adaptive design
component in a product is failing
in service e.g., the change in the Redesign
shape of a part to reduce a stress
concentration
Selective design
• Sometimes, we redesign a
component to reduce its cost of
Industrial design
manufacture.
• Sometimes, a new material is
substituted to reduce weight
and/or cost
Re-design
• As a result of Design Review, details of design are

changed many times as prototypes are developed
and tested
• Categories of Re-design
• Fixes
• Updates
Re-design – categories
o Fixes
• A fix is a design modification that is required due to less than
acceptable performance (after the product has been introduced
into the market)  unplanned activity!
o Updates
• Usually planned as part of the product’s life cycle before the
product is introduced to the market
• An update may add capacity and improve performance or
incorporate its appearance to keep it competitive
• The most common situation in re-design is the modification of
an existing product to meet new requirements e.g. banning of
the use of fluorinated hydrocarbon refrigerants because of
Ozone-hole problem, required the extensive re-design of
refrigeration system
• Often re-design results from the failure of the product in service
Re-design
• Case study of redesign of a railroad

vehicle wheel
• The steel railroad wheel has been in its
present design for nearly 150 years
• In spite of improvements in metallurgy and
the understanding of stresses, the wheels
still failed at the rate of about 200 per year
• The chief cause of failure is thermal buildup
caused by failure of a railcar’s braking
system
• Long-term research by the Association of
American Railroads has resulted in the
improved design
Re-design
Old Vs. New design
• The chief design change : flat plate, the web
between the bore and the rim, replaced by an
S-shaped plate
Re-design
• Case study of redesign of a railroad
vehicle wheel
• Advantage of the curved shape : it allows
the plate to act like a spring, flexing when
overheated, avoiding the buildup of stresses
that are transmitted through the rigid flat
plates
• The second change in the design of the
wheel is the wheel’s tread – it has been
redesigned to extend the rolling life of the
wheel
The new wheels last for many thousands of
miles longer, and the rolling resistance is
lower, saving on fuel cost
Re-design
• Case study: GM Ignition Switch
• GM: 1908 US
• Head office: Detroit
• A leading car manufacturer
• Products
• Alpheon, Chevrolet, Buick, GMC, Cadillac, Holden, HSV, Opel,
Vauxhall, Wuling, Baojun, Jie Fang, UzDaewoo
• Worldwide collaborations
• Pakistan: Ghandhara Industries
Re-design
• Case study: GM ignition switch
• GM began developing new small cars in
the late 1990s
• Chevrolet Cobalt
• Saturn Ion
• In an effort to improve its new cars they

listened to customers who complained
about “cheap-feeling” switches that
required too much effort to turn
• The new design of the switch was such
that it was working more smoothly and
gave drivers the impression that they
were better designed
Re-design
• Example: GM ignition switch – the other
side of the story:
• The ignition switch consists of
• Mechanical
• Electronics
• GM made the mechanical alteration in the

spring of the ignition switch
• Anyhow, GM engineer approved the new
design…
• The result was a smooth-turning key
• However, it was so smooth that it could
also slip out of position
Re-design
• The slipping of the key to other position occurred in many cars…
• That caused the engine to stop during running of the car
• The stopped engine deactivated the air bag!
 More than 50 car crashes

 13 deaths
 More than 100 injuries
 The company has to recall

about 2.5 million cars
(until 2014)
 All 2005-2010 Chevrolet Cobalt
 2007-2010 Pontiac G5
 2003-2007 Saturn Ion
 2006-2011 Chevrolet HHR
 2006-2010 Pontiac Solstice
 2007-2010 Saturn Sky
[Ref. Automotive news]
Re-design
• Example: GM ignition switch – the other
side of the story:
What is the difference between these
pictures?
Re-design
Technology Innovation and Design Process
• Technology innovation : the process through which

new (or improved) technologies are developed and
brought into widespread use
• A successful technological innovation requires a good idea
or concept that satisfies a societal need
• Advancement of technology has three phases:

 Invention
 Innovation
 Diffusion
Invention: Creative act whereby an idea is
conceived, articulated and recorded
Innovation: Process by which an invention or
idea is brought into successful practice and is
utilized by the economy
Diffusion: The continual and widespread
implementation and adoption of successful
innovation
Innovation is the most critical and most
difficult of three phases
Steps in a technological innovation activity
Innovation is the most critical and most difficult of three phases …
Because, developing an idea into a product that people

will buy requires hard work and skill.
Technology innovation activity consists of different stages:
Identification Product Pilot Trial

Development
of market idea lot Sales
need
Commercial
Sometimes, Product ideas • Time and
development
market need must be management
is stronger checked for • about 35 to Generally, the technical
than their fit with 50% of new problems comprise the
technological the ongoing products fails smallest category of
research technology due to above failure during the
opportunity development
Key factors for the success of the product
1. Product planning and research:
• It is important that adequate time is spent on problem
definition, concept generation and evaluation, market research
and assessment, technical assessment, business and financial
reviews before embodiment and detail design stages
2. Product superiority:
• Product should be such that it delivers real value to customer
i.e. meeting customer needs (e.g. LEDs to save energy)
3. Quality marketing:
• Better marketing activities to be executed from concept of idea
to launch of product in market
4. Proper organizational design:
• Successful products are most often developed by cross
functional teams, led by strong product champion, supported
by top management and accountable (responsible!) for the
entire project from beginning to end
Key factors for the success of the product
Which qualities are expected from Innovators?

Behavioral Types of people needed for
Technological Innovation
1. Idea generator: The creative individual
2. Entrepreneur: The person who “carries the ball” and
takes the risks (organize & manage)
3. Gatekeepers: People who provide technical
communication from outside to inside the organization
4. Program manager: The person who manages without
hindering creativity
5. Sponsor: The person who provides financial and moral
support, often senior management
Roughly 70 to 80% of people in technical

organizations are routine problem solvers and are
not involved in innovation. Therefore it is
important to identify and nurture the small
number who gives promise of becoming technical
innovators
Innovators
➢ People in a technical organization, familiar with current technology and

who have developed contacts with technical people outside the organization
➢ Seek direct information and diffuse to others in organization
➢ Tend to be predisposed to ‘do things differently’ as contrasted with ‘doing
things better’
➢ Able to deal with unclear and ambiguous situations without feeling
uncomfortable as they have high degree of self-reliance and self-esteem
➢ Respond well to the challenge of diverse projects and the opportunity to
communicate with people of different backgrounds
➢ A successful innovator is a person who has sound picture of what needs to
be done, not necessarily a detailed picture
➢ Emphasis goals, not methods of achieving goals
➢ Has failed in previous ventures and has identified the reason of failure
➢ Works the elements of problem in parallel not serially
Product Life Cycle
Product Life Cycle
o During the lifetime of a product, each product goes

through a cycle
o This life cycle consists of
 Introduction stage
 Growth stage
 Stable period
 Declining state
Product Life Cycle
 Introductory stage: Product is new, consumer acceptance is low, so
sales are low, rate of product change is rapid as management tries
to maximize its performance or uniqueness
 Growth Stage: Knowledge of the product and its capabilities

reaches to growing number of customers. In this stage there is an
increase in sales as the time passes
Birth Stage Initial Growth Stage

Product Life Cycle
 Maturity Stage: Product is widely accepted, sales are stable, grow at the
same rate.
• Products at this stage experience considerable competition
• Great emphasis is on reducing the cost of a mature product
When product reaches at this stage, attempts should be made to renew it by
incremental innovation or development of still new applications
 Decline Stage: At some stage each product enters in this stage, Sales
decrease because a new better product is in the market to fulfill the same
societal needs
Birth Stage Initial Growth Stage Maturity Decline stage
stage
Product Life Cycle
If we look more closely at the product life cycle, we will see
that the cycle is made up of many individual phases
These are Premarket phase and Market phase
Premarket Phase Market Phase
1. Idea generation 9. Product introduction

2. Idea evaluation 10. Market development
3. Feasibility analysis 11. Rapid growth
4. Technical R&D 12. Competitive market
5. Product (market) R&D 13. Maturity
6. Preliminary production 14. Decline
7. Market testing 15. Abandonment
8. Commercial production
Premarket Phase Market Phase
Product Life 1. Idea generation 9. Product introduction
Cycle 2. Idea evaluation 10. Market development
3. Feasibility analysis 11. Rapid growth
4. Technical R&D 12. Competitive market
5. Product (market) R&D 13. Maturity
6. Preliminary production 14. Decline
7. Market testing 15. Abandonment
8. Commercial production
sales
investments
Product Design Specifications (PDS)
Document:
▪ Requirements for successful product / process
▪ Groundwork for engineering design activities
Typically includes requirements:
▪ Size and weight
▪ Operational
▪ Service environment
▪ Safety
▪ ….
Start writing your PDS early (Group

Assignment 02)
▪ It’s living document…
▪ Represents what you are trying to achieve
▪ Never change to what has been already
achieved
▪ Write in list format not as an essay
▪ Light weight????
▪ Desired weight less than ___ kgs (yes it
should be N)
http://www.open.edu/
▪ Not sure yet, estimate (or guesstimate) and
UPDATE later on
▪ ….
Example: Surveyor’s Pole Stand
A surveyor’s pole is used in land surveying for level and distance
measurement. It is held vertically at a distance from a measuring device
(a theodolite), which is operated by a surveyor. To allow the surveyor to
operate independently, a self-supporting surveyor’s pole is necessary.
Performance: To be fixable in position within ____ minute…
Size: Stand to be ____ wide, ____ long and ...
Cost: Manufacturing cost < ____
Quantity: Batches of ____
Maintenance: Minimal
Finish: Corrosion resistant
Materials: Light-weight – transportable – not easily damaged by impact
Weight: ____ kg max
(source: Stuart Pugh, Total Design, Addison Wesley, 1991)
Politics: Not applicable

Competition: To be analyzed
Market: Worldwide, Trends to be analyzed
Patents: To be checked
Manufacturing facility: Adequate capacity and suitable tools available
Company constraints: None at this stage
Processes: Batch production
(source: Stuart Pugh, Total Design, Addison Wesley, 1991)

Revision…
Revision…
Systematic Integrated Product Design Approach
Design
Support Engineering
Customer
Sales Manufacturing
ME – 362
Design
Part 4.1
Muhammad Ilyas
Today’s topics
• Review : Stages of Design Process

• TQM / QA / QC
• Customer Focus in Design Process
• Example: Brainstorming
• Customer Survey
• QFD…
2
3
Problem Definition
• Thorough understanding of problem
→ outstanding solution
• Required for all kinds of problem
solving:
• math problems
• production problems
• design problems
• …
• Always question original Problem
Statement
• Major step of PDP (product
development process)
4
Problem Definition
• Product development begins
by determining the
requirements that a product
must meet e.g.
• Functional
• Durability
• Reliability
• Cost
• Aesthetics
• …
 Product design : ultimate test of a solution is meeting
management’s goal related to the marketplace, i.e.
The product to meet customer requirements!
5
Total Quality Management
• Design process : Problem definition refers to a solution

that satisfies the customer
• Same approach as adopted in the Total Quality
Management (TQM)
• TQM : integration of all functions and processes within
an organization to achieve continuous improvement of the
quality of goods and services. The goal is customer
satisfaction!
Problem Customer’s
Product
definition satisfaction
6
QA / QC
Quality
• Quality of a product : fitness of the product to do the job as required
by its user
• Quality : conformance to requirements, not “goodness”
Quality Control
• Controls applied at each manufacturing stage to consistently produce
a quality product
• Observation techniques and activities used to fulfill requirements for
quality
Quality Assurance
• A way of preventing mistakes or defects in manufactured products
• Avoiding problems when delivering solutions or services to customers
• Focused on providing confidence that quality requirements will be
fulfilled
7
8
Customer Focus in Design Process
Who is customer?
• TQM : Customer is anyone who receives or uses
what an individual or organization provides
• Internal and External customers
➢ External customer :
➢ purchases an organization’s / company's products or services
➢ is not an employee or part of the organization / company
➢ Internal customer :
➢ within the organization
➢ e.g. the design engineer who receives information on the
properties of three potential materials for his / her design : an
internal customer of the materials specialist
9
• Identifying customer’s needs
• By answering the following types of questions :
 Who are my customers?
 What does the customer want?
 How can the product satisfy the customer while generating a profit?
 …
10
Customer Requirements (Kano Model)
Expected Quality : I assume it meets all federal, state, and local building codes.
Normal Quality—Spokens : Three-car garage, three bedrooms, two baths …
Normal Quality—Unspokens : I'll know it when I see it!
Exciting Quality : Wow!! A lifetime warranty on the roof!
Source: www.asq.org
11
• Gathering information from customer
 Interviews with customers
 Focus groups
 Customer complaints
 Warranty data
 Customer surveys
12
Problem Definition
• Brain storming : natural idea generation tool that can be used at
the problem definition stage in the design process
Example:
It was desired from a student design team to
select the familiar “jewel case” (that protects
compact discs in storage) as a product needing
improvement.
What are the brainstorming activities in this
case?
As a first step, the team brainstormed to
develop ideas for possible improvements to the
CD case. The following ideas (next slides) were
generated in response to the question: What
improvements to the current CD case would
customers want?
13
Problem definition
Brainstorming:
Assume a CD casing available in

the market. What could be the
possible improvement that a
customer will need?
14
Problem definition
Improvements:
1. Case more resistant to cracking
2. Easier to open
3. Add color
4. Better waterproofing
5. Make it lighter
6. More scratch-resistant
7. Easier extraction of CD from the circular fastener
8. Streamlined look
9. Case should fit the hand better
10. Easier to take out leaflet describing the CD
11. Use recyclable plastic
12. Make interlocking cases so they stack on top of each other without
slipping
13. Better locking case
14. Hinge that doesn’t come apart
15
Problem definition
Grouping ideas
1. Case more resistant to cracking (Stronger)
2. Easier to open (Opening / Extraction)
3. Add color (Aesthetics)
4. Better waterproofing (Environment)
5. Make it lighter (Aesthetics)
6. More scratch-resistant (Stronger)
7. Easier extraction of CD from the circular fastener (Opening / Extraction)
8. Streamlined look (Aesthetics)
9. Case should fit the hand better (Aesthetics)
10. Easier to take out leaflet describing the CD (Opening / Extraction)
11. Use recyclable plastic (Environment)
12. Make interlocking cases so they stack on top of each other without slipping
(Other)
13. Better locking case (Opening / Extraction)
14. Hinge that doesn’t come apart (Stronger)
16
Affinity diagram:
• tool used to organize ideas and
data
• placing data into groups based on
natural relationships
17
Outcome of brain storming in above
example:
This information helps to focus the team’s
design scope.
It also aids the team in determining areas
of particular interest for more research
from direct interaction with customers and
from the team’s own testing processes.
18
Customer’s survey
• Till now, we are discussing the problem definition

• The design process : problem definition refers to a solution
that satisfies the customer
• Getting the customer’s voice is important to develop the
quality products
• One of the important way to get the customer / market
feedback is the customer’s survey
• Creating an effective survey requires :
• Determine the survey purpose. Be clear about who will use the
results
• Determine the type of data-collection method to be used (e.g. focus
groups or freeform interviews)
19
20
21
CTQ CRs
Critical To Quality (CTQ) Customer Requirements (CRs) : Highest-ranked CRs

22
ME – 362
Design
Part 4.2
Muhammad Ilyas
Today’s topics
• QFD – HOQ
• QFD Example
2
Quality Function Deployment (QFD)
• QFD : tool of TQM used to identify the “voice of customer”

• QFD : planning and team problem-solving tool
• Objective : focus the design team’s attention on satisfying
customer needs throughout the PDP
• Similar to “Stakeholder (aka customer) Driven Design
Method”
+
Customer
3
QFD
• Deployment : Determines the important set of requirements for

each phase of PDP planning
• Customer Requirements : identify the set of Technical /

Engineering Characteristics (ECs) of each phase
• QFD : graphical method

• Helps a design team to systematically identify crucial PDP elements
• Creates relationship matrices between key parameters
4
QFD – History
• It was developed in Japan in 1970 (Mitsubishi Heavy Industry)

• Introduced in USA in the late 1980s
• Has been adopted by a wide variety of companies since its
inception
Toyota
• was able to reduce 60% of cost to bring a new car model to
market
• and decreased development time by 1/3 for new models
• Used in cross functional teams

• Companies feel it increases customer satisfaction
5
Why QFD?
Product should be designed to reflect customers’ desires
and tastes!
QFD Target
6
QFD Process
Complete QFD process :
7
QFD Process
Complete QFD process consists of four phases :
o Product planning phase
Customer requirements
Engineering characteristics
o Part deployment / assembly
Selected engineering characteristics
Part characteristics
o Process planning
Part characteristics
Manufacturing process requirements
o Production planning
Manufacturing process requirements
Production requirements
8
House of Quality (HOQ)
• Product Planning house is called the “House of Quality”
9
• Most popular of 4 phases
• Develops the relationships between

customer wants and critical product
features, overall performance
parameters
• Translates Customer Requirements (CRs)

into quantifiable design variables :
Engineering Characteristics (ECs)
10
• Comprehensive configuration, the process will

identify
• a set of essential features and
• product performance measures that will be
• the target values for the design team
• Can also be used to determine

• which ECs should be treated as constraints and
• which should become decision criteria for best design concept
11
HOQ – Basic Configuration
Interrelationship
between
Technical Descriptors
(Voice of the organization)
Requirements
Requirements
(Voice of the
Prioritized
Customer)
Customer
Customer
Relationship between
Requirements and
Descriptors
Prioritized Technical
Descriptors
12
HOQ – Detailed Configuration
13
HOQ – Layout
1. Customer requirements
2. Competitive assessment: how
the top two or three products
rank w.r.t CRs on the scale of
1 to 5.
3. Importance Rating: Customer
Importance x Improvement
ratio x Sales point
4. Engineering Characteristics:
the characteristics of the
product which can be
controled to meet CRs.
14
HOQ – Layout
5. Correlation matrix: Show a

relationship between two
engineering characteristic.
6. The relationship matrix:
determine the relationship
between the EC and CR.
7. Absolute Importance: Will be
discussed in the example
8. Relative Importance:
Absolute importance / sum of
absolute importance
15
HOQ – Layout
9. Competitive Assessment:
Benchmark your company
performance against two or
three top competitors for
each EC on the scale of 1 to 5.
10. Technical Difficulty: The
level of difficulty to achieve
an EC.
11. Target Value: To show which
are the most important ECs.
16
ME – 362
Design
Part 4.3
Muhammad Ilyas
Today’s topics
• QFD – HOQ
• QFD Examples
2
Customer Requirements (CRs)
• From a design team’s point of view the CRs
could be
• Product Performance
• Time to Market
• Cost Garvin’s 8 basic dimensions of quality
• Quality
 Performance
• …  Features
 Reliability
 Durability
 Serviceability
 Conformance
 Aesthetics
 Perceived Quality (Reputation)
3
CRs
• Suppose CRs for a new camera :

• Lightweight
• Easy to use
• Reliable
• Easy to hold steady
• Color correction
4
• The 1st thing in competitive assessment is to scale the
importance of CRs
5
• The 2nd thing is to rank the available competitor products
(product A, B etc.) and the proposed product on a scale 1-5
6
Importance ratio
Importance ratio
= customer importance ×
improvement ratio × sales
point
The customer importance was

obtained using a survey
7
Importance ratio
• 1st we find the improvement ratio between the planned and

the comparing products:
CR Product A Planned Importance ratio
product
Cost 4 4 1
Crack resistant 3 4 1.33
Ease of stacking 2 4 2
• Sales point: Kind of possibility which will give your

company a unique business position
8
Importance ratio
• Sales point: A sales-point is a kind of possibility which

will give your company a unique business position
• A “strong” sales point : reserved for WHATs where each
comparing company is rated poorly
• A “moderate” sales point means the importance rating or
competitive opportunity is not so great.
• Numerically: 1.5, 1.25 and 1 are assigned to strong,
moderate and no sales point, respectively
9
• EC’s (voice of company or “Hows”)
• For the case of camera, following could be the EC’s:
• Low electricity requirements
• Aluminum components
• Auto focus
• Auto exposure
• Paint pallet
• Ergonomic design
10
CD cover/ casing
11
Correlation matrix
• Often referred to as roof of
the HOQ
• Matrix between engineering
characteristics
Low electricity requirements

• This is the How Vs. How
Aluminum components
Matrix
Ergonomic design
High relationship
Medium relationship
Auto exposure
Low relationship
Paint pallet
Auto focus
12
Correlation matrix
• Shows the degree of

interdependence among ECs
(roof of the house).
• Early identification in the
design process results in
appropriate trade-offs
• e.g. a strong positive
correlation between the hinge
design and the force to open
the case
13
Correlation matrix
• Change in hinge design : recheck
force necessary to open the case
• Determination of strength of
correlations among ECs requires
knowledge of the use of the
product being designed and
engineering experience
• Not necessary to have exact
correlation data at this stage
• Rating : a visual reminder for the
design team for use in future
phases of the design process (e.g.
embodiment design)
14
Relationship matrix
Low electricity requirements
Aluminum components
• Main room of the HOQ
Ergonomic design
High relationship
Auto exposure
Paint pallet
Medium relationship
Auto focus
Low relationship
Lightweight
Easy to use
Reliable
Easy to hold steady
Color corrections
Relationship matrix
15
Relationship matrix
• Other conventions for
Technical strong, medium, week
Descriptors relationship are also
Primary used
Secondary
Secondary
Primary
Relationship between
Customer
Requirements and
Requirements
Customer
WHATs vs. HOWs
+9 Strong
+3 Medium
+1 Weak
16
Absolute importance
• Technical priority of the EC

• Absolute importance = weight
(from What*How) * weight
(based on importance ratio)
• In the example shown
=3*9+11.2*3+6*3 = 78.6
17
Relative importance
• Once we calculate the

absolute importance of all
the ECs, we sum up and
find the relative importance
of each EC e.g., in the case
shown here for motor rpm
= 0.08 / 2.93
= 0.03
18
Technical Competitive Assessment
• Scale your planned product with the products of
competitors
19
Direction of improvement
• Symbols indicating the

preferred improvement
direction of each EC are
placed.
• ↑ symbol : higher value of this
EC is better, and a ↓ symbol
indicates that a lower value is
better
• It is also possible that an EC
will not have an improvement
direction (n/a : not applicable)
20
Technical Difficulty
• Technical team conducts the assessment. It helps

to establish the feasibility and realizability of each
"hows" item
• 1 to 5 (or 1 to 10) ratings are used to quantify

technical difficulty with 5 being the most difficult
and 1 being the easiest
21
Target values
22
Target values
• ECs are ranked

based on their
score
23
BENEFITS OF ADOPTING QFD
Some of the benefits of adopting QFD are
• Summarizes information in a single diagram
• Translates customer requirements into engineering

characteristics
• Decreases design and manufacturing costs
• Improves quality
• Increases customer satisfaction
24
BENEFITS OF ADOPTING QFD
… continued
• Used most often in the planning of a product
• Can be used through out the product development

process
• ECs become the input for the part design
• Target values become the limits
25
ME – 362
Design
Part 5.1
Muhammad Ilyas
Today’s topics
• QFD
• PDS
2
QFD
QFD Example of a gas oven
3
CRs for gas oven
4
ECs for gas oven
Excel
sheet
5
Conclusions: QFD Gas oven
• Rotary mechanism  Motor rpm
• Proper Design / Selection  Temperature gauge and timer
of burner  Door designing
• position of burner
• number of burners
• type of burner (flame or
induction heating)
• Cost of manufacture
• Inner case design
• Selection of a better
material
6
Results of HOQ
• ECs : ranked based on

their score
• Highest ranking ECs :
either constraint or
design variable Criteria for judgment
• Used as decision making of alternate designs
criteria
Constraint
7
➢ Remember?
➢ We talked about the Product Design Specification
in previous lectures…
8
 A detailed listing of product requirements

 Designed product will comply with this listing
 Basic control and reference document : design /
manufacturing
 Contains : facts and constraints related to the outcome
of product development
9
• Creating PDS finalizes:

e.g. customer needs for a
• Establishing the customer
bicycle:
needs and wants
o light in weight
• Prioritizing these
requirements o strong frame
• Beginning to cast them into a o low cost
technical framework o easy maintenance
• Establishing of design concepts o no gear requirements
(plain roads)
o…
10
Major Features of PDS
Before going into details of PDS let us see a product and try
to answer some questions?
 What is this product?
 How will it work?
 Does the company have resources for its production?
 Which are the applicable rules & regulations for this product?
security & safety easy to assemble
flexibility
reliability
user interaction
11
The answers to questions can be found in the following –
which constitutes as major features of PDS
 Product identification / definition
 Functional requirements
 Corporate / company constraints
 Social, political and legal requirements
security & safety easy to assemble
flexibility reliability
12
user interaction
 Product identification / definition
 Product Title
▪ Product name (# of models or different versions, related in-house
product families)
▪ e.g. Solidworks Standard
▪ e.g. Design & Manufacturing of 50 T Gantry Crane
 Purpose or function of the product

▪ e.g. CAD software should be able to deliver 3D design capabilities,
performance, and ease-of-use
▪ e.g. heat exchanger is required to transfer heat produced in the
workshop
 Basic features : e.g. 2D CAD, 3D Modeling

 Special Features : product includes additional
features for meshing and analyzing 2D models
13
 Product identification / definition...

 Key performance targets (power output,
efficiency, accuracy)
▪ e.g. Heat Exchanger : heat transfer rate Btu / hr
 Service environment (use conditions, storage,

transportation, extreme use)
▪ operating temperature, operating pressure, wind, rain etc.
▪ to be transported on vehicle with height limitations of 16 ft
 User training required

▪ the HX will be provided with operation and maintenance manual
14
Key Project Deadlines

 Time to complete project
 e.g. the design and manufacturing of HX will
be completed in 6 months
 Fixed project deadlines (review

dates)
 Deadlines for preliminary design and design
review
15
 Functional Requirements
 Based on
 functional performance
 physical dimensions
 service environment
 life cycle targets
 requirements based on human factors
16
 Functional requirements based on performance

 Describe functioning of the product e.g.
 how will : the energy flow, water flow, steam output, power
transfer, …
 information related to the working of the product / operational steps
 capacity (heat exchanger capacity : ____ Btu / hr)
 materials
 efficiency of the product (energy consumption is less than the previous
model)
 accuracy requirements
17
 Physical description / requirements

 What is known (or has already been decided) about
physical requirements for new product?
 Design variable values that are known or fixed prior
to the conceptual design process (like external
dimensions)
 e.g. the max. dia. of shell of HX to be 1200 mm  why? May be
due to space constraints…
 constraints that determine known boundaries on some design
variables (e.g. upper limit on acceptable weight)
 e.g. suppose the tank has to be transported on an 18 wheeler
trailer with load capacity of 40 T
18
 Service environment / requirements

 The type of environment the product will see :
factory floor, storage, transportation, end user …
▪ operating temperature, operating pressure, wind, rain etc.
▪ humidity, corrosion etc.
▪ transportation (to be transported on vehicle with height
limitations of 16 ft)
19
 Life Cycle Targets
 What targets should be set for the performance of the product over
time? (Related to product’s competition)
 What are the most up-to-date recycling policies of the corporation and
how can this product’s design reflect those policies?
 Useful life / shelf life
 Cost of installation and operation (energy costs, crew size, etc.)
 Maintenance schedule and location (user-performed or service
centered)
 Reliability (mean time to failure): Identify critical parts and specify
their reliability targets
 End-of-life strategy (% and type of recyclable components,
remanufacture of the product, company take back, upgrade policy)
20
 Life Cycle Targets / Issues Summary
 Reliability (mean time to failure)
 Robustness / strength
Reliability
 Maintainability
 Testability
Retirement Robustness
 Reparability
 Installation
 Retirement Install ability Maintainability
 Recycling
Testability
Reparability
21
 Human factors / requirements

 Aesthetics
 Man-machine interface / Ergonomics
 Comfort
 User training
22
 Corporate constraints
 What type of constraints, a company may face
during the product design
 time to market: is there adequate time (keeping in
view the resources) to design a quality product
and its manufacturing process(es) ?
 Manufacturing requirements (in-house, in-country
issues / capabilities) to produce cost effective /
economical product
23
 Corporate constraints
(example)
 Residual stress monitoring
 In FME, we want to monitor the
residual stresses (due to a
manufacturing process)
 The corporate constraints could
be:
 bonding of strain gauge
 soldering of wires
 measurement of strains from
multiple gauges
24
 Manufacturing Specifications
 Which parts or systems will be
manufactured in-house?
 Manufacturing requirements: Processes and
capacity necessary to manufacture final product
 Suppliers: Identify key suppliers and procurement
strategy for purchased parts
25
 Market Identification
 Description of target market and its size ➢ What is the need for
 e.g. In case of HXs (like split ACs) the product will a new (or
be used in summer seasons within the country redesigned) product?
 Anticipated market demand (units per ➢ How much

year) competition exists for
the new product?
 e.g. 10,000 units/ year
 Competing products ➢ What are the

relationships to
 the design process for a new or modified product existing products?
should also address the existing competing
products
 Branding strategy (trademark, logo,

brand name)
26
 Financial Requirements
 What are the assumptions of the firm about the economics
of the product and its development?
 What are the corporate criteria on profitability?
 Pricing policy over life cycle (target manufacturing cost, price,
estimated retail price, discounts)
 Warranty policy
 Expected financial performance or rate of return on investment
 Level of capital investment required
27
 Social, Political, and Legal Requirements
 Are there government agencies, societies, or regulation
boards that control the markets in which this product is to
be launched?
 Are there opportunities to patent the product or some of its
subsystems?
 Safety and environmental regulations: Applicable government
regulations for all intended markets.
 Standards: Relevant product standards that may be applicable
(e.g. Underwriters Laboratories, OSHA)
 Safety and product liability: Predictable unintended uses for the
product, safety label guidelines, applicable company safety
standards
 Intellectual property: Patents related to product. Licensing
strategy for critical pieces of technology.
28
Example – PDS for CD jewel case
Product title
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
Group Assignment 03
Prepare PDS for Your Project / Product

Contents : Not more than 3 pages…
Submission of Group Assignments 02 and 03 :
Tuesday, 14.02.17
Late submissions : Penalty!!!
37
ME – 362
Design
Part 5.2
Muhammad Ilyas
Gathering Information
• Remember we solved a problem related to the

building block machine!
There is a need of building block machine (4x6x12 in) in the

country from highly compacted soil. Your assignment is to
design a block-making machine with the capacity for
producing 600 blocks per day at a capital cost of less than Rs
20,000. Develop a need analysis, a problem statement and a
plan for the information that will be needed to complete the
design.
• Information needed:
• Determination of the processing condition
• What pressure must be generated?
• Curing temperature and time
• Effect of different soil cement mixtures on pressure
• Mechanism for generating pressure
• Human factors
• Magnitude of force that can be produced by a human
• Human fatigue
• Materials handling
• Materials for the machine, availability and their
properties
emails
Data
YouTube
Growth of Data
google
tweets
facebook
Growth of Data over time
mobile
amazon
• This influx of information : aids greatly in the generation

of new knowledge
• On the other hand : more difficult to retrieve information
unless you have a plan to do so…
• Design Process : Need Identification is followed

by Gathering Information
• Variety of information required for a new / existing
design
• Customer’s data
• Computer knowledge
• CAD knowledge
What will be the
• Engineering knowledge
strategy to collect
• Modeling / analysis
information?
• Codes / Standards
• Procurement / suppliers data
• Manufacturing process(es)
• Material(s)
• Develop a personal plan for collecting information
• Develop your own working files of technical and
business information that is important to your work
• Be selective
• Discard outdated materials by getting new information
• To be up-to-date, you can take 3 approaches
• Read the core journals related your area
• Utilize the current awareness services (internet etc.)
• Participate in selective programs (conferences,
technical meetings, group discussions etc.)

• As a professional, try to allocate a small portion of your
resources / income for your technical library and your
professional growth, e.g.
• Purchase of new textbooks : current or potential interest
• Specialized monographs
• Software
• Membership in professional societies
• Subscriptions to technical journals and magazines

• Every professional must read enough journals and
technical magazines to keep up with the technology in
the relevant field
• Journals, which should be read on a monthly basis,
should come from three categories :
1. General scientific, technical, and economic (business) news. (e.g.
the monthly magazine of your main professional society)
2. Trade magazines in your area of interest or business
responsibility
3. Research-oriented journals in your area of interest
Data, Information & Knowledge
• Data: a set of facts and figures about something
specific, in discrete form
• May be some experimental observations about the testing
of a new product, or
• Data on sales that are part of a marketing study
• Information is data that has been treated in some
way that it conveys a message
• For example, the sales data analyzed statistically so as to
identify potential markets by customer income level
• Knowledge is broader, deeper, and richer than
data or information
• It is a mix of experience, values, contextual information, and
expert insight that provides a framework for evaluating and
incorporating new experiences and information
Applied: I’d better stop the bike
Context: The traffic

light I am driving
towards, has turned red
Meaning: South
facing traffic light
facing GIKI gate has
turned red
Raw : Red
• Under this schema
• Data :
• A component
• A specification
• Material data sheet
• Information :
• A catalog of bearings : dimensions, performance data …
• Knowledge :
• An article : calculation of failure life of bearings
Copyright and Copying
• It is a legal right to publish a Tangible

Expression of Literary or Artistic work to
prevent unauthorized copying by any other of
that work
• In United States, copyright is awarded for a
period of the life of the copyright holder plus
50 years.
• It is not necessary to publish a copyright
notice for a work to be copyrighted
• Unlike Patent, with a copyright there is no
extensive search to ensure the degree of
originality of the work
Copyright and Copying
• US Copyright law (1909-1978) : is broad enough for

written engineering specifications, sketches, drawings
and models
• The revision in the law was made later on
• Major motivation for revision was to make law compatible
with the technology of fast, inexpensive copying machines.
• Can make one copy for personal use for criticism, comment,
news, reporting, teaching, scholarships or research.
Sources of Information
Sources of Information – Library
• Hierarchy of Library Information Sources
• Technical dictionaries
• Encyclopedias
• Handbooks
• Textbooks
• Bibliographies
• Indexing and abstract services
• Technical and professional journal
• Translations
• Technical reports
• Patents
• Catalogs and manufacturers’ brochures
• Search information can

be visualized along the
path as shown
ME – 362
Design
Part 6.1
Muhammad Ilyas
2
• Hierarchy of Library Information Sources
• Technical Dictionaries
• Encyclopedias
• Handbooks
• Textbooks
• Bibliographies
• Indexing and Abstracting Services
• Technical and Professional Journals
• Translations
• Technical reports
• Patents
• Catalogs and manufacturer’s brochures
3
• Search information can

be visualized along the
path as shown
4
Parameters describing the efficiency of
information search:
Number ofrrelevant
Numberof documents
elevant do cuments reretrieved
trieved
Precision 
(positive predictive value) Total number
Total Numbretrieved
er retrieved
Number
Numberofofrelevant
relevantdocuments
documents retrieved
retrieved
Recall 
(sensitivity) Number
Numberofofrelevant
relative documents
documentsinincollection
collecti on
A
precision 
A B
A
recall 
A D
5
Parameters describing the efficiency of
information search:
Number ofrrelevant
Numberof documents
elevant documents re retrieved
trieved
Precision 
Total number
Total Numbretrieved
er retriev ed
Number
Numberofofrelevant documents
relevant documentsretrieved
retrieved
Recall 
Number
Numberofofrelevant
relative documents
documentsinincollection
collecti on
“When conveying your search to
the librarian, better tact is to tell
the librarian what you do not
know about topic rather than
describe what you already know”
6
Class Assignment
Relevant: Red Pattern
Calculate Precision & Recall
7
Parameters describing the efficiency of information
search:
Numberof relevant
Number of relevant documents
documents retrieved
retrieved
Precision 
Total
Total numberNumb er retriev ed
retrieved
Number
Number of relevant
of relevant documents
documents retrieved retrieved
Recall 
Number
Number of relative
of relevant documents
documents in collecti on
in collection
Relevant: Red Pattern
18 7 17
P P P
35 7 21
18 7 17
R R R
18 18 18
8
Dictionaries and Encyclopedias
• Dictionaries : Provide illustrated definition of terms
used for any technical area, e.g. :
• ASM Materials Engineering Dictionary
• Dictionary of Mechanical Engineering
• Dictionary of Engineering
• Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms
• Encyclopedias : A good place to start for technically
trained person who is beginning to learn about a new
subject, e.g. :
• Encyclopedia of Materials Sciences and Engineering
• Encyclopedia of Science and Engineering
• Encyclopedia of Physics
• Encyclopedia of Environmental Science and Engineering
9
Handbooks
• Handbooks : compendia of useful technical
data
• Provide : technical description of theory and
its applications
• Good : refreshers once studied in greater
detail
• Technical topics : engineering fundamentals,
calculations, materials, manufacturing,
installation …
• Roark’s Formulas for Stress and Strain, 8th Ed
• Machinery’s Handbook, 29th Ed
• …
10
Textbooks and Monographs
• If you want to find what books are available in a
particular field of work : “Books in Print” or
Internet book selling services such as
• www.McGrawHill.com
• www.amazon.com
• www.johnwiley.com
11
Indexing and Abstracting services
• Indexing service : cites the articles by title, author and
bibliographic data
• Abstracting Service : provides a summary of the
contents of the articles
• Indexing and abstracting services : current information
on periodical literature, a way to retrieve published
literature
• Include books, conference proceedings, technical reports,
patents …
12
• Conducting a search for published literature :
• Like putting together a large puzzle
• Better strategy : start with the most recent subject
indexes and abstracts and try to find a current review
article or general technical paper
• The references cited in it : search back along the
“ancestor references” to find the research that led to the
current state of knowledge
• Identify key documents (Note : it takes 6~12 months for
a reference to be included in an index or abstract service,
so current research might not be picked up using this
strategy)
13
14
Translations
• Scientific & Technical Literature : mostly in English
• An experienced translator can complete 5 pages a day
• Translator Machines although not yet developed
properly can increase this to 15 pages a day
• Software : available to translate from one language to
another
15
Catalogues, Brochures & Business Information
• Catalogue: detailed specification of products of a
company
• Brochures : introduce a company or organization and
inform about products and / or services
16
• Technical libraries : business and
commercial information that is
important in design
• Obtained from trade literature, visits to
trade shows, Thomas Register of
American Manufacturers,
(www.thomasnet.com, www.alibaba.com),
Annual trade publications
17
• Information also available from Ministry of Commerce,
Industries and Production, Bureau of the Census Statistics,
etc
• Information : arranged by industry according to the North
American Industry Classification System (NAICS), e.g.
products in primary metal industry start with 33,
transportation equipment with 37, etc
 Pakistan Standard Industrial Classification (PSIC) :
18
19
Information from the Internet
• Why general search engines (e.g Google, Yahoo) are not
enough?
• Do not check search results for quality and reliability
• Index less than half of the internet
• a lot of scientific information is available in restricted databases
that can only be accessed upon payment
• Make use of scientific sources of information
• Web of Science (bibliographic database and citation database)
• Google Scholar (bibliographic database and citation database)
• Business Source Complete (full text database and citation
database)
• ERIC (bibliographic database)
• …
20
ME – 362
Design
Part 6.2
Muhammad Ilyas
2
3
4
5
6
• In our region, we need to compile a comprehensive
directory of suppliers / manufacturers
7
Intellectual Property (IP)
• Refers to the protection of ideas with copyrights,

trademarks, trade secrets and patents
• e.g. music, literature, and other artistic works;
discoveries and inventions; and words, phrases,
symbols, and designs
• These entities fall within the broad area of property
law and, can be sold or leased just like other forms of
property
8
Intellectual Property (IP)
9
Copyright
• Legal right created by law of the country that grants the
creator of an original work exclusive rights to its use and
distribution, usually for a limited time, with the intention
of enabling the creator (e.g. the photographer of a
photograph or the author of a book) to receive
compensation for their intellectual work
BTW, can © be used without compensation?
 Fair use and Fair dealing

 Copyright does not prohibit all copying or
replication
 Permits some copying and distribution
without permission of the copyright holder or
payment to same
10
Copyright
 Fair use and Fair dealing
Without
11
permission: Illegal Allowed Legal
©
Is there something like copyleft??
 Copyleft : using copyright law to offer the right to
distribute copies and modified versions of a work and
requiring that the same rights be preserved in modified
versions of the work
 e.g. computer software (source code), documents, art etc
 Copyleft gives freedom to :

 use the work
 study the work
 copy and share the work with others
 modify the work
 distribute modified / derivative works
12
Trademark
• Trade mark : any name, word, symbol or device that
is used by a company to identify its goods or services
and to distinguish them from those made or sold by
others
• Right to use trademark : obtained by registration and
extends indefinitely so long the trade mark continues
to be used
13
Trade Secret
• Trade secret is any formula, pattern, device or
compilation of information which is used in a
business to create an opportunity over competitors
who do not have this information
• Sometimes trade secrets are information which could
be patented
• Since trade secret has no legal protection, it is
essential to maintain the information in secret
• e.g. : generally, the ingredients of a medicine is known to
everyone but how the medicine is produced (e.g. sequence
of chemical reactions) by a pharmaceutical company is a
trade secret!
14
Patent Literature
• PATENT
• The word originates from Latin “patere”, meaning "to lay open" i.e.
to make available for public inspection (www.dictionary.com)
• A patent : registering an invention or a novel work with an
organization owned by a state
• In modern usage, the term patent usually refers to the right
granted to anyone who invents any new, useful, and non-obvious
process, machine, article of manufacture or composition of matter
In principle, the patent owner has the exclusive right to
prevent / stop others from commercially exploiting the
patented invention
In other words, patent protection means that the invention
cannot be commercially made, used, distributed, imported or
sold by others without the patent owner's consent
15
Patent Literature
Patents can generally only be enforced through civil

lawsuits (e.g. US patent law)
• In most countries, both individual persons and corporate entities
may apply for a patent
• U.S. patent system is the largest body of information on technology
in the world (only ~20% of the technology that is contained in US
patents can be found elsewhere in published literature)
• At present over 5 million US patents. Number is increasing at a
rate close to 100,000 each year
• Old patents help in tracing the development of ideas in
engineering
• New patents describe what’s happening at the frontiers of the field
16
Patent – US Law
• Article 1, Section 8, of the

constitution of U.S. states that
Congress shall have the power to
promote progress in science and
technology by securing for limited
times to inventors the exclusive
right to their discoveries
• A patent granted by the U.S.
Government gives the patentee the
right to prevent others from making,
using, or selling the patented
invention
17
Patent
• Any patent application filed since

1995 has a term of protection that
begins on the date of the grant of
the patent and ends on a date 20
years after the filing date of the
application.
• The 20–Years term brings U.S. in
harmony with other countries of
the world
18
Types of Patents
• Utility patent
• Most common type
• Issued for new and useful machines, processes,
articles of manufacture or composition of matter etc.
• Design patent
• Issued for new ornamental design (e.g. coke bottle)
• Plant patents
• Granted for new varieties of plants (e.g. roses)
Computer software are generally protected by

copyright, but in cases where software is
embedded into hardware, they are also patented
19
Patent Law
• Patent Law – a process is defined as an operation

performed by rule to produce a certain result
• Patent Law defines a patentable process to include a
new use of a known process, machine, manufacture,
or composition of matter.
• A new use of a known compound which is not
analogous to a known use may be a patentable
process.
20
Patent Law
Not all processes are patentable

• Laws of nature and physical phenomena cannot be patented
• Mathematical equations and methods of solving them are not
patentable subject matters
• Abstracted ideas cannot be patented
• Merely for changing the size or shape of a machine part, or for
substituting a better material for an inferior one
• Artistic, dramatic, literary, and musical works are protected by
copyright, not by patents
• Some business practices can be patented
21
Criteria for Awarding Patent
• The invention must be New

or Novel
• The invention must be

Useful
• It must be non-obvious to a
person skilled in the art
covered by the patent
22
Reading a Patent
• Patent is a legal document, hence its style is
different from the usual technical paper
• Some of the patent portions are the following:
• Claim(s) – generally at the end
• Inventor – listed on the top, may be different than assignee
• Assignee – the true owner, e.g. the company where inventor
works
• Title
• References  Field of invention
• Abstract  Summary
 Detailed description
• Pictures / drawings
• Related application
• Background
23
Reading a Patent
Patent No., Date
Name!
Application No., Date
Claim, No. of dwgs
Typical dwg
24
Reading a Patent
25
Reading a Patent: Compact Disc Case
26
Reading a Patent
27
Patent
28
Patent
29
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Part 6.3
Muhammad Ilyas
Expert Systems (ES)
• ES is an active area of the field of Artificial Intelligence

• Problems are solved using an information database provided by
the expert and decision rules for interpreting the data
• ES acquires knowledge through knowledge-acquisition
software tools from a trained specialist called a
knowledge engineer
 Knowledge engineer may obtains his

knowledge from one or more experts in
the technical area
2
Expert Systems – Applications
• Computer application : performs a task that would
otherwise be performed by human experts
• e.g. diagnose human illnesses, make financial
forecasts, schedule routes for delivery vehicles …
• ES : designed to take the place of humans or
designed to assist them
3
Expert Systems (ES)
• A typical expert system consists of following
elements :
• Knowledge Base
• Inference Engine
• Knowledge base : unique to particular domain / area
and stores facts / knowledge about the related area
• Inference engine : applies logical rules to the
knowledge base and deduced new knowledge / outcome
4
Expert Systems (ES)
5
Expert Systems (ES)
Prime Advantage of ES is that:
• They capture the knowledge of experts that may
otherwise be lost through death or retirement.
• They can contain the cumulative knowledge of several
experts, they are available any time of the day or night
and they can be distributed widely throughout an
organization
 Disadvantage of ES
 Lacks common sense
 Cannot make creative
responses as humans
 Errors may occur in
knowledge base
 Cannot adopt to changing
6
environments
Expert Systems (ES)
Expert system – Examples
• Diagnostic applications, servicing:
• People
• Machinery
• Computer Games ( Chess ☺ )
• Make financial planning decisions
• Configure computers
• Monitor real time systems (weather, aero plane routing)
• Underwrite (signing & accepting )insurance policies
• …
7
Expert Systems (ES)
• Expert system – Examples in medical
• Example of a diagnosis rule-based expert system is
EMERGE designed to be used in an emergency room
• This system uses a form of production rules which
incorporates weighing factors which are determined by
a neural network
8 [www.rpi.edu/]
Expert Systems (ES)
• Benefits of Expert System in Design
• Capture valuable expertise and then to give it comfortably into the
hands of novice / beginner (e.g. PV Elite …)
• Improve the consistency of designs within an organization (e.g. for
similar jobs…)
• Minimize errors in problem solving
• Interface the ES with software for engineering analysis (e.g.
Autoplant by Bentley)
• Search large databases for optimal selection of concepts,
components and materials (e.g. material library, ANSI standards
in CAD software)
• Search design libraries for similar designs
• Reduce cost of design while at the same time improving quality
9
Concept Generation
10
Conceptual Design
• Concept Generation : the stage of product development

where the skills, experience and creativity of the design
team are used to fulfill the customer’s needs
• Concepts are the means for providing function

• Any form that gives an indication how the function can
be achieved
• What to do → Function vs. How to do → Concepts (forms)
• It is not necessary that the idea may be original
11
Conceptual Design
• First creative stage of any design : generate concepts

• e.g. choice between gasoline or electric powered vehicles
• Important rule in conceptual design : generate a few
concepts and then select the best
• This requires creativity!
12
Creativity and Problem Solving
Enhance your creative thinking :

1. Develop a creative attitude: Develop self confidence
2. Unlock your imagination : Answer to your own questions.
Ask “Why” and “What if”
3. Be persistent / determined: Dispel the myth that
creativity occurs with a lightening strike
• Edison tested 6000 materials to use as filament in a light bulb
Invention is 95% perspiration and 5% inspiration (Edison)
13
Steps for enhancing creative thinking (contd.):
4. Develop an open mind : Being receptive to ideas from any

and all sources
• It is not necessary that a degree holder will solve your problem
5. Suspend your judgment : Creative ideas develop slowly
• Forbear / withhold your comments at the early stage
6. Set problem boundaries: Establish boundaries taking help
from problem definition and QFD
14
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Part 7.1
Muhammad Ilyas
Concept Generation
2
How to develop creative thinking?
Some steps one can take to enhance creative thinking :
Develop a creative attitude : Develop self confidence
Unlock your imagination : Ask “Why” and “What if”.
Be persistent / determined
Develop an open mind : Be receptive from any one and all

sources
Suspend your judgment
Set problem boundaries : Take help from problem

definition and QFD
3
• Example: Problem solving by thinking differently …
use
4
• Example: Problem solving by thinking differently …
5
Psychological View of Problem Solving
Some psychologists describe the creative thinking process and

problem solving in terms of a simple four-stage model
3 1
4 2
8
Psychological View of Problem Solving
1. Preparation : The elements of the problem are examined

2. Incubation : “Sleep on problem”
3. Inspiration : A solution / path emerges
4. Verification : The inspired solution is checked against the
desired results
9
Brain Storming
Most common method used by design teams for
generating ideas
• Generates : a large number of diverse concepts / ideas by group / team
• Why team? It is likely that one person’s mental block will be different
from another’s, so that by acting together, the team’s combined idea
generation process flows well
• An approach might be
• Have a meeting with individuals (6-12 is good) related to the
design tasks
• Make it clear that criticism is not allowed and every idea is good
• Ask everyone to write ideas on separate pieces of paper
10
Conclusions: QFD Gas Oven
• Rotary mechanism
• Proper Design / Selection
of burner
• position of burner
• number of burners
• type of burner (flame or
induction heating)
• Cost of manufacture
• Inner case design
• Selection of a better
material
11
Brain Storming
Gas Oven : Concepts for Burner and Rotary Mechanism
Since the fuel is gas, following possible burners can be used:
Following are the possible rotary mechanisms:
12
Brain Storming
Gas Oven : Concepts for Burner Protection and Burner Door
13
Brain Storming
Gas Oven: Concepts for Shape
14
Brain Storming
Gas Oven: Concepts for Shape
15
Brain Storming
Think out of box
Join the DOTS with 4 (or less ) straight lines, without
removing pencil from the paper
https://www.mycoted.com/Nine_Dots
• • •
• • •
16
• • •
Systematic Methods for Designing
Structured processes for generating design Solutions
1. Functional Decomposition and Synthesis

2. Morphological Analysis
3. Theory of Inventive Problem Solving (TRIZ)
4. Axiomatic Design
5. …
17
Conceptual Decomposition
A common tactic to solve a complex
problem is to decompose it
• Break the system such that the connections of the
elements within in the chunks are stronger
• There are two approaches to Conceptual

Decomposition :
1. Decomposition in physical domain
2. Functional decomposition
18
Conceptual Decomposition
Decomposition in physical domain
• When starting a design process, most engineers
unconsciously begin with physical decomposition
• Sketching a system, a subassembly, or a physical part is a
way to represent the product and begin accessing all the
relevant knowledge about the product
Physical decomposition : separating the product or

subassembly → subsidiary subassemblies / components and
accurately describing how these parts work together to
create the behavior of the product
19
Decomposition in Physical Domain
• It starts with PDS (Product Design Specification)
• 1st step is to decompose the product into those
subassemblies and components that are essential
for the over all function of the product
• Care must be taken about the “Product
Architecture”
• There may be more than one ways to decompose a
product
• Consider the bicycle example:
The bicycle can be
decomposed into several
parts, like wheel, rim etc.
20
Physical decomposition of a
bicycle with two levels of
decomposition detail on the
wheel subassembly
21
Major steps involved in physical decomposition:
• Define the physical system in total and draw it like a tree diagram
(The decomposition diagram will be hierarchical)
• Identify and define the first major subassembly of the system and
draw it as a new block below the main root
• Identify and draw the physical connections between the
subassemblies and root
• Identify and draw the physical connections between the subassembly
and any other subassemblies on the same hierarchical level of the
diagram’s structure
• Examine the first subassembly block in the now complete level of the
diagram (If it can be decomposed into more than one distinct and
significant components, make a new sub assembly)
22
Some conclusions (Physical Decomposition) :
• Physical decomposition is a top-down approach to understand the
physical nature of the product
• The decomposition diagram is not solution-neutral because it is based
on the physical parts of an existing design
• A physical decomposition will lead designers to think about
alternative parts already called out in the product
• It limits the number of alternative designs generated to a
neighborhood of the design space surrounding the existing solution
• Design of an air circulation system
• The case of a ceiling fan: fan  motor, rotary parts, supports etc.
23
Functional Decomposition
System is decomposed with respect to its functions

• Functional decomposition results in a solution-neutral
representation of a product : a function structure
• This type of representation is useful for generating a wide
variety of design solutions
• Basically we draw functional blocks that show interfaced systems
and indicate inputs and outputs of information, energy and
materials
• We can start by drawing one main box for a function (we consider
the example of CD case at the end)
24
Functionality of some common devices
Other
Device Input Function Output
Effects
Increase Decrease
Nozzle Fluid flow
velocity pressure
Fluid Flow
Rot.
Electrical Thermal
Motor Energy
ElecMech
energy
Mechanical
Energy
Change
Mechanic Increase
Pump al Energy pressure?
flow Fluid flow
direction
Rot. Change Rot.

Change
Gear Mechanic
speed
rotation Mechanical
al Energy direction Energy
25
Rules for Functional Decomposition
The rules of thumb when creating the main diagrams (for

Functional Decomposition) :
• Pick reasonable function boundaries (not too much or too little)
• e.g. : What is Nozzle’s function? (bigger boundaries: a pipe
connected to a pipeline, smaller boundaries: a cylindrical piece)
• Conserve energy and material
• Indicate interfacing / involved parts of the system
• Add information flows to determine how well the system is
performing
26
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Design
Part 7.2
Muhammad Ilyas
• Description of
functional
decomposition
requires the
relationship
between energy,
material and input /
output signals
• Examples of flow
classes:
2
Rules for Functional Decomposition
Break the main function into sub functions :
• Make sub function boxes that show how they work
• Create as many boxes as possible
• List alternates
• Make sure all applicable flows are included
• Consider sequences
• Use standard notations (see textbook Table )
• Use available documents, parts etc. to develop ideas
• Don’t be afraid to add new items not on the first diagram
3
 Consider the example of CD Casing:

You remember what were the requirements for CD Casing?
4
Improvements:
1. Case more resistant to cracking
2. Easier to open
3. Add color
4. Better waterproofing
5. Make it lighter
6. More scratch-resistant
7. Easier extraction of CD from the circular fastener
8. Streamlined look
9. Case should fit the hand better
10. Easier to take out leaflet describing the CD
11. Use recyclable plastic
12. Make interlocking cases so they stack on top of each other without
slipping
13. Better locking case
5
14. Hinge that doesn’t come apart
Example of CD Casing:
We perform the functional decomposition of the

problem by considering the following:
1. State the overall functions that needs to be accomplished

2. Create description of sub functions
3. Arrange the sub functions in logical order
4. Refine the sub functions
6
1. State the overall functions which are to be accomplished

• e.g. the overall function of CD casing could be to protect the CD from
dirt and scratching while allowing visibility to leaflet
2. Create description of sub functions
• e.g. releasing disc from rosette ( the centerpiece part that holds the
CD )
3. Arrange the sub functions in logical order
• e.g. open the casing, take out the CD etc.
4. Refine the sub functions
• e.g. the sub function “open the casing” can be refined like: hold and
grip the casing, disengage the locking mechanism, retrieve the CD
7
Describing the overall function
Energy flow
Material flow
Information flow Overall function
Flows IN Flows OUT
8
Description of sub-functions generated from overall
function involving movement of human hand
9
Description of FUNCTIONS IN LOGICAL ORDER
10
Some steps for Functional Decomposition:
• Identify the overall function that needs to be accomplished ( Identify
the energy, material, and signal flows that will be input / output to
the device )
• Using everyday language, write a description of the individual
functions that are required to accomplish the overall task
• Identify more precise functions necessary to fulfill the more detailed
description of the product’s function
• Arrange the function blocks in the order that they must take place
for the desired functions
• Add the energy, material, and signal flows between the function
blocks
11
Some steps for Functional Decomposition:

• Examine each block in the function structure to determine if
additional energy, material, or signal flows are necessary to
perform the function
• Review each function block again to see if additional refinement
is necessary
12
Some conclusions (Functional Decomposition):
• Functional decomposition results in a solution-neutral
representation of a product
• Functional decomposition is not easy to implement in all situations
• Function structures are not necessarily unique ( Another designer or
design team can create a slightly different set of descriptive function
blocks )
Functional or Physical Decomposition?
Experts suggest that a compromise approach may be used
➢ Start with physical decomposition and then identify the functions that
each subassembly and component fulfills
➢ Focus on ways of fulfilling the identified functions and look for ways to
separate and combine functions
13
Morphological Charts
• This method was proposed by Zwicky (1948)

• Morphological charts arrange the functions and sub
functions in logical order
• Morphology : the study of shape or structure
• This uncovers the combinations of ideas that comprise
the design concepts
• See the example of CD case for understanding
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
Combining Concepts
• You have different possibilities and you combine them to get a
best solution
• There could be is quite large possible combinations
• For the given example we have
5 x 5 x 4 x 3 x 5 x 2 x 2 x 3 x 3 x 3 = 162000
• We need to select one best concept for each function

• The best way is to evaluate each idea.
• Most of the ideas are dependent on each other
23
Combining Concepts
Example: in the CD Casing example, we can see about 5
different combinations:
Shape Lock Opening CD securing Leaflet/
Others
Square box Inclined plane Slide out CD securing Leaflet is
lock match box for with rosette secured with
hinge tabs
Stream lined Friction lock Conventional CD securing CD casing
Curved box hinge Padded elastic design to
cradle stack flat
Grooved box Magnetic lock Conventional CD securing: For leaflet:
to the shape of hinge lift/lock slot in the top
fingers system of casing
Square box Magnetic lock Conventional CD securing Leaflet: Velcro
hinge Padded elastic straps
cradle
Curved box Inclined plane Slide out box CD securing: Leaflet fits
24 lock rosette into slot
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Design
Part 7.3
Muhammad Ilyas
TRIZ
• Russian language acronym : Teoriya Resheniya
Izobreatatelskikh Zadatch
• Translated into English : The Theory of Inventive
Problem Solving
• Genrich Altshuller : started his research in 1940s
• Objective of TRIZ : discover how inventors invent
2
TRIZ
• Aimed : inventions that solved difficult engineering
problems in novel ways
• Difficult : containing one or more technical contradictions
and a situation where compromise was no longer an
acceptable solution
• Technical Contradiction : a system contains two
important attributes related such that an improvement in
the first attribute degrades the other, e.g. :
• speed vs. precision
• aircraft design a technical contradiction is the inherent trade-off
between improving an aircraft’s crashworthiness by increasing the
fuselage wall thickness and minimizing its weight
3
TRIZ
Strategies for generating an innovative solution to a design
problem
• Increase the ideality of a product or system
• Ideality : the ratio of the useful effects of a system to its harmful
effects
• Identify the product’s place in its evolution to ideality and
force the next step
• Identify key physical or technological contradictions in
the product and revise the design to overcome them using
inventive principles
• Model a product or system using substance-field (Su-Field)
analysis and apply candidate modifications
4
5
6
TRIZ – Commonly used Principles
• Principle 1 : Segmentation
• Divide an object into independent parts
• Replace mainframe computer with personal computers
• Replace a large truck with a truck and trailer
• Use a work breakdown structure for a large project
• Principle 2 : Extraction
• Separate an interfering part or property from an object, or single out
the only necessary part (or property) of an object
• Locate a noisy compressor outside the building where the air is used
• Use the sound of a barking dog, without the dog, as a burglar alarm
7
• Principle 10 : Prior Action

• Perform the required change (fully or partially) before it is needed
• Pre-pasted wallpaper
• Sterilize all instruments needed for a surgical procedure on a sealed tray
• Principle 28 : Replacement of mechanical system

• Replace a mechanical means with a sensory (optical, acoustic, taste
or smell) means
• Replace a physical fence to confine a dog or cat with an acoustic “fence”
(signal audible to the animal)
• Use a bad-smelling compound in natural gas to alert users to leakage,
instead of a mechanical or electrical sensor
8
• Principle 35 : Transformation of properties

• Change an object’s physical state (e.g. gas, liquid, solid)
• Freeze the liquid centers of filled candies prior to coating them
• Transport oxygen or nitrogen or natural gas as a liquid, instead of a gas,
to reduce volume
9
TRIZ Process – Step by Step
• Identify the problem

• Formulate the problem
• Does improving one Engineering Parameter to solve a
problem cause other Engineering Parameter to worsen?
• Find the principle which can be applied
• Look for analogous solutions and adapt
10
TRIZ Process – Example
A metal pipe pneumatically transports plastic pellets. A change in the
process requires that metal powder now be used with the pipe instead of
plastic. The metal must also be delivered to the station at the end of the
transport pipe at a higher rate of speed. Changes in the transport system
must be done without requiring significant cost increases and suspending
the plant operation. The hard metal powder causes erosion of the inside
of the pipe at the elbow where the metal particles turn 90°
11
Identify the problem

Adapt the current system to transport metal powder
Formulate the problem

Significant extra cost prohibits reinforcement of the inside of elbow
and redesigning of the path
Technical Contradictions
Speed effects : impacting force, durability, loss of matter, quantity
of substance
12
13
Principles that can be applied

Principle 13 : Inversion
Principle 15 : Dynamicity or dynamics
Principle 28 : Replacement of a mechanical system
Principle that can be applied

Principle 28 : Use a filed in conjunction with ferromagnetic particles
14
Group Assignment – TRIZ
Apply TRIZ on your Project

• Identify and clearly state the Technical Contradictions
• Identify and apply inventive principles
• Propose a solution
• Justify your response
• Length of document : 02 page max
Submission Date : 03–03–2017
15
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Design
Part 8.1
Muhammad Ilyas
Concept Evaluation
2
Concept Evaluation
• After design concepts have been developed they must be reviewed

• When evaluating concepts, it is recommended to start with many
concepts and then refine
• Evaluation involves comparison followed by decision making
• There could be two types of comparisons:
• ABSOLUTE comparison, all the concepts are compared with some set of
requirements
• RELATIVE comparison, all the concepts are compared with each other
3
Concept Evaluation
4
Methods for Concept Evaluation
• Comparison Based on Absolute Criteria

• Pugh’s Concept Selection Method
• Measurement Scales
• Weighted Decision Matrix
• Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP)
5
Pugh’s Concept Selection Method
• This method compares each concept relative to a

reference datum concept.
• Is it “Better Than” “Worse Than” or “Same as”
• An “Individual” may be best to create an idea  A small group is
better at selecting ideas
6
Steps:
1. Choose the criteria by which the concepts will be evaluated
(e.g. QFD, or ask the group members to write some criteria
for evaluation)
2. Formulate the decision matrix : the criteria and the concepts
are written in rows and column
3. Clarify the design concepts : all the team members should
have a common understanding about each concept
4. Choose the datum concept : one concept is selected by the
team as a reference
Criterion Concept 1 Concept 2

DATUM concept Cost
Opening /
Closing
7
Steps :
5. Run the matrix : do comparative evaluation. If the concept is
Better give it (+), if Worse (–), for Same (S)
6. Evaluate the ratings : the sum of (+), (–) and (S) is determined for
each concept. Reject the concept with high (–)
Criterion DATUM Concept 1 Concept 2

Cost – (minus) + (plus)
Opening/ S (same) – (minus)
closing
SUM of + 3 2
SUM of – 2 1
8
• e.g. : CD Casing – Evaluation / Comparison of 5 concepts against the
standard CD casing using Pugh’s method
9
• e.g. : CD Casing – Evaluation / Comparison of 5 concepts against the
standard CD casing using Pugh’s method
10
Weighted Decision Matrix Method
In this method, the concepts are evaluated by ranking the design
criteria with weighted factors
Scale / weights Scale / weights

11
12
Steps:
1. Identify the Design Selection
Criteria :
A. Material Cost
B. Manufacturing Cost
C. Repair Cost
D. Durability
E. Reliability
F. Time to produce
13
Steps :
2. Determine the weighting factor for each criteria:
• A good way to proceed is to construct the hierarchical objective tree
Next we plan for the weights…
Note: 0.6+0.4 = 1
Note: 0.3+0.5+0.2 = 1
Note: 0.6+0.3+0.1 = 1
14
Steps :
2. Determine the weighting factor for each criteria:
• A good way to proceed is to construct the hierarchical objective tree
The weight factors are calculated as
For material cost: 0.3*0.6*1.0 = 0.18

For durability: 0.6*0.4*1.0 = 0.24
And so on …
15
Steps :
3. Create the Weighted Decision Matrix
Known or from experience

Rating = weight factor * score
As defined previously e.g. 0.18 * 8 = 1.44
16
Steps :
3. Create the Weighted Decision Matrix
The Weighted Decision Matrix shows that the best overall

design concept would be Concept No. 2
17
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Design
Part 8.2
Muhammad Ilyas
Concept Evaluation
2
• Based on Absolute Criteria

• Pugh’s Selection method
• Measurement Scales Already discussed!
• Weighted Decision Matrix
• Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP)
3
Evaluation Based on Absolute Criteria

• This is the 1st evaluation of different design concepts
• Generally, it is useless to proceed to a more sophisticated evaluation
method if it soon becomes clear that some aspect about the concept
disqualifies it for selection
• So begin the evaluation process by comparing the concepts to a series
of absolute filters:
• Evaluation based on judgment of feasibility of the design
• Evaluation based on assessment of technology readiness
• Evaluation based on go / no-go screening of the customer requirements
(take help from QFD, PDS)
4
Evaluation Based on Measurement Scales
• Measurement : Rating a design parameter among several alternative
designs
• There are different scales which can be used for comparing various
design concepts :
• Nominal scale:
• Not very quantitative method
• Parameters are compared such that we identify the things /
parameters as “thick or thin,” “red or black” or “yes or no”
• Ordinal scale:
• Items are compared such that we say item A is better than item B
or item D is worse than item C
• However, this scale does not say that how much better or how
much worse
• e.g. : recall Pugh’s chart (plus, minus or same)
5
• Ordinal scale (…contd.)
• Pairwise comparison : it is one of the ways an ordinal scale is used
 Consider the case where there are five design alternatives : A, B, C, D
and E
 In comparing A to B we consider A to be more important, and give it
a1
 In comparing A to C we feel C ranks higher, and a 0 is recorded in the
A line and a 1 on the C line
 This way, the table is completed
Comparison of A against B, C, D, E
This shows A is
better than B, but
worse than C
6
• Interval scale : this is needed to determine how much

worse or good A is compared with D
• e.g. : we could distribute various concepts like A, B, C etc. along a 1
to 10 scale to create an interval scale
7
Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP)
• One of the concept evaluation methods developed by Saaty
• AHP is well suited for evaluation problems whose objectives have a
hierarchical structure
Car CAM
design
Design Criteria Material Manufacturing Time to

Reliability
cost cost produce
Design Concepts / Methods Production by Production by

machining casting
8
9
• Identify the Design Criteria (e.g. cost, manufacturing process, time to
market etc.):
• Prepare the square matrix
• i.e. pair wise comparison
Mat. cost Mfg. cost Reparability Durability Reliability Time to

Criteria produce
Material cost
Manufacturing cost
Reparability
Durability
Reliability
Time to produce
10
• Determine the weighting factors for each design criteria
• put 1 in the diagonal of the matrix (why?)

Criteria produce
Material cost 1
Manufacturing cost 1
Reparability 1
Durability 1
Reliability 1
Time to produce 1
11
• next we compare the items of the design criteria
• we take help from Saaty’s fundamental scale for pairwise comparison
12
e.g. compare mat cost with mfg cost, reparability, durability etc.

Criteria produce
Material cost 1
Manufacturing cost 1
Reparability 1
Durability 1
Reliability 1
Time to produce 1
13
• next we compare the items of the design criteria
• Suppose we compare the mfg cost with mat cost and suppose we say that
mfg cost has strong importance than mat cost
• That will mean that it has a score of 5 compare to 1 (Saaty’s table)
• Alternatively, mat cost will have a score of 1/5 compare to 1 of mfg cost

Criteria produce
Material cost 1 1/5
Manufacturing cost 5 1
Reparability 1
Durability 1
Reliability 1
Time to produce 1
14

Criteria produce
Material cost 1 1/5
Manufacturing cost 5 1
Reparability 1
Durability 1
Reliability 1
Time to produce 1
Mat cost Vs Mfg cost: mat cost less strongly imp than mfg cost (i.e., mfg cost is strongly imp)
Mat cost Vs Reparability: mat cost is moderately imp than reparability
Mat cost Vs Durability: mat cost is not moderately imp than Durability (i.e., Durability is imp)
15
• By this way, we complete the rest of the square matrix (for scores of 1,3,7
see Saaty’s table)

Criteria produce
Material cost 1 1/5 3 1/5 3 7
Manufacturing cost 5 1 7 3 3 7
Reparability 1/3 1/7 1 1/5 1/3 5
Durability 5 1/3 5 1 3 7
Reliability 1/3 1/3 3 1/3 1 7
Time to produce 1/7 1/7 1/5 1/7 1/7 1
16
• Next we sum up all the scores
• Criteria Comparison Matrix [C] looks like :

Criteria produce
Material cost 1 1/5 3 1/5 3 7
Manufacturing cost 5 1 7 3 3 7
Reparability 1/3 1/7 1 1/5 1/3 5
Durability 5 1/3 5 1 3 7
Reliability 1/3 1/3 3 1/3 1 7
Time to produce 1/7 1/7 1/5 1/7 1/7 1
Total 11.8 2.14 19.2 4.87 10.47 34.0
17
• Next we normalize the entries in each cell by dividing by the total
for each column

Criteria produce
Material cost 1/11.8 = 1

0.085 1/5 3 1/5 3 7
Manufacturing cost 5/11.8 = 5

0.423 1 7 3 3 7
Reparability 1/3
0.33/11.8=0.028 1/7 1 1/5 1/3 5
Durability 5/11.8 = 5
0.423 1/3 5 1 3 7
Reliability 1/3
0.33/11.8=0.028 1/3 3 1/3 1 7
Time to produce 1/7=

0.14/11.8 1/7 1/5 1/7 1/7 1
0.012
Total 11.8 2.14 19.2 4.87 10.47 34.0
18
• By this way we complete all the table
Mat. Mfg. Reparabi Durabil Reliabil Time to

Criteria cost cost lity ity ity produce
Material cost 0.085 0.093 0.156 0.041 0.286 0.206
Manufacturing cost 0.424 0.467 0.364 0.616 0.286 0.206
Reparability 0.028 0.065 0.052 0.041 0.031 0.147
Durability 0.424 0.154 0.260 0.205 0.286 0.206
Reliability 0.028 0.154 0.156 0.068 0.095 0.206
Time to produce 0.012 0.065 0.010 0.029 0.013 0.029
Total 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000
19
• We calculate the sum of each row
• Divide it by total no. of design criteria (6 in this case) that will give the
average – which is the weight factor (W.F) for each design criteria!
• Normalized Criteria Comparison Matrix [Norm C] looks like :
Mat. Mfg. Reparabi Durabil Reliabil Time to

Criteria cost cost lity ity ity produce
Total Criteria
Weights
Material cost 0.085 0.093 0.156 0.041 0.286 0.206 0.867 0.143
Manufacturing cost 0.424 0.467 0.364 0.616 0.286 0.206 2.363 0.393
Reparability 0.028 0.065 0.052 0.041 0.031 0.147 0.364 0.061
Durability 0.424 0.154 0.260 0.205 0.286 0.206 1.535 0.256
Reliability 0.028 0.154 0.156 0.068 0.095 0.206 0.707 0.118
Time to produce 0.012 0.065 0.010 0.029 0.013 0.029 0.158 0.027
Total 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 6.000 1.000

20
ME – 362
Design
Part 8.3
Muhammad Ilyas
Concept Evaluation
2
AHP Process for Determining Criteria Weights
1. Complete Criteria Comparison Matrix [C] using 1-9 ratings
2. Normalize the [C] matrix to give [NormC]
3. Average row values. This is the Criteria Weights vector {W}
4. Perform a consistency check on [C]
1. Weighted Sum Vector {Ws} = [C]{W}
2. Calculate Consistency Vector, {Cons} = {Ws} / {W}
3. Estimate, λ as average of values in {Cons}
4. Evaluate Consistence Index, CI = (λ – n) / (n – 1)
5. Calculate Consistency ratio, CR = CI / RI
6. If CR < 0.1, {W} is considered valid, otherwise adjust [C] entries and
repeat
Note: RI values, given in the textbook, are CI values for randomly generated versions of [C]
3
• Consistency Check Process
{Ws}=[C]{W} Criteria Weights {Cons} = {Ws}/{W}

{W}
0.286 0.047 6.093
0.515 0.079 5.526
0.839 0.124 6.742
3.090 0.445 6.950
1.908 0.272 7.022
0.210 0.033 6.324
• Average of {Cons} = λ = 6.610
• Consistency index, CI = (λ – n) / (n – 1) = ___
• Consistency ratio, CR = CI / RI = ___
• Is Comparison Consistent?
Note : These values are different from the previous example (How/Why?)
4
Determining Ratings for Design Alternatives with Respect to
a Criterion
3. Average row values - gives priority vector {Pi} of design alternative
ratings
4. Perform a consistency check on [C]
Determining Best of Design Alternatives

1. Compose Final Rating Matrix [FRating], Each {Pi} is transposed to
give the ith row of the [FRating] matrix
2. Calculate [FRating]T{W} = {Alternative Value}
3. Select the alternative with the highest rating relative to others
5
Determining Ratings for Design Alternatives with Respect to
a Criterion
• Material cost for Weld = Material cost for Rivet = 60c/lb

• Material cost for Cast Steel = 50c/lb
6

3. Average row values - gives priority vector {Pi} of design alternative
ratings
7
4. Perform consistency check on [C]
8

1. Compose Final Rating Matrix [FRating], Each {Pi} is transposed to
give the ith row of the [FRating] matrix
9

2. Calculate [FRating]T{W} = {Alternative Value}
3. Select the alternative with the highest rating relative to others
10
• As we can see this method requires a lot of expertise and time

• One solution is available in the form of a software
• EXPERT CHOICE®
• http://expertchoice.com/
• The decision matrix for the previous problem (crane hook design)
using EXPERT CHOICE 9.0 is the following
Welded Riveted Cast

0.32 0.50 0.17
11
Exercise (Concept Generation & Evaluation)
Example: Design a user friendly, durable flip-lid trash can

that opens and closes reliably
• Create a Functional Decomposition Diagram for Flip-Lid Trash Can
Energy flow
Human force Human force
to open Trash-can to close
capable to open
Material flow
and close, to
Trash IN Trash Store
store trash,
absorb odor
Overall function
12
Exercise (Concept Generation & Evaluation)
• Sub functions / write in logical order
• Review / refine the sub functions
Convert Open Lid by Close Lid by

Energy Hand/foot
Hand/paddle
Resistance to
Store Trash denting or
Tipping (cap) breaking
Resistance
Tight Lid
Contain
Trash
Control Odor
Absorb Odor
13
Exercise
In search for more environmentally friendly design, paper
cups have replaced Styrofoam cups in some fast food
restaurants. These cups are not as good insulators, and the
paper cups often get too hot for the hands. A design team in
search of a better disposable coffee/tea cup. The designs to
be evaluated are:
1. The current paper cup
2. A standard Styrofoam cup
3. Injection molded cup with a handle
4. A double wall plastic cup
5. A paper cup with pull-out handle
6. A paper cup with a cellular wall
14
Exercise
15
Embodiment Design
16
Embodiment Design
• From the study of the previous chapter, “A single concept from many
alternatives, has been developed and evaluated”
• After conceptual design stage, at this point “Feasibility Design Review”
is usually held to determine whether the resources should be
committed to develop the design further
It is the stage where design concept is invested with physical form i.e. we
put “Meet on the bones”
• The embodiment process is the bridge between the conceptual stage of
the design process and the detail design stage
• A more detailed analysis of the selected concepts is undertaken in the
embodiment stage of the design process
17
Embodiment Design (ED)
• Systematic Design is a highly structured design method developed in

Germany in the 1920s
• The term ED (Embodiment Design) comes from two engineers
Gerhard Pahl and Wolfgang Beitz, and has been adopted by most of
the British and European writers
• In this stage of design, much of the activity is devoted to

• Finalizing the product architecture
• Determining the form or shape of parts that will satisfy the required
function
• Quantifying the important design parameters
18
Embodiment Design
Conceptual Preliminary Detail
• Many US writers divide design process into three phases

• Conceptual design
• Preliminary (Embodiment Design)
• Detail design
• Others call ED, Analytical Design because it is the design phase
where most of the detailed analysis and calculations occur
• Some just lump everything beyond conceptual design into broad
phase called “Product Design”
Conceptual Product
Design Design
19
Embodiment Design
• Conclusion is that Embodiment Design is a design stage after the

design concept has been studied and considered as feasible for
further development
• There are three stages of Embodiment design:
Product Architecture
Configuration Design
Parametric Design
20
• Product Architecture (PA) is the arrangement of the physical
elements of a product to carry out its required functions
• A portion of product architecture begins to emerge even during the
conceptual design phase
• In that stage we can see things like:
• Diagrams of functions
• Rough sketches of concepts
• Identifying the fundamental and incidental interactions
• Sometimes a proof model of the concept
21
o Thus we can say that product architecture portion of the embodiment

design is
o The design phase in which the layout and architecture of the product is
established by defining:
o what the basic building blocks of the product should be in terms of what they
do and what their interferences will be between each other
Some organizations refer to this as “System Level design”
22
• In the Product Architecture, physical building blocks of a product are

organized into chunks/ parts:
• subsystems, subassemblies, cluster / group, module
• Each chunk is made up of a collection of components that carry out the
functions
• Architecture of the product is given by the relationships among the
components in the product and the functions that the product performs
23
Types of product architecture

• Modular
• Integral
Modular
Integral
24
Types of product architecture
• Modular :
• In this case the major chunks implement only one or a few functions and
the interactions between chunks are well defined (e.g. is computer, printer,
scanner etc.)
• Modular design is easier to evolve / change over time, to adapt it to the
needs of different customers, to replace components as they wear out or are
used up, to reuse the product at the end of the life by manufacturer
• So concept of component standardization employs
• e.g. Rechargeable Battery used in many electrical hand held tools etc.
25
Example of a laptop: Broadly speaking, a computing laptop is

regarded as integral design compared to desktop system,
however, on a local scale, it consists of individual modules
26
Types of product Architecture
• Integral :
• Components perform multiple functions
(products designed with high performance as
a paramount attribute)
• Integral designs are adopted when
constraints of weight, space or cost are
considered
• Where a single physical unit implements
multiple functions (e.g. : Car Engine)
Concluding
Products are rarely strictly modular or integral, but
they usually are a mixture of standard modules
and customized components
27
Interfaces between Modules
• Interfaces should be designed so as to be as simple and stable as
possible
• The interfaces should be standard interfaces, which are well
understood by designers and part suppliers should be used, if
possible
• Examples are for PCs, as these can be customized module-by-
module, from parts supplied by many different suppliers.
28
ME – 362
Design
Part 9.1
Muhammad Ilyas
Embodiment Design
2
Steps for Product Architecture
• Some major steps for the development of Product
Architecture:
Create a schematic diagram of the

product
Cluster / group the elements of the

schematic
Create a rough geometric layout
Identify the interactions between

modules
3
1. Create the schematic diagram
Consider the example of a machine making 3D parts taking
instructions from computer (Rapid Prototyping)
At the early stage design elements are described by;
• Physical concepts like the part-piston that slowly retracts the part below
the bed of powder and
• Physical components like the CO2 laser
4
• Other elements are described as functional elements that have not
been reduced to physical concepts or components like “provide inert
atmosphere” or “heat part surface”.
• Judgment should be used in deciding what level of details to show
on the schematic.
• Generally no more than 30 elements should be used to establish the
initial product architecture.
5
Schematic diagram of a laser-fusing

rapid prototyping machine
Flow of energy
Flow of
material
Flow of signals
6
2. Cluster the elements
Purpose of this step is to arrive at an
arrangement of chunks by assigning each
design element to a chunk
From the example of laser-fusing rapid prototyping

machine:
Following chunks have been established: Create a schematic diagram of the
product
 Laser table
 Process chamber
 Powder engine schematic
 Atmospheric control unit

 Control cabinet Create a rough geometric layout

modules
7
• One way of deciding on chunks is to start with the assumption

that each element will be an independent chunk and then
cluster the elements where there are advantages
• Reason for clustering elements include;

• Elements requiring Close geometric relationships or precise location
• Elements that can share a function
• Desire to outsource part of the design
• Interfaces (Digital vs Mechanical)
8
Design elements of a
laser-fusing rapid
prototyping machine are
clustered into modules
9
3. Create a Rough Geometric Layout
• Helps identify geometrical, thermal or
electrical interfaces between elements
and chunks Create a schematic diagram of the product
• For some problems 2-D and for others

3-D model (either physical or computer Cluster / group the elements of the
model) is required schematic
• Creating a geometric layout forces the

teams to decide whether the geometric Create a rough geometric layout
interferences between the chunks are

feasible
Identify the interactions between modules
10
• On next slide, the decision was made to locate the

laser table at the top to separate it from the
thermally active and powder areas
• This introduced the design element of;
• Structurally rigid legs to accurately locate the laser
relative to the part.
• key interface called the reference plate
• Sometimes it is not possible to arrive at a
geometrically feasible layout even after trying
several alternatives, so it becomes necessary to go
back to the previous step until an acceptable layout
is achieved
11
Geometric layout of the laser table, process chamber, and powder engine
modules (This is a vertical front view of the arrangement)
The control cabinet would be to the right side and the atmospheric control unit
would be behind
12
4. Identify the fundamental and

Incidental Interactions
• The most critical task in determining a product
product’s architecture is accurately
modeling the interactions between the
modules and setting the performance schematic
characteristics for the modules
• For a quality design the interaction Create a rough geometric layout
between the chunks must be known
and controlled
modules
13
Types of interactions
• Fundamental interaction (See inert atmospheric protection)
• Given by lines on the schematic diagram between chunks
• Usually well understood and carefully designed for
• Incidental interactions
• Arise from geometric arrangement of the chunks or as a result
of the physical implementation of the functional elements
• Although these are not represented on the schematic diagram,
they should be identified by the team and allowed for in the
design
• For small number of interacting chunks this can be done
graphically by listing the chunks and showing the interactions
as arrows between each chunk
14
Embodiment Design
• Embodiment Design is a design stage after the design
concept has been studied and considered as feasible for
further development
• There are three stages of Embodiment design:
•Product Architecture
•Configuration Design
•Parametric Design
15
• Product Architecture (PA) is the arrangement of the
physical elements of a product to carry out its required
functions
 Types of product architecture

 Modular: (the major chunks implement only one or a few functions
and the interactions between chunks are well defined (Example is
desktop computer, individual printer, individual scanner etc.)
 Integral: (Components perform multiple functions, like combination
of printer, scanner, photocopier etc.)
16
• Following are some major steps for the development of
Product Architecture:

product

schematic
Create a rough geometric layout

modules
17
Product Architecture for Gas Oven
Imagine the case of a gas oven…
What could be the major parts of the
oven?
18
Inner We can make chunks of these parts…
Portion
Outer
Portion
Front Control
Portion
Panel
Oven’s Burner Portion

Rotary
19 Mechanism
• Rough layout of Gas Oven
Control Panel
20
Embodiment Design
• Product Architecture
• Configuration Design
• Parametric Design
21
Embodiment Design
• Shape and general dimensions of the components are established
(e.g. in the case of a requirement of an agitator, we finalize the
shape, size of motor etc.)
• Exact dimensions are established in parametric design stage
22
Now let’s see what are
Embodiment Design

components?
parts? • Configuration Design
assembly?
23
DEFINITIONS:
• Component:
This term is used in generic sense to include special purpose parts,
standard parts and standard assemblies or modules (like a motor, fan,
lifting device for a heavy equipment etc.)
• Part:
It is a designed object that has no assembly operations in its
manufacture (e.g. the cover of phone, lower portion of a connecting rod,
support of bush bearing etc.)
• Standard part:
It has a generic function and is manufactured routinely without regard
to a particular product (bolts, nuts, washers, rivets, I-beams etc.)
24
• Special purpose part:

Designed and manufactured for a specific purpose in a specific
product line (e.g. the cylindrical rod in a hydraulic jack)
• Assembly:
Collection of two or more parts
• Subassembly:
An assembly that is included within another assembly or
subassembly
25
• Standard Assembly or standard module:

Assembly or subassembly which has a generic function and is
manufactured routinely (electronic motors, pumps, gearboxes etc.)
• Features:
Elements that comprise the configuration of a part (e.g. rounds,
cubes, spheres, flats, curves, holes, bosses, notches, grooves, ribs etc.)
26
Steps for Configuration Design
1. Review PDS and any specification developed for the
particular subassembly to which the component belongs
2. Establish the spatial / geometrical constraints that
pertain to the product or the subassembly being designed
(Most of these have been set by the product architecture)
Study PDS
Establish constraints
27
• In addition to physical spatial constraints

• consider the constraints of the human working with
the product e.g. ease of work position, opening &
closing of parts etc.
• constraints that pertain to the product’s life cycle, such
as need for the access for maintenance or repair or to
dismantle it for recycling
28
3. Create and refine the interferences or connections
between components (like the size of key and keyway for
locking purpose)
• Much design efforts occur at the connections between components
4. In carrying out design, it is important to maintain
functional independence in the design of an assembly or a
component
• This means that changing a critical dimension should effect only a
single function
Study PDS
Create interferences
Maintain functional
independence
29
• Before spending much time on design, answer the
following questions:
• Can the part be eliminated or combined with another part?
• Studies of DFA (design for assembly) show that it is almost
always less costly to make and assemble fewer, more complex
parts than it is to design with a higher part count
• Can a standard part or module be used?
• Because a standard part is generally less costly than a special
purpose part
Study PDS
Create interferences
Maintain functional
independence
30
The importance of sketching in configuration design:

• Generally, the best way to get started with configuration design is to
start sketching alternative configurations of a part
• The importance of hand sketches should not be underestimated
• Sketches are an important aid in idea generation and a way for
piecing / assembling together unconnected ideas into design concepts
• Later as the sketches become scale drawings they provide a vehicle
for providing missing data on dimensions and tolerances, and for
simulating the operation of the product
31
ME – 362
Design
Part 9.2
Muhammad Ilyas
The importance of sketching in configuration design:

• Drawings are essential for communicating ideas between
• Design engineers
• Drafting persons
• Manufacturing people
• Drawings also act as a legal document for archiving the geometry
and design targets
2
• Example Configuration Design:

• Images showing the progression of a
design configuration from a rough sketch Rough Sketch
(a) to a 3-D computer model (b) to a
detailed three-view engineering drawing
• Note the increase in detail from (a) to (b)
to (c).
3D Computer Model
Detailed 3-VIEW dwg.

3
• Example Configuration Design:
• Consider the task of applying configuration design to
create a special-purpose part to connect two plates
with a bolted joint
• A designer may consider the following issues as for
bolted joint design,
• The force distribution in the joint
• The relationship of the design to surrounding components
• The ability to assemble and disassemble
• Of special prominence in the designer’s mind would be
visualization of how the design would actually be
manufactured
4
Example: Configuration Design
• Example: Images that come to a designer’s mind when
making a design of a bolted connection
5
Generating Alternative Configurations
• Example: Images that come to a designer’s mind when
making a design of a bolted connection
Generally the first attempt at a configuration design does not yield the
best that one can do,
so it is important to generate a number of

alternatives for each component or subassembly
6
Configuration design can be characterized as : refining and

patching
• Refining is a natural activity as we move through the design process

in which we develop more specificity about the object as we move
from an abstract to a highly detailed description
• Patching is the activity of changing a design without changing its

level of abstraction
7
Following are some concepts for alternative configuration:

• We use Substitution to look for other concepts, components, or
features that will work in place of the current idea
• We Combine things to make one component replace multiple
components or serve multiple functions
• Decomposing is the opposite approach from combining
• As new components and assemblies are developed through decomposing,
it is important to consider whether the new configurations affect your
understanding of the constraints and connections between each
component
8
Following are some concepts for alternative configuration:

• Magnifying involves making some feature of a component larger
relative to adjacent components
• Minifying involves making some feature of a component smaller. In
the limit, it means eliminating the component if its function can be
provided for in some other way
• Rearranging involves reconfiguring the components or their features
• Changes in shape, will force rethinking of how the component carries out
its functions
• Another way to stimulate new ideas is to rearrange the order of the
functions in the functional flow
9
• The final part configuration must satisfy a large number of
considerations
• Some typical design functions and other critical design issues:
10
considerations as shown…
11
12
13
Best way with configuration design is to just start sketching

alternative configurations of part
CAD helps a lot at this stage
Let’s see some an example of CAD work…
14
Configuration Design for Gas Oven
• Starting from base
15
• Base with Burner
16
• Assembling inner cover
17
• Adding burner cover
18
• Rotary Mechanism
19
20
21
• Assembling rotary mechanism & outer cover
22
• A complete Gas Oven
23
ME – 362
Design
Part 10.1
Muhammad Ilyas
Embodiment Design
Embodiment Design
2
Parametric Design
Parametric Design
• The emphasis of parametric design is to maximize quality and
performance and minimize cost
• Designing to maximize performance and quality involves the
following design procedures:
1. Failure Mode and Evaluation Analysis (FMEA)
2. Design for Reliability
3. Robust design
4. Tolerances
3
Parametric Design
Geometric Tolerances
• Engineering drawing of a product conveys many details
• Some detail is in the form of tolerances
• There are 4 basic types of geometric tolerances:
1. Size tolerance
2. Location tolerance
3. Form tolerance
4. Orientation tolerance
4
Parametric Design
• Size Tolerance: It controls the length and/or diameter of the part as
shown
It shows that how much variation is allowed in the sizes of lengths or diameters
5
Parametric Design
• Location Tolerance: It controls the position of the feature
• There are 2 types of location tolerance
• Position
• Concentricity
6
Parametric Design
• Form Tolerance: It controls the flatness, straightness etc.
• Orientation Tolerance: It controls the parallelism, perpendicularity,
angularity etc.
7
Parametric Design
8
Parametric Design
straightness
Orientation Tolerance
9
Parametric Design
Example
10
Parametric Design
0.002
11
Parametric Design
Tolerance on size
Tolerance on position Tolerance on axis
12
Reading Assignment
1. Human Factor Design (Ergonomics)

2. Design For the Environment (DFE)
13
Exercise
Hook’s Eye
Ladle Hook
14
Exercise
The approach should be

1. Problem Statement
2. Problem Analysis
3. Material Selection
4. Stress Analysis
5. Manufacturing Method
15
Exercise
Problem Statement:
Design a hook for lifting and transporting hot-metal ladles
with a maximum weight of 150 kN. The hook should be
compatible with the details given in the drawing (sketch). The
hook should receive a 200-mm diameter pin for attaching to
the crane.
16
Exercise
Problem Analysis
• We first need to identify the critical regions
• There are three critical stress regions in the hook:
• the curved portion
• the eye portion
• With a little reasoning, we can say that the most critical
part would be the curved portion
17
Exercise
Problem Analysis
• The type of stresses at the curved portion could be:
• Tensile Stress
• Bending Stress
• From this analysis, the following could be established:
• thickness of the hook (e.g. from analysis of the curved portion)
• the width of hook (e.g. from the analysis of the shank portion)
• the details (dia., position) of the eye (from analysis of eye section)
18
Exercise
Material Selection
• The reliability and cost requirement suggests that the structure of
the hook should be obtained from steel plates (as compared to
casting – remember the weighted decision matrix)
• Look into the composition, strength and cost of different carbon
steel and low alloy steel plates, we can reach to material selection
• The following could be the possibility:
• Mild Steel
• Yield strength = 250 MPa
Stress Analysis
• Recommended at this stage
19
Exercise
Manufacturing Method
1. Clear the plate surface
2. Flame cut hook plates to size
3. Grind the flame cut edges
4. Repair (by welding) any gouges or cracking
5. Clamp the plates, drill and ream hole for 20 mm diameter rivets
6. Rivets the plates
20
ME – 362
Design
Part 10.2
Muhammad Ilyas
Material Selection
• The correct material selection for a design is a key step in

the design process
• It is a major element of design on which crucial analysis
and calculations are based
• The adoption of concurrent engineering has brought the
material engineers into design team
• There are over 100,000 engineering materials to choose
from
• The typical design engineer should have ready access to
information on 30 to 60 materials, depending on the range
of applications he or she deals with
2
Material Selection
• Some of the materials are
• metals
• polymers
• elastomers (also polymers but
with some elasticity)
• ceramics
• glasses
• composites
3
Material Selection
Commonly used engineering materials

for structural applications
4
Material Selection
Material selection (some FAQs)
Q. What might be the major problems if a wrong material is selected?
A. Part failure, so wastage of time, cost and efforts. Even material
properties can be changed during manufacturing which effect its
efficiency
Q. How are materials selected?
A. Sometimes based on previous experience… ( Is it good or applicable
now a days? If no why? )
The loadings and the design conditions make the contribution to
material selection!
Q. How much is the material cost contribution in manufacturing
process?
A. Sometimes 50~70%.
5
Material Selection
Material selection (Some FAQs)
Q. What are the main functional properties by which we can judge

the performance of a material?
A. Physical properties,
Mechanical properties,
Thermal properties,
Electrical properties,
Chemical properties etc.
6
Relation of Material selection to Design
• An incorrectly chosen material can lead to failure of a
component
• e.g., if an application demands high temperature resistance then
only correct material can withstand that
7
• Selection of material is not only based on the performance
( properties ) of material but also on the manufacturing
processing
So at the design stage, the

functioning of the part is
considered keeping in view the
material and manufacturing
process
8
• As design proceeds from concept design, to configuration and

parametric design (embodiment design), and to detail design, the
material and process selection becomes more detailed
• At the concept level of design, basically all materials and processes
are considered in broad detail
• At this stage, generally the materials selection methodology and charts
developed by Ashby are highly appropriate
• The task is to determine whether each design concept will be made from
metal, plastics, ceramic, composite, or wood, and to narrow it to a group of
materials within that material family
9
• At the embodiment phase of design, the emphasis is on determining
the shape and size of a part using engineering analysis
• At this stage, generally the designer decides on a class of materials and
processes, such as a range of aluminum alloys ( and that whether it should
be wrought or cast )
• The material properties must be known to a greater level of precision, at
this stage
• At the parametric design step the alternatives will have narrowed to a
single material and only a few manufacturing processes
• Here the emphasis will be on deciding on critical tolerances, optimizing for
robust design, and selecting the best manufacturing process using quality
engineering and cost modeling methodologies
10
The journey of a product starts
from customer’s requirement
11
General Criteria for Material Selection
Materials are selected on the basis of four general criteria,

which are:
▪ Performance characteristics ( properties )
• Process of matching values of properties of materials with the requirements
and constraints imposed by the design
▪ Processing characteristics
• Process of forming the material in the required shape with a minimum of
defects at the least cost
12
General Criteria for Material Selection
▪ Environmental profile
• Predicting the impact of the material throughout its life cycle on the
environment
• Environmental considerations are growing in importance because of
dual pressure of greater consumer awareness and governmental
regulations
▪ Business considerations
• Consideration for both the purchase and process of material cost
• More logical basis is life-cycle cost, which includes cost of replaced
failed parts and the cost of disposing material at the end of its use
13
Performance Characteristics of Materials
▪ Performance or functional requirements of a material are usually
expressed in terms of physical, mechanical, thermal, electrical or
chemical properties
▪ Material properties are linked between the basic structure and
composition of the materials
Structure Service
Materials Materials Performance
• Atomic Bonding Science Engineering • Stress
• Crystal Material • Corrosion
Structure Properties • Temp
• Defect Structure • Radiation
• Microstructure • Vibration
• Macrostructure
14
15
• The major characteristics of metals, ceramics and
polymers are given below:
Metals Ceramics Polymers
Strong Strong Weak
Stiff Stiff Compliant
Tough Brittle Durable
Electrically conducting Electrically Insulating Electrically insulating
High thermal conductivity Low thermal conductivity Temp. Sensitive
16
Failure mode vs. Material property
Shear yield
Comp. yield
Elasticity
strength
strength
strength
Mod. of
Yield
Gross yielding
Buckling
17
Failure mode vs. Material property (Guide for Selection of Material Based on
Possible Failure Modes, Types of Loads, Stresses, and Operating Temperature)
18
Other factors to select a material are:
▪ Availability
▪ Size limitation and tolerances
▪ Environmental impact
▪ Cost
19
Material Selection - Example
Example: Consider the question of materials selection for an

automotive exhaust system
• The basic system configuration is a series of tubes that collect the
gases at the engine and convey them to the rear of the automobile
• The size of the tubes is determined by the volume of gases to be
carried away and the extent to which the exhaust system can be
permitted to hinder the flow of gases from the engine ( back
pressure )
• In addition, a muffler is required for noise reduction and a
catalytic converter to change polluting gases to less harmful
emissions
20
Consider the question of materials selection for an
automotive exhaust system
21
The product design specification (PDS) states that it must
provide the following functions:
• Conduct engine exhaust gases away from the engine
• Prevent harmful fumes from entering the car
• Cool the exhaust gases
• Reduce the engine noise
• Reduce the exposure of automobile body parts to exhaust gases
• Affect the engine performance as little as possible
• Help control unwanted exhaust emissions
• Have an acceptably long service life
• Have a reasonable cost, both as original equipment and as a
replacement part
22
• Material Requirements for an Automotive Exhaust
System
• Mechanical property requirements not overly severe
• Suitable rigidity to prevent excessive vibration
• Moderate fatigue resistance
• Good creep resistance in hot environment
• Limiting property:
• Corrosion resistance, especially in the cold end where gases
condense to form corrosive liquids
23
Properties of unique interest:
• The requirements are so special that only a few materials meet them
regardless of cost.
• Pt-base catalysts in catalytic converter
• Special ceramic carrier that supports the
• Platinum is the least reactive metal

• It has remarkable resistance to
corrosion, even at high temperatures,
and is therefore considered a noble
metal
• Its most important application is in
automobiles as a catalytic converter,
which allows the complete combustion
of low concentrations of unburned
hydrocarbons from the exhaust into
carbon dioxide and water vapor
24
Previous materials used:

• Low-carbon steel with corrosion-resistant coatings
• Material is relatively inexpensive, readily formed and welded
• Life of tailpipe and muffler is limited
25
Newer materials used:
• With greater emphasis on automotive quality, many producers have
moved to specially developed stainless steels with improved
corrosion and creep properties
• Ferritic 11% Cr alloys are used in the cold end components and 17 to 20%
Cr ferritic alloys and austenitic Cr-Ni alloys in the hot end of the system
26
The Material Selection Process
• Basically material selection is done for two situations

1. For a new product or new design
2. Re-evaluation of an existing product or design to reduce cost,
increase reliability, improves performance etc.
27
Material selection for a new product:
1. Define the functions that the design must perform.
• Look for stiffness, strength, corrosion etc
2. Define the manufacturing parameters
• such as the number of parts, size and complexity, tolerances, surface
finish etc
3. Compare the needed properties with a large number of materials
property database to select the best one
4. Investigate the candidate material in more detail
• (e.g. based on performance, cost, ease / difficulty of fabriction, availability)
28
Material substitution:
1. Characterize the current material in terms of performance,
manufacturing requirements and cost
2. Determine which characteristics must be improved.
3. Search for alternative materials
4. Compile a short list of the candidate materials
5. Evaluate the results of step 4 and make recommendations for
replacement
29
Steps Involved In Material Selection
1. Analysis of the material requirement
• (Service conditions, Environment)
2. Screening of the candidate material
• (Selection of few promising materials for a specific application)
3. Selection of candidate material
• (Product performance, cost, feasibility, availability)
4. Development of design data
• Experimental determination of material properties to obtain statistically
reliable performance data under specific operating conditions
• Design data properties must be selected in its fabricated state with
confidence of its reliability
• Common design criterion is to minimize cost or weight
30
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Muhammad Ilyas
General Steps Involved In Material Selection
1. Analysis of the material requirement
• ( Service conditions, Environment )
2. Screening of the candidate material
• ( Selection of few promising materials for a specific application )
3. Selection of candidate material
• ( Product performance, cost, feasibility, availability )
4. Development of design data
• Experimental determination of material properties to obtain statistically
reliable performance data under specific operating conditions
• Design data properties must be selected in its fabricated state with
confidence of its reliability
• Common design criterion is to minimize cost or weight
2
Material Selection in Design Stages
3
• Material Selection Charts by Ashby
 Ashby has created useful material
charts for comparing large number
of materials at the concept design
stage metals
 These charts are based on a large foams
computerized material property polymers
database
 It can be seen that the classes of materials group into common

regions with ceramics and metals in the upper right, polymers in
the middle, and cellular materials such as polymer foams and
cork in the lower left
4
How to use Material Selection Charts by Ashby
 Depending on
geometry and the
type of loading,
lines of different
slope apply.
 Start from lower
right-hand corner
and move it
towards upper left-
hand corner
5
 All material which lie on the

line will perform equally well
( e.g. when loaded as a column in
compression )
 Those materials which lie above
line are better, and those farthest
from the line are the best
6
 Relationships for different load cases

defined by Ashby are:
 For Simple Axial Loading E / ρ = C
or  / = C
 For Buckling of a column E1/2 / ρ = C
 For Bending of a plate E1/3/ ρ = C
7
 In many cases, the design

requirement is to minimize
the cost and weight
 suppose density and elastic
modulus are the parameters
based on which material is to be
selected
 Suppose a constraint of the design
is that E ≥ 12GPa and ρ ≤ 2
Mg/m3.
8
For E ≥ 12GPa and ρ ≤ 2 Mg/m3.

The selected material could be:
Graphite-fiber-reinforced polymer
(GFPR)
Kevlar™ fiber-reinforced polymer
(KFPR)
9
Tentative
Material Selection in choice of
Embodiment Design: materials
• Detailed material selection

is carried out Tentative
component
• At the beginning, there are design
parallel material selection
and design paths
• The two paths merge in an
examination stage which
compares that whether the
selected material can
withstand the design Detail
loadings specification &
Design choices of
materials
Final choice of
production method,
10 QA, Costing etc.
Source of Information on Material Properties
Sources of Information on Material Properties
• At Conceptual Design stage:
11

• At Embodiment Design stage:
• At this phase of design, decisions are being made on the layout and sizes
of parts and components
• The design calculations require materials properties for a member of a
subclass of materials and specific to a particular heat treatment or
manufacturing process
• These data are typically found in handbooks and computer databases,
and in data sheets published by trade associations of materials
producers
12
13
14

• At Detail Design Stage:
• Very precise data are required
• These are best found in data sheets issued by materials suppliers or by
conducting materials testing within the organization
• There is a wide range of material information that may be needed in
detail design
• This goes beyond just material properties to include – information on
manufacturability, including final surface finish and tolerances, cost, the
experience in using the material in other applications (failure reports),
availability of the sizes and forms needed (sheet, plate, wire, etc.)
15
Economics of Materials
• Ultimately the material-process decision on a particular design will
come down to a trade-off between performance and cost
• Examples where performance dominates?
• Aerospace
• Defense
• NPPs
• Examples where cost dominates?
• Household appliances
• Consumer electronics
16
• Products with major requirements – Performance
• Products with major requirements – Cost
• In products with major emphasis on cost, the manufacturer does not have
to provide the highest level of performance that is technically feasible
• Rather, the manufacturer must provide a value-to-cost ratio that is no
worse, and preferably better, than the competitors
Value: is the extent to which the performance criteria

appropriate to the application are satisfied
Cost: is what must be paid to achieve that level of value
• Total Life Cycle Cost = Initial material cost + cost of manufacture
and installation + cost of operation and maintenance + cost of
recycling
17
Methods of Materials Selection

• There is no specific or small number of methods for material selection
that has evolved to a position of prominence… Why?
• Due to the complexity of comparisons and tradeoffs that must be made
• Limited amount of research in this area
• However, design engineers and materials engineers do use a variety of

approaches for materials selection
18
• Common methods of material selection are:

• Selection with computer aided database
• Performance indices
• Decision matrices
• Pugh selection method
• Weighted property index
• Expert system
• Value analysis
• Failure analysis
• Benefit cost analysis
19
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Muhammad Ilyas
Selection with computer aided database:

• Over 100 material database available
• These data bases are some times also available on CD-ROMs
• From this data, there is possibility of matching four or more material
properties
• Advanced database using FEA can be used to see physical behavior
change ( limited to homogeneous materials )
• Material selection using “Merit Parameter” to compare a number of
materials
2
• Example: www.matweb.com
3
One can search for

different materials
classes and
subclasses
4
Materials composition
5
Materials properties
6
Selection Method using Performance Indices:

• It is a group of material properties, which govern some aspects of
performance of a component
• Maximum PI gives best solution for design requirement
• PI are based on
i. Design Objective
ii. Function
iii. Constraint
7
• Example: Consider the tubular frame of a bicycle
• Design bicycle frame : light, strong tubular beam and fixed outer
diameter ( Strength )
8
 Function:
 To carry load  load will apply bending
moment
 Objective:
 Design the frame with minimum mass
Density = mass / volume

m/L=2rt  (1)
r = outer tube radius,
t = wall thickness
 = density
9
 Constraints:
 Tube must be sufficiently strong against failure due to fatigue, buckling,
fracture and bending
 Constant cross section
10
The most expected case for the beam failure

is bending
M b / I = e / y  (2)
y = r in this case
e is the Endurance limit,
I is the second moment of Inertia = r3t
(2)  Mb / r3t = e / y  (3)
Combining (1) and (3): Greater the value of [e / ],

lighter will be the material
m / L = 2 Mb / r [ / e] and low cost
11

• PI that meets greatest performance and constraint = M1 = [ / ]
• For Torsional loadings, stiffness rather than strength but with still
minimum weight PI is given by:
M1 = G1/2 / 
where G is shear modulus
• For beam in Bending, constraint changes from strength to
stiffness, therefore PI is given by:
M2 = E / 
12
13
Plate in bending
Beam in bending
Bar in tension
14
15

• The cross-section shapes are rarely simple
• Ashby has shown that shape can be included in the PI by
introducing a dimensionless factor:
 = 4I/A2
• Shape factor depends on type of loading and what to maximize,

Strength or Stiffness
16
Practice Assignment
• Solve Q 8.11
17
Common methods of material selection are:

• Selection with computer aided database
• Performance indices
• Decision matrices
• Pugh selection method
• Weighted property index
• Expert system
• Value analysis
• Failure analysis
• Benefit cost analysis
18
Decision Matrices
• In many design applications, it is necessary that a selected material
satisfy more than one performance requirement (e.g. fatigue
strength, tensile strength, toughness)
• Thus a compromise is needed in materials selection (e.g. higher
tensile strength materials have low fracture toughness)
Fitting curves of
tensile and fatigue
strengths for 4340
steel
Ref. J.C. Pang et al, journal of
material science and engineering
19
Decision Matrices
The material selection requirements are divided into three

groups:
• Go/No-Go parameters
• Requirements must meet a certain fixed minimum requirement / value e.g.
corrosion resistance or machineability
• Non-discriminating parameters
• Requirements that must be met if material is to be used at all e.g. a certain
level of ductility etc.
• Discriminating parameters
• Requirements to which quantitative values can be assigned e.g. weight
20
Decision Matrices
The material selection requirements are divided into three
groups:
Material
selection
requirement
Non-
Go/no-Go Discriminating
discriminating
Parameters parameters
parameters
Like Steel Steel with

Like: stainless
with 10% strength = 450
steel 304 L
ductility MPa
21
Decision Matrices
There are three important factors in any formalized decision-

making process:
• Alternatives
• i.e. the candidate material for a design e.g. carbon steel, low alloy steel etc.
• Criteria
• e.g. the material properties or factors required to fulfill certain
requirement
• Relative weight of the criteria
• i.e. numerical representation of the relative importance of each criterion
22
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Muhammad Ilyas
Pugh Selection Method
Example:
• Use the Pugh decision method to select a replacement material
for a helical steel spring in a wind-up toy train. The alternatives
to the currently used ASTM A227 class I hard-drawn steel wire
are the same material in a different design geometry, ASTM
A228 music spring-quality steel wire, and ASTM A229 class I
steel wire, quenched and oil tempered
2
Example:
• Use the Pugh decision method to select a replacement material
for a helical steel spring in a wind-up toy train. The alternatives
to the currently used ASTM A227 class I hard-drawn steel wire
are the same material in a different design geometry, ASTM
A228 music spring-quality steel wire, and ASTM A229 class I
steel wire, quenched and oil tempered
• Notes:
• In the decision matrix, if an alternative is judged better than the
datum, it is given a +, if it is poorer it gets a –, and if it is about the
same it is awarded an S, for “same.”
• The +, –, and S responses are then totaled
3
Example:
• Use the Pugh decision method to select a replacement material for a helical
steel spring in a wind-up toy train. The alternatives to the currently used
ASTM A227 class I hard-drawn steel wire are the same material in a
different design geometry, ASTM A228 music spring-quality steel wire, and
ASTM A229 class I steel wire, quenched and oil tempered
Solution
• Materials:
• Alternative 1: ASTM A227 class I hard-drawn steel wire (Datum Material)
• Alternative 2: ASTM A227 class I hard-drawn steel wire in different design
geometry
• Alternative 3: ASTM A228 music spring-quality steel wire
• Alternative 4: ASTM A229 class I steel wire, quenched and oil tempered
4
Steel coil spring

characteristics
5
Steel coil spring

characteristics
< < <

< < <
< < <
✓ ✓ ✓
✓ ✓ ✓
6
Example – Conclusion:
• The music spring-quality steel wire (6+,1S,1-) and the oil-
tempered steel wire (4+,2S,2-) are superior to the original
material selection
• The music wire is selected because it ranks highest in
advantages over the current material, especially with regard to
manufacturing cost
7
Weighted Property Index

• This is well suited for materials to which quantitative values can be
assigned
• Each material property is assigned a certain weight depending on
its importance to the required service performance
• Since different properties are expressed in different units, the best
procedure is to normalize these differences by using a scaling factor
• Scaling is a simple technique used to bring all different properties
within one numerical range
• Since different properties have widely different numerical values,
each property must be so scaled that the largest value should not
exceed 100
8
• For the properties whose high values are desirable (e.g., strength,
stress, durability, reliability), the scale factor is formulated as
Numerical Value of Property

  Scaled Property  100
Largest value under consideration
• For the properties whose low values are desirable (e.g., density,
corrosion, cost etc.), the scale factor is formulated as:
Lowest val ue under considerat ion

Numerical value of property
9
• The weighted property index  is
   ii
Where
i is summed over all the properties (criteria) and
i is the weighting factor for the ith property
10
• For properties that are not readily expressed in numerical values
(like weldability and wear),
• some kind of rating (like rating from 1-5) is required
11

• Material selection for gas oven is based on the following parameters
• Practical considerations
• Availability
• Processing of material
• Safety/Environment
• Cost of material
• Performance of material
• High strength
• Corrosion resistant
• Should resist brittle fracture
12

• Keeping the mentioned parameters in view, following properties
are important
• Yield strength
• Melting temperature
• Heat capacity
• Coefficient of thermal expansion
• Density
• Cost
13

• With greater emphasis on quality and cost; Materials selected for
Gas Oven are
• Stainless steel sheet
• Mild steel sheet
• Galvanized iron sheet
14
• Properties of materials for gas oven
Material Yield Melting Heat Coef. of Density Cost

strength temp. capacity thermal g/cc Rs/kg
(MPa) oC J/g-oC expansion
µm/m-°C
SS 414 1440 0.515 17.73 7.85 69
MS 345 1000 0.486 11.7 7.85 30
GI 310 1000 0.481 13.5 7.87 38
15

• Let’s compare material Important
compared
properties for inner body
to other
etc. of gas oven
• One can make hierarchal
objective tree (if possible)
• Other way is to compare
pairs for their importance
(1 means important
compared to 0)
3/15=0.2
16
Weighted Property Index (WPI)
• WPI chart for selection of material for inner body of a gas oven
S: satisfactory, U: unsatisfactory
Lowest val ue under considerat ion For Heat Capacity,
  Scaled Property  100 Density, Cost
Numerical value of property
For Yield Strength,
Numerical Value of Property Melting Temperature,
Largest va lue under considerat ion Coeff. of thermal
expansion
γ = (0.2*100)+(0.2*100)+(0.267*93.4)+(0.2*100)+(0.067*100)+(0.067*50.72) = 95.04
17
Weighted Property Index (WPI)
• WPI chart for selection of material for inner body of a gas oven
S: satisfactory, U: unsatisfactory
γ = (0.2*100)+(0.2*100)+(0.267*93.4)+(0.2*100)+(0.067*100)+(0.067*50.72) = 95.04
The weighted property index shows that stainless steel has higher rating
It also has S grading for Availability and Corrosion Resistance
So stainless steel will be selected!
18
• Materials for other parts
• Keeping availability, performance and cost in view, following materials
are selected for various parts of gas oven
Part Name Selected Material

Base Square tube of MS
Holder Stainless Steel
Bushes Mild Steel
Right shaft Mild Steel
Left shaft Mild Steel
Seekh/Oven rod Stainless Steel
Motor cover Galvanized Iron
19
Value Analysis
Value Analysis
• It is a team problem solving process to optimize the value of the
product for the customer
• Involves breaking a product down into its component / parts
• Determination of the value of these design elements relative to the
importance of the function which they may provide
• On these basis it is sometimes called as Functional Cost Analysis
• It is an organized system of techniques for identifying and removing
unnecessary cost without compromising the quality and reliability of
the design
20
Value Analysis
Value Analysis methodology is given by:
worth of a feature, component or assembly

Value 
Cost
• Worth is the value of something measured by its qualities

• A considerable skill is needed to determine this in terms of cost
21
Value Analysis
Basic questions to perform Value Analysis (VA)

• How can a given function of a design system be performed at
minimum cost?
• What is the value of contribution that each feature of the design
makes to the specific function that the part must fulfill?
• VA is carried out by a team of engineers, managers possessing different

backgrounds and view points so that problem is looked from many aspects
22
Value Analysis
Basic questions to perform Value Analysis (VA)

• The design team will ask
• Can we do without the part?
• Does the part do more than is required?
• Does the part cost more than it is worth?
• Is there something else that does the job better?
• Is there a less costly way to make the part?
• Can a standard item be used?
• Can the outside supplier provide the part at less cost?
23
Value Analysis
Information
Speculation
Analysis
Development
Presentation
and follow-up
24
Materials in Design
Materials in Design
• As we discussed previously, there are many failure modes
• Designer performs Failure Mode Evaluation and selects the material
accordingly
• Following are some design categories considering failure modes and
other requirements:
• Design for Brittle Fracture
• Design for Fatigue Failure
• Design for Corrosion Resistance
• Design for Stiffness
• Design for Creep (Time dependent)
• Design with Plastics
25
Design for Brittle Fracture

• Fracture mechanics is used to Investigate failure of
Brittle Materials
• Prediction of influence of cracks and crack like defects
• Failures arise as a consequence of unstable crack
propagation from a preexisting defect
• Failures by fracture usually occur under loading below
yield strength of material
26
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Materials in Design
Materials in Design
• As we discussed previously, there are many failure modes
• Designer performs Failure Mode evaluation and selects the material
accordingly
• Following are some design categories considering failure modes and
other requirements:
• Design for Brittle Fracture
• Design for Fatigue Failure
• Design for Corrosion Resistance
• Design for Stiffness
• Design for Creep (Time dependent)
• Design with Plastics
2

• Fracture mechanics is used to Investigate failure
of Brittle Materials
• Prediction of influence of cracks and crack like defects
• Failures arise as a consequence of unstable crack
propagation from a preexisting defect
• Failures by fracture usually occur under loading
below yield strength of material
3
• Idea developed by Griffith
• Worked with brittle materials like glass
• Griffith showed that fracture strength is inversely
proportional to square root of crack length i.e.
K   a  GE
• K= Stress Intensity factor
• Irwin proposed that fracture occurs at fracture

stress corresponding to a critical value of crack
extension force (Gc)
1
 EGc  2
f  
 a 
• Gc = Crack extension force
• E = Modulus of elasticity
• a = Length of the crack
4

• The equations for the stress field at the end of the
crack can be written as
K    3 
x  cos 2 1  sin 2 sin 5 
2r   
K    3 
y  cos 2 1  sin 2 sin 2 
2r   
K    3 
 xy   sin cos cos 
2r  2 2 2 
5
• KIc is the fracture toughness of a material
• The allowable stress of a material is dependent on KIc value
• It can be seen that for the same crack size, the higher the KIc value, the
higher will be the allowable stresses
Material 1
Material 2
6
Example
(i)
7
Example
8
Example
Critical speed vs. crack length is plotted
in Fig. by using material parameters of
a high-strength 4340 steel.
It is important to note that even in this
relatively simple example, the use of
fracture mechanics lends important
realism to the calculation.
If a = 0.1 in and c/b = 2, the critical
speed, (from Fig shown), is 4000 rpm.
9
Example
In the conventional design approach,
which ignores the presence of a crack,
Nc is determined by using σmax in
equation 8.21 equal to the ultimate
tensile strength.
where, σmax = σut

and ω = 2 π N / 60
This over simplification leads to a

critical speed of 8400 rpm.
10
Practice Assignment
Hints:
• Allowable stress = σy / N, where N = factor of safety
• Maximum stress = Hoop Stress = Pd/t
• Critical flaw size = acrit =1/π * [KIc / σy]2
• 2acrit = t
11
Design for Corrosion Resistance

• Failure of metals by corrosion is as common as
failure by mechanical reasons
• Corrosion annually costs $70 billion in US
• $10 billion could be prevented by better selection of
material and design
• Corrosion of metals is driven by the basic
thermodynamic force of metal to return to the
oxide or sulfide form
• Oxidation of metals in reaction with an oxidant such
as oxygen
12
There are 8 forms of corrosion:
1. Uniform attack:
• It is the most common form of corrosion
• It attacks the area chemically and uniformly over the
entire exposed surface area
• Thickness is reduced uniformly
2. Galvanic corrosion:
• When two dissimilar metals are immersed in corrosive
or conductive solution / environment
• The potential difference causes corrosion
• The less resistant (anodic) metal is corroded relative to
the cathodic metals
SS plate with MS bolts

14
2. Galvanic corrosion:
Carbon steel that meets

a brass valve
Corrosion caused by a stainless Galvanic corrosion of bronze butterfly

steel screw causing galvanic valve with aluminum disc
corrosion of aluminum
15
Less tendency
to corrosion
2. Galvanic Corrosion
In the table shown, for any two metals or
alloys in contact in seawater, the metal that is
more anodic (lower in the series) will be
corroded
More tendency
to corrosion
16
2. Galvanic Corrosion
• To minimize galvanic corrosion, use pairs of metals that are close together
in the galvanic series
• Small anode metal should not be connected to larger surface of more noble
metal
• If two metals are in contact they should be insulated form each other
Do not coat the anodic surface to protect it, because most coatings are susceptible to pinholes
17
3. Crevice Corrosion:
• localized corrosion that occurs within crevices
• This happens at holes, gasket surfaces, lap joints and crevices under bolts
and rivets heads
Crevice corrosion inside a 304L

stainless steel piping system which
initiated in a crevice created by lack of Crevice corrosion (beneath a seal) on a
a full penetration in an orbital weld stainless steel flange exposed to a
18
chloride-rich medium
4. Pitting: It is a form of extremely localized attack that produces holes
in the metal
Pitting Corrosion
19
5. Inter-Granular Corrosion:
• localized attack along the grain boundaries with only slight attack of the
grain faces is called IGC
• It is common in austenitic stainless steel that has been sensitized by
heating to the range 950 to 1450°F
• It can occur either during heat treatment for stress relief or during welding
• When it occurs at elevated temperature during welding, it is called as weld decay
Inter-granular corrosion SS 304
20
6. Selective leaching:
• The removal of one element from a solid-solution alloy by corrosion process
is called selective leaching
• The most common example of it is selective removal of zinc form brass
(dezincification)
• Aluminum, iron, cobalt, and chromium also can be removed
• The alloy is left porous in leaching
Dezincification—zinc oxide
residue, blocking the fitting
21
7. Erosion-Corrosion:
• Failing at an accelerated rate is caused by relative movement between a
corrosive fluid and a metal surface
• Fluid velocity is high, and because of suspended solid particles, wear and
abrasion may be involved
• A special case is “cavitation” or “fretting”.
22 Erosion-corrosion
8. Stress Corrosion Cracking:
• cracking caused by the simultaneous action of a tensile stress and a specific
corrosive medium is called SCC
• examples are the aluminum alloy and seawater, copper alloy and ammonia,
mild steel and caustic soda etc.
 Avoid selecting such alloys
 Keep the stress level low
23
Stress corrosion cracking
General Precautions:
• Tanks and containers should be
designed for easy draining and
cleaning
• Weld rather than riveting if possible
• Design to exclude air
• no oxygen, no corrosion ✓
• Use materials which are more resistant
to acids
• For example titanium and stainless steel
24
Design with Plastics
• Many mechanical components are made of plastics
• A design engineer should know the properties of plastics
• Plastics are used because
• They are lighter
• Have attractive appearance
• Free from corrosion
• Ease of manufacturing
25
Metals vs Polymers
• With respect to mechanical properties,
• Steel has about 100 times the Young’s modulus of a polymer
• Steel has about 10 times the yield strength compared to plastics
• Strength properties of polymers are time dependent at or near room
temperature (so prediction of allowable strength is difficult)
 With respect to physical / chemical

properties
 polymers are 1/7th as dense as
metals, Designer should keep these
 their thermal conductivity is differences in mind while
1/200th that of steel designing with plastics
 their thermal expansion is 7 times
greater than metals
26
Properties of Plastics:
• The majority of plastics are synthetic materials
• Plastics are made up of tens of thousands of small molecular units
(mers) that are polymerized into long-chain macromolecules, hence
the scientific term polymers
• The polymer configuration may be
• Coiled
• Cross-linked
• Crystalline
27
Properties of Plastics:
• Polymers are divided into two general classes:
1. Thermoplastics (TP)
2. Thermosets (TS)
• TP is heated to make it viscous and pliable to get the useful shape
• Can be reshaped by heating again
• TS is heated once to retain the required shape by producing cross-
linked bonding structure
• Can not be reshaped by heating
28
Some other polymers are:
• Copolymers
• Styrene-acrylonitrile copolymer (SAN)
• Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS)
Read this article complete
29
ME – 362
Design
Part 12.2
Muhammad Ilyas
Material Processing
Material Processing
• Material processing is also called Manufacturing/Production
Engineering
• Manufacturing is divided into:
• Process Engineering
• Tool Engineering (tools, jigs, fixtures, gauges)
• Work Standards
• Plant Engineering (Space, Transportation, Storage)
• Administration and Control
2
Classification of Manufacturing Processes
A simple hierarchical classification of business and
industrial setup is given below
education, industries, such as

banking, acquires raw materials merchandising and
insurance, (minerals, natural transportation,
communication, products, or petroleum) make those products
and health care and process through the available to the
use of energy, machinery, general public
and brainpower, into
products that serve
the needs of society
3
Classification of Manufacturing Processes
A simple hierarchical classification of business and
industrial setup is given below
4
Classes of Manufacturing Processes
Manufacturing processes may be divided into the following
eight categories:
1. Solidification: Casting (low viscosity)
2. Polymer processing (molding) : Injection molding, thermoforming
3. Deformation (Plastic deformation) : Forging, Rolling, Extrusion,
Sheet metal forming
4. Machining (Material removal with tool) : Turning, Milling,
Grinding, polishing, lapping
5
Classes of Manufacturing Processes
5. Powder processing (Consolidation of particles of metals) : Sintering,
hot compression
6. Joining Processing: Welding, brazing, soldering, diffusion, riveting,
bolting
7. Heat Treatment/surface treatment: (Improvement of Mechanical
Properties) Carburizing and Nitriding, Electroplating etc.
8. Assembly Processes: usually the final step in manufacturing, a
number of parts are brought together and combined into a
subassembly or finished product
6
Factors Determining Maufac. Process Selection
The factors that influence the selection of a process to make

a part are:
• Cost to manufacture and life cycle cost
• Quantity of parts
• Complexity
• Material
• Quality
• Availability, lead time, delivery schedule
7
Cost of Manufacture:
• A basic expression for the unit cost of a part C is:
Cc C L
C  Cm   •  ...
n n
where,
• Cm = Material cost per unit
• Cc = Capital cost of plant, machinery, tooling
• n = Annual number of parts
• CL = Labor cost / unit time
• n. = Number of parts produced per unit time
8
Quantity of parts:
• Two important factors in the choice of manufacturing processes are:
• the total number of parts to be produced
• the rate of production, units per time
• All manufacturing processes have a minimum number of pieces that
must be made to justify its use.
• This concept leads to the economical lot size
• Some processes are inherently high-volume processes, like an
automatic screw making machine, the setup time is long relative to
the time needed to produce a single part
• Others, like the hand layup of a fiberglass plastic boat, are low-
volume processes
• Here the setup time is minimal but the time to make a part is much
longer
9
Hand lay-up of fiberglass (few selected steps)
http://dpdillon.com/cozy/tipstechniques/howtolayup/index.html
10
Example (Quantity of parts):
11
Common molding method for producing

parts by injecting material into a mold
similar to injection molding except

thermosetting polymers are used,
which requires a curing reaction to occur
within the mold
(also fiberglass molding) a method of molding in which the molding

material, generally preheated, is first
basically a hand lay-up method
placed in an open, heated mold cavity.
whereby glass reinforcements
are layed and resin mixture The mold is closed with a top force or plug
member, pressure is applied to force the
then applied layer by layer on a
material into contact with all mold areas,
specially designed mold until
while heat and pressure are maintained
the desired thickness & shape is
formed until the molding material has cured
12
13
450,000/1000 = 450+1=451
14
15
Complexity:
• It refers to shape, size, type and number of features (2-D, 3-D),
symmetric, non-symmetric
• Manufacturing processes vary in their limitations due to complexity
of shapes
• Shapes may be symmetrical or non-symmetrical
• Shapes can be classified according to increasing complexity
• Accordingly, different manufacturing processes vary in their
limitations on producing complex shapes
16
Complexity:
• Relationship between complexity factor and size of different
manufacturing processes given by Ashby
Secondary Axes: Straight line features

parallel and or perpendicular to primary axis
Basic rotational Regular secondary/ Internal and/or Irregular and or
Internal
features only repetitive features external features complex features
Internal or external holes, threads and Projections, complex Complex contoured

Rotationally symmetrical threads, knurling and counterbores and features, blind flats, surfaces and or series
grooves, undercuts, steps, simple contours, other internal splines, keyways on of features which are
chamfers, tapers, and through flats, splines features NOT on the secondary axis. NOT represented in
holes along the primary keyways around the primary axis. previous categories -
axis or centre line. primary axis or centre A1, A2, A3 and A4
18 line
Complexity:
19
Complexity:
20
Complexity:
• Some processes are inherently small-scale, while others like casting,
machining and forging can produce parts with a large range of sizes
• Fabrication methods involving welding and bolting produce large
engineering structures like bridges and buildings
• The complexity of a part will determine whether a process is a
candidate to make that part
• e.g. many processes will not allow the manufacture of parts with undercuts
21
Materials:
• Materials place certain restrictions in the available manufacturing
processes.
• The factors are
• Melting temperature
• Deformation
• Ductility
• Brittleness
• Weldability
22
Materials:
Key:
23
Materials:
24
Materials:
25
Quality of the part:

• Quality of parts is defined by three related areas;
• Freedom from internal and external defects
• Surface finish
• Dimensional accuracy and tolerances
Quality of
part
Surface Dimensional
No defects
finish accuracy
26
• Freedom from defects
• Internal defects like voids, porosity, cracks or regions of different chemical
composition (segregation)
• External defects are surface defects like surface cracks, rolled-in oxide, extreme
roughness, or surface discoloration or corrosion
Mill scale/ rolled-in oxide
27
Porosity
• Surface finish
y1  y2  y3  ......  yn
• It is expressed in µin or in µm Ra 
• Surface finish can be calculated as: n
Ra is the arithmetic average based on the 1
absolute value of the deviations from the  y  y  y  ..... y
2 2 2 2
 2
mean surface line Rrms   1 2 3 n


 n 
Rrms or Rq is sometimes given as an alternative
to Ra because it gives more weight to the higher y1, y2 … are deviations
peaks in the surface roughness from the mean
Rt is the height measured from maximum peak to the deepest trough
28 Cross-sectional profile of surface roughness with vertical direction magnified

• Surface finish
• There are other important characteristics of a surface besides the roughness
• Surface lay: Surfaces usually exhibit a directionality of scratches characteristic of the finishing
process
• Waviness: occurs over a longer distance than the peaks and valleys of roughness
Symbols used to specify finish

characteristics on an engineering
drawing. Roughness given in
micro-inches
29

• Dimensional accuracy and tolerances
• Achieving accuracy depends on material as well as on process
• e.g. solidification in injection molding causes shrinkage
• Each manufacturing process has the capability of producing a part to a

certain surface finish and tolerance range without incurring extra cost
30
Dimensional accuracy and tolerances
• Figure shows a general relationship between the surface finish and
tolerance range with a process (tolerance apply to 1 inch dimension
scale)
Approximate values of
surface roughness and
tolerance on dimensions
typically obtained
with different
manufacturing processes
31
Dimensional accuracy and tolerances
• Influence of tolerance on processing costs (schematic)
32
Availability, lead time and delivery

• A critical business factor in selecting a manufacturing process is the
• Availability of the production equipment,
• e.g. large structural parts, such as rotors for electrical generators, or the main structural forgings
for military aircraft, can be made in only a few factories in the world because of equipment
requirements
• the lead time to make tooling

• e.g. complex forging dies and plastic injection molding dies can have lead times of an year
• the reliability of the expected delivery date for parts made by outside
suppliers
33
ME – 362
Design
Part 12.3
Muhammad Ilyas
Design For Manufacture (DFM)
Guidelines
• Minimize the number of parts: Eliminating parts results great saving
• A part is a good candidate for elimination if
• There is no relative motion
• No need for subsequent adjustment between the parts
• No need for materials to be different
• Combining two or more parts into an integral design is another approach

• Plastic parts are particularly well suited for integral design
2
Design For Manufacture
Guidelines
• Standardize components:
• Using commercially available standard parts minimize the cost and
improve quality
3
Use of catalogues for standard parts
Guidelines
• Use common / similar parts across product lines:
• It is good practice to use parts in more than one product
• Specify the same material, parts, and subassemblies in all products as
much as possible
• This reduces the cost
4
Guidelines
• Design parts to be multifunctional:
• A good way to minimize cost is to design such parts that can fulfill more
than one function
• e.g. a part can serve as a structure as well as a spring
• Design parts for ease of fabrication
• Avoid excessively tight tolerances
5
Guidelines
• Minimize secondary operations:
• If possible eliminate the secondary manufacturing processes like heat
treatment, polishing, painting etc.
• Use if there is a functional need of it.
• Utilize the special characteristics of processes:

• e.g. molded polymers can be provided with built-in color
6
Some other design rules are:
• Space holes in machined, cast or molded parts
• Avoid generalized statements on drawings like polish this surface or
tool-mark not allowed
• There should be a clear datum surface (datum should not be a point)
• Dimensions should be from one datum surface
• The design should aim for minimum weight having good strength and
stiffness
• Whenever possible, design to use general purpose tooling not special
type i.e. special dies etc.
• Use generous fillets and radii in casting, molds and machining
• Deign the part such that, as many operations as possible can be
performed without repositioning it
7
Design For Assembly (DFA)
Guidelines for manual assembly:

• The process of manual assembly can be divided into:
• Part Handling
• Insertion and fastening
• For ease of part handling, the designer should attempt to:

• Design parts that have end-to-end symmetry and rotational symmetry
about the axis of insertion
8
Guidelines for part handling:
• Make the part asymmetric if not symmetric but not poorly
asymmetrical
• Make the part to avoid jam
9
Guidelines for part handling:
• Avoid feature that will tangle
• Avoid parts that are slippery, delicate, flexible very small or very
large
10
Guidelines for Inserting and Fastening:
• There should be no resistance to the insertion
11
• Standardize and minimize the parts,
processes and assemblies
• Use pyramid assembly
12
• For quick orientation, provide self-locating features
• Design so that a part is located before it released
13
• Use the fastener with minimum cost
14
Classification of Part Handling Systems:

• Effect of Part Symmetry
• Effect of part thickness and size
• Effect of weight
• Require two hands for assembly
• Parts that nest or tangle during assembly
• Force fit insertion
15
Effect of Part Symmetry on handling time

• One of the very common assembly operations is orientation
• Orientation involves the proper alignment of the part to be inserted
• Orientation operation can be divided into
• Alignment of the axis
• Rotation of the part about the axis
• It is therefore convenient to define two type of symmetry for a part

• Alpha Symmetry
• Beta Symmetry
16
Alpha Symmetry
• It depends on the angle through which a part must be rotated
about an axis perpendicular to the axis of insertion to repeat its
orientation
Beta Symmetry
• It depends on the angle through which a part must be rotated
about an axis of insertion to repeat its orientation
180̊
17
Handling time
• Parts that can be grasped with one hand only
Time (seconds)
18
Handling time
• Parts that can be grasped with two hands
• In such cases, the part is heavy
• Very precise or careful handling is required
• The part is large or flexible
• The part does not possess holding features, thus making one-hand grasp
difficult
Time (seconds)
19
Handling time
• Part inserted but not secured
Time (seconds)
20
Handling time
• Part inserted and secured by screws
21
Assembly Efficiency
Assembly efficiency can be calculated as:
N min t a
Ema 
t ma
where:
• Ema = Efficiency of manual assembly
• Nmin = Minimum theoretical parts
• ta = Basic time for assembly = 3 seconds (avg.)
• tma = Estimated time to complete assembly
22
Guidelines for DFA

• Minimize the total number of parts
• Minimize the assembly surfaces
• Avoid separate fasteners
• Minimize assembly direction
• Maximize compliance in assembly
• Minimize handling in assembly
23
Minimize the total number of parts

• Eliminate the parts not required for the proper functioning of the
design
• In case, a part is required, the criteria for an essential part are

• They must exhibit relative motion relative to other part
• Materials of the two parts are different
• A part is necessary in assembly of other parts
24
Minimize the assembly surfaces
• Simplify the design so that fewer surfaces need to be prepared in
processing, and all work on surface is complete before moving to the
next one
Avoid Separate fasteners
• The use of screws in assembly is expensive.
• Snap fits should be used whenever possible
Minimize assembly direction

• All parts should be designed so that they can be assembled from one
direction
• Rotation of an assembly requires extra time and motion and may require
additional transfer stations and fixtures
• The best situation in assembly is when parts are added in a top-down
manner to create a z-axis stack
25
Maximize compliance in assembly
• Excessive assembly force may be required when parts are not
identical or perfectly made
• Allowance for this should be made in the product design
• Designed-in compliance features include the use of generous tapers,
chamfers, and radii
Minimize handling in assembly
• Parts should be designed to make the required position for insertion
or joining easy to achieve
• Quality parts should be made as symmetrical as their function will
allow
• Orientation can be assisted by design features that help to guide and
locate parts in the proper position
26
Example (Reading Assignment)
27
28
29
Example
30
ME – 362
Design
Part 13.1
Muhammad Ilyas
Risk, Reliability and Safety
Some Definitions:
What is Hazard ???
• Hazard is the potential damage for human, property, or
environment
• Examples:
• A knife (can cut), electricity (can cause shock) and welding (can create metal
fumes) are examples of hazards
• A cracked steering linkage (can cause an accident), a leaking fuel line (can stop
functioning of car etc.), or a loose step (can cause falling) all represent hazards
• Another term for a hazard is an unsafe condition, a condition which,

if not corrected, can reasonably be expected to result in failure and/
or injury
2
Hazard classes to which society is subject
3
Some Definitions:
What is Risk???
• Risk is the likelihood, expressed either as a probability or as a
frequency, of a hazard’s materializing
• Examples:
• If there was a spill of water in a room then that water would present a
slipping hazard to persons passing through it
• If access to that area was prevented by a physical barrier then the hazard
would remain though the risk would be minimized
• Risk is the potential for realizing some unwanted and negative
consequences of an event
4
What is Risk Assessment??

It is the process in which we:
• Identify hazards
• Analyze or evaluate the risk associated with that hazard
• Determine appropriate ways to eliminate or control the hazard
In practical terms, a risk assessment is a thorough look at your
workplace to identify those things, situations, processes, etc. that may
cause harm, particularly to people
After identification is made, you evaluate how likely and severe the risk
is, and then decide what measures should be in place to effectively
prevent or control the harm from happening
5 www.ccohs.ca
Risk Assessment
The assessment of risk is a process involving judgment and intuition
The level of risk can be classified as:
• Tolerable risk:
• We are prepared to live with the level of risk but we want to continue to
review its causes and seek ways of reducing the risk
• Acceptable risk:
• We accept the level of risk as reasonable and would not seek to expend much
in resources to reduce it further
• Unacceptable risk:
• We do not accept this level of risk and would not participate in the activity or
permit others to participate
6
Risks in Engineering Systems:
Risk associated in engineering systems could be due to:
• External factors that were considered acceptable at the time of design
but which subsequent research has revealed to be a health or safety
hazard
• e.g. the extensive use of sprayed asbestos coating as an insulation and fire
barrier (prolonged inhalation of asbestos fibers can cause serious illness
including lung cancer)
• From abnormal conditions that are not a part of the basic design
concept in its normal mode of operation
• Potential risks associated with some systems, such as passenger
aircraft or a nuclear power plant
• Operator error
• Design errors
• Accidents
7
Risk calculation: following two parameters are used:

• Probability
• A risk is an event that "may" occur. The probability of its occurring can
range anywhere from just above 0 percent to just below 100 percent
• Impact (magnitude)
• A risk, by its very nature, always has a negative impact. However, the
size of the impact varies in terms of cost and impact on health, human
life, or some other critical factor
Risk (Consequences/unit time) = Frequency (events/unit time) ×
Magnitude (consequence/event)
e.g. if there are 15 million automobile accidents and on average 1 out of 300
accidents results in a fatality, the annual fatality risk is
8
Reliability is one of the essential elements of modern

engineering design
Reliability is the probability that a system, device or component will

successfully perform for;
• A given range of operating condition
• A specific environment condition
• A prescribed economic survival time
9
Reliability Theory
It is basically a study of causes, distribution and prediction of Failure
Basic Equation for Reliability

R (t) = Reliability with respect to time
F(t) = Unreliability (probability of failure) in the same time t
As failure and non-failure are mutually exclusive events so;
R(t) + F(t) = 1
10
Reliability Theory
Let
N0= Number of components put into test
Ns(t) = Number of components survived to or at time t
Nf(t) = Number of components failed between time 0 and t
N s t   N f t   N 0
N s t  N f t 
 1
N0 N0
11
Reliability Theory
From definition of Reliability, (Probability of survival)
N s t  N f t 
R(t )   1
N0 N0
dR(t ) 1 d N f 

dt N 0 dt
(Sample dependent)
dN f dR
 N0
dt dt
12
Reliability Theory
Hazardous rate or Instantaneous failure rate is the number of
failure per unit time per number of items exposed for the same time
dN f (t ) 1
h(t ) 
dt N s (t )
13
Reliability Theory
Hazardous rate or Instantaneous failure rate
The hazard rate is defined for non repairable populations as the (instantaneous)
rate of failure for the survivors to time t during the next instant of time
It is a rate per unit of time similar in meaning to reading a car speedometer at a
particular instant and seeing 45 mph
The next instant the failure rate may change and the units that have already
failed play no further role since only the survivors count
14
Reliability Theory
Hazard Rate: In more statistical terms we also can define
the hazard rate h(t) as the probability that a given test item will
fail between t1 and t1+dt1 , when it already has survived to t1
f (t)
F (t)
t1
t
(b) Cumulative distribution of time
(a) Distribution of time to failure
to failure
15
Reliability Theory
In more statistical terms Hazard Rate h(t) is defined as the
probability that a given test item will fail between t1 and t1+dt1, when it
already has survived to t1
f (t ) f (t )
h(t )    P(t1  t  t1  dt1 t  t1 )
1  F (t ) R(t )
Solving in terms of Hazard or failure Rate (after some abracadabra ☺…)
 t 
R(t )  exp   h(t )dt 
 0 
17
Reliability Theory
The hazard rate or failure rate is given in terms like 1 percent per 1000
h or 10-5 per hour (0.01/1000=10-5)
Hazard or Failure rate for components in the range of 10-5 to 10-7 per
hour exhibits a good commercial level of reliability
18
Definitions
Cumulative time to failure (CT): When N0 components are run for a time
t without replacing or repairing failed components
𝑇 = 𝑡1 + 𝑡2 + 𝑡3 + ⋯ + 𝑡𝑘 + 𝑁0 − 𝑘 𝑡
Mean life: The average life of the N0 components put on test or in service,
measured over the entire life curve
19
Definitions
Mean time to failure (MTTF): it is the average time that a non-repairable
system, device or component will operate before experiencing a failure
e.g. light bulbs, transistors, bearings etc.
• Therefore, when a part fails in a non repairable system, the system fails
Therefore, the system reliability is a function of the first part failure
It is the sum of the survival time for all of the components divided by the
number of failures
MTTF   R (t )dt
20
Definitions
Mean time to failure (MTTF):
For a non-repairable system, It is the sum of the survival time for all of the
components divided by the number of failures.
Example
Assume you tested 3 identical systems starting from time 0 until all of them failed
The first system failed at 10 hours, the second failed at 12 hours and the third failed at 13
hours
The MTTF = sum of survival time / no. of failures
is the average of the three failure times, which is 11.6667 hours
21
Definitions
Mean Time between Failure (MTBF): It is the time between two
successive component failures
MTBF is similar to MTTF but it is applied for components or system that
are repairable
Example:
10h 12h 13h

MTBF=(10+12+13)/3 = 11.67h
22
Table shows some

rough ideas of
average failure rates
for different
components and
systems
24
Constant or Exponential Failure Rate

This is the most simple and widely used distribution in reliability
engineering.
For special case of constant failure rate, h(t) = 
 t  t
R(t )  exp   h(t )dt   e
 0 
where
number of failures

number of time units during which all items were exposed to failure
25
Constant or Exponential Failure Rate
Remember MTBF is sum of time between failures/ total failures
Thus the reciprocal of  is MTBF, i.e.
1
T

So
R (t )  e t T
If a component is operated for a period equal to MTBF, the probability

of survival is 1/e = 0.37
ത R(t) = 1 = 0.37
How, when 𝑡 = 𝑇,
𝑒
26
Example 1:
If a device has a failure rate of 2 ×10-6 failures/h, what is its
reliability for an operating period of 500 h? If there are 2000 items in the
test, how many failures are expected in 500 h? Assume that strict quality
control has eliminated premature failures so we can assume a constant
failure rate
Solution
(i) Failure rate = no. of failures / time = λ = 2 ×10-6 failures/h
Operating period = t = 500 h, R(t) = ?
(ii) No. of items = 2000, t = 500 h, No. failures = ?
Assumption: Constant failure rate,
Neglect premature failures
27
Example 1.1:
If a device has a failure rate of 2 ×10-6 failures/h, what is its
reliability for an operating period of 500 h? If there are 2000 items in the
test, how many failures are expected in 500 h? Assume that strict quality
control has eliminated premature failures so we can assume a constant
failure rate
Premature
failures
28
Solution:
 t  t
R(t )  exp   h(t )dt   e
(i)  0 
(ii) N s t  N f t 
R(t )   1
N0 N0
t = 500 h, R(500) = 0.999
29
Example 1.2:
Solution:
MTBF = T- = 100,000 h,
t = 100,000h
30
Example 1.3:
t = 50,000h, R(t) =?,

Failure rate = no. of failures/ time = λ = 2 ×10-6 failures/h
 t
R(t )  e
Example 1.4:
31
Example 1.5:
t = 100h, R (100)=?
32
Variable Failure Rate:
Failures are not constant always e.g. for Relays and thermionic devices
and other mechanical systems
Failure rate is a function of time. Therefore simple exponential relation
for reliability does not apply
Weibull Function (m) is used to consider this type of failure:
33
The Weibull distribution for Ɵ = 1 and

different values of m
34
ME – 362
Design
Part 13.2
Muhammad Ilyas
Constant failure rate
Failure rate is the frequency with which an engineering component or
system fails (commonly expressed in failures per hour)
The failure rate of a system usually

depends on time, with the rate
varying over the life cycle of the
system.
The bathtub curve is widely used in
reliability engineering. It describes
a particular form of the hazard
function which comprises three
parts:
i. The first part is a decreasing failure rate, known as early failures

ii. The second part is a constant failure rate, known as random failures
iii. The third part is an increasing failure rate, known as wear-out failures
2
System Reliability
• Most Mechanical and Electronic Systems comprise of a collection of
components
• Overall reliability of system depends upon performance of each and
every component
• Reliability of the system can be defined in terms of reliability of
elements of the system
3
Series System Reliability

• If components are so arranged that the failure of any component
causes the system failure, then it is said to be in series
• System reliability is the product of component reliabilities

Rsystem = RA x RB x ………….x Rn
4
Series System Reliability

• System reliability quickly decreases with an increase in number of
components
• For example if there are 20 components each with reliability, R = 0.99,
the system reliability is 0.99×0.99×0.99×…… = 0.9920 = 0.818
• And if there are 10 components each with reliability, R = 0.99, the
system reliability = 0.9910 = 0.904
• For a system with Constant Failure Rate
Rsystem  RA  RB  eAt  eBt  e(A B )t

• The value of  for the system is the sum of the values of  for each
component
5
Parallel System Reliability

• If components are so arranged that the failure, of all components,
causes the system failure, then it is said to be in parallel
RAB= 1 – {Probability (1 & 2 both fail)}

The probability of 1 failing is = (1 - R1 )
The probability of 2 failing is = (1 - R 2 )
Overall reliability is R AB =1 - (1 - R 1 ) (1 - R 2)
• System reliability is the product of component reliabilities
Rsystem  1  (1  RA )(1  RB ).......(1  Rn )

6
Parallel System Reliability

• For a constant failure rate:
Rsystem  1  (1  RA )(1  RB )  1  (1  eAt )(1  eBt )
Rsystem  eAt  eBt  e(At Bt )
• Since this is not in the form e-constant the parallel system has Variable
Failure Rate
• A system in which the components are arranged to give parallel
reliability is said to be redundant
7
N-out-of-M System Reliability
• Consider a four-engine aircraft that can fly on 2 engines
• It would lose stability and control if one engine is operated
• This type of situation is known as an n -out-of- m unit network
• The Reliability of such a system is given by a binomial distribution,
with the assumption that each of the m units is independent and
identical:
m
 m i
Rn / m    R (1  R) mi
i n  i 
where
 m m!
  
 i  i!(m  i )!
8
Example:
A complex engineering design can be described by a reliability block
diagram as shown in Fig (below). In subsystem A, two components must
operate for the subsystem to function successfully. Subsystem C has true
parallel reliability. Calculate the reliability of each subsystem and the
overall system reliability.
9
• Example:
 m m!
  
 i  i!(m  i )!
RA
RB
R1=R2=R3
10
Maintenance and Repair
• Overall system reliability is improved if repairable component is
replaced with redundant component
A
A
B
• Preventive maintenance is aimed at minimizing system failure

• Routine maintenance does not have major positive effect on reliability
(although absence of Routine maintenance can cause premature system
failure)
• Repair of failed component in a Series System will not improve
reliability, since the system is not operating
A B
11
• Decreasing repair time improves maintainability and availability
MTBF = MTTF + MTTR
where
MTBF = Mean time between failure
MTTF = Mean time to failure
MTTR = Mean time to repair
MTBF
MTTR MTTF
12
• If repair rate is r = 1/MTTR then for an active redundant system:
3  r
MTTF 
22
For obtaining above result, see any good reliability book
13
Example
If repair rate r = 6 h-1 and failure rate  = 10-5 per hour, Calculate:
1. MTTF with repair
2. MTTF without repair
Solution:
3  r
MTTF  Class assignment
2 2
• With repair, MTTF = (3* 10-5 +6)/((2*(10-5)2)

=30000150000 =3*1010 hrs.
• Without repair (r=0), MTTF = 1.5*105 hrs.
14
Maintainability
• Probability that a component or system that has failed will be
restored to service within a given time
• MTTF and Failure Rate measure Reliability
• MTTR and Repair Rate measure Maintainability
• It is important to predict maintainability during design of an
engineering system
15
Maintainability
Includes:
▪ Time required to determine failure and diagnose necessary repair action
▪ Time to carry out necessary repair action
▪ Time required to checkout the unit to establish that the repair has been
effective and the system is operational
16
Maintainability
▪ Maintainability can be calculated as:
M (t )  1  e  rt  1  e t MTTR
where
M(t) = Maintainability
r = repair rate
t = permissible time for repair
17
Availability
▪ Concept which combines both reliability and maintainability
▪ It is the proportion of time the system is working “on line” to the
total time, when that is determined over a longer period of time
18
Availability
MTTF
Availabili ty 
MTTF  MTTR
19
Design for Reliability
▪ The approach can fall between two broad extremes:
1. Fail-safe approach
2. Absolute-worst case approach
Fail-safe approach
• To identify weak spot in the system or component
• To provide someway to monitor that weakness
• When a weak link fails it is replaced (like a fuse in a house hold
electrical system)
20
“One-horse shay” approach

The objective is to design all components to have equal life so the system
will fall apart at the end of its useful lifetime just as the legendary “one-
horse shay” did
21
Absolute-worst case approach
▪ Use in the worst combination of parameters

▪ Design is based on the assumption that all can go wrong at the same
time
▪ Results in Conservative Approach and leads to Over design
22
Causes of Unreliability
 Design mistakes:
Exclusion of important operating factors, incomplete information, erroneous
calculations, poor material selection
 Manufacturing defects:
Poor surface finish, cracks/defects during heat treatment, lack of
supervision, instructions, poor working environment, inadequate training
 Maintenance:
Lack of maintenance after operation
 Exceeding design limits:
Limit of temperature, speed, load etc.
 Environmental factors:
Non-consideration of rain, humidity, ice, temperature etc.
23
Minimizing Failure
▪ Probability of failure for structural applications Pf < 10-6
▪ Probability of failure for unstressed applications 10-4 < Pf < 10-3
Factors for increasing reliability
▪ Margin of Safety
▪ Derating (to use an elect. device at less than its max. power)
▪ Redundancy
▪ Durability (material selection and design details should be performed with
the objective of producing a system that is resistant to degradation from
such factors as corrosion, erosion, foreign object damage, fatigue, and wear)
▪ Damage Tolerance (crack detection and propagation studies)
24
Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA)
• It is a team-based methodology for identifying potential problems

with new or existing designs
• Most frequently used hazard-analysis tool
• Useful in identifying critical areas of design that need redundant
components and improved reliability
• Failure: inability to meet customer’s requirements as opposed to
catastrophic failure
25

• Objective of FMEA:
• Prediction of possible failures
• Prediction of effect of failure on the functioning of the system
• Establishment of steps that might be taken to prevent the failure
26

• Factors involved in developing a FMEA:
1. Severity of failure as shown (next slides…)
2. Probability of occurrence the failure is given in table shown (next slides…)
3. Detection of failure (before the product is used by the customer)
• The table shown (next slides…) gives the scale for detection of failure
27
28
29
30

 Calculation of RPN
• The practice is to combine the three factors into a Risk Priority Number
(RPN) as:
• RPN = (severity of failure) x ( occurrence of failure) x (detection rating)
• Value of RPN can vary between 1000 (the greatest risk) & 1 ( the minimum risk)
31
 Example:
 Compare failure modes A and B

 A has nearly four times the RPN of B,
 yet B has a severity of failure that would cause safety risk and complete
system shutdown
 Failure by A would cause only a slight effect on product performance

 It achieves its high RPN value because it is not possible to detect the
defect that is causing the failure
32
 Example:
 Compare failure modes A and B

 Certainly failure B is more critical than A and should be given prompt
attention for design of the product
 Failure modes C and B
 Failure mode C has over 2 times the RPN of B,
 but because the severity of the failure is low it should be given lower priority
than B even though the occurrence of failure is high
33
 Example:
Conclusion: the information provided from the FMEA should not

be blindly based on the RPN values
34
ME – 362
Design
Part 14.1
Muhammad Ilyas
Cost Evaluation
• Engineering design is not complete without good idea of cost of design

and manufacture
• Cost is next important to performance of the product
• To compete in market, the knowledge of cost evaluation and
understanding how new technologies can minimize the cost, is very
important
• Decisions made in the design process commit 70 to 80 percent of the
cost of a product
• In the conceptual and embodiment design stages, majority of the costs
are locked into the product
2
Cost Evaluation
• Cost estimates are used :

1. To provide information to establish the selling price of a product or a
quotation for goods or services
2. To determine the most economical method, process or material for
manufacturing a product.
3. To become a basis for a cost-reduction program
4. To determine standards of production performance that may be used
to control costs
5. To provide input concerning the profitability of a new product
3
Categories of Cost
• Two broad categories of cost:

• Product costs
• vary with each unit of product made
• e.g. material cost and labor cost
• Period costs
• occur over a period of time regardless of the amount (volume) of product
that is made or sold
• e.g. the insurance on the factory equipment or the rent of the property
4
Categories of Cost
• Two broad categories:

• Product costs
• This is also named as variable cost, because the cost varies with the volume
of product made
• Period costs
• This is also named as fixed cost, because the costs almost remain the same
regardless of the volume of product made
5
Categories of Cost
• Another way of categorizing cost is

• Direct cost
• That can be directly associated with a particular unit of product that is
manufactured
• Examples : materials cost, wages of direct labor
• Indirect cost
• The cost that is indirectly associated with the product
• Examples : rent on the factory building, cost of utilities, or wages of the
admin, accounts
6
Categories of Cost
7
Categories of Cost
8
Categories of Cost
• Elements of cost that establish the selling price
9
Categories of Cost
• Break-Even Point
• The break-even point is
the sales or production
volume at which sales
and costs balance
• Operating beyond the
BEP results in profits;
operating below the BEP
results in losses
10
Methods of Cost Estimates
• The methods used to develop cost evaluation fall in three

categories:
1. Analogy
2. Parametric Approach
3. Methods Engineering
11
• Cost Estimation by Analogy:

• In cost estimation by analogy, the future costs of a project or design
are based on past costs of a similar project or design, with due
allowance for cost escalation and technical differences
• The method therefore requires a database of experience or published
cost data
• Mostly used for feasibility studies of chemical plants and process
equipment
12
• Cost Estimation by Analogy:

• When cost evaluation by analogy is used, future costs must be based
on the same state of the art
• e.g. it would be valid to use cost data on a 777 jet transport aircraft to
estimate costs for a larger 777, but it would be incorrect to use the same
data to predict the cost of the Boeing 787  ???
• Because the main structures have changed from riveted aluminum
construction to autoclave-bonded polymer-graphite fiber construction
• Similarly, cost estimate is based on same analogy like if ex-works then ex-
works
13
• Parametric Approach:
• In the parametric or statistical approach to cost estimation,
techniques such as regression analysis are used to establish
relations between system cost and key parameters of the system,
such as weight, speed, and power
• This approach involves cost estimation at a high level of aggregation
• so it is most helpful in the problem definition stage of conceptual design
14
• Parametric Approach:
• For example, the cost of developing a turbofan aircraft engine might
be given by:
C  0.13937 x 0.7435 0.0775

1 2 x
where C is the cost, x1 is the engine thrust, and x2 is the number of engines produced
• Cost data expressed in this empirical form can be useful in trade-off

studies in the concept design phase
• Parametric cost studies are often used in feasibility studies of large
military systems
• Be careful not to use models of this type outside the range of data for
which they apply
15
• Methods Engineering:
• Sometimes called methods analysis or the industrial engineering
approach
• In this method, separate elements of work are identified in great
detail and summed into the total cost per part
• On complex systems it requires a great deal of effort and computation
• Strong trends towards putting material and processing costs into a
computer database and using computer optimizing process sequence
and cost calculation
• Comparison of different costs can be observed from this method
16
• Detailed methods costing analysis is usually prepared by a process
planner or a cost engineer
• Such a person must be very familiar with the machines, tooling and
processes used in the factory
• The steps to determine cost to manufacture a part are:

1. Determine the material costs
2. Prepare the operations route sheet (a sequenced list of all operations
required to produce the part)
3. Determine the time required to carry out each operation
4. Convert time to cost
17
• Example: Evaluation of cost per part for the production of a simple fitting from
a steel forging
• Overhead charges (fixed costs) often are many more times the direct labor costs.
• In this case the material cost is high because the production sequence starts
with a finished forging rather than a workpiece cut from bar stock
18
Refinements to Cost Analysis Methods
• Several refinements to cost estimating methods have appeared over the

years aimed at giving more accurate cost evaluations
• One of such refinements is cost indexes
• Cost Indexes
• Cost Indexes are used to convert past costs (which are out dated with the passage of
time) to present costs
Mathematically,
I t2
Ct2  Ct1
I t1
where,
Ct2 is cost at time2, Ct1 is cost at time 1
It2 and It1 are cost indexes as time t2 and time t1
19
• Cost Indexes
• CI is published by the relevant factory or industrial groups
• Examples of sources of CIs
• Consumer Price Index (CPI) — gives the price of consumer goods and services
• Producer Price Index (PPI) — measures the entire market output of producers of
goods
• The Engineering News Record provides indexes on general construction costs
• The Marshall and Swift Index provides an index of industrial equipment costs
20
• Cost Inflation Indexes
21
• Precautions in using Cost Indexes

• Make sure that the index to be used relates to the concerned problem
• Cost Indexes reflect the costs of past technology and design procedures,
whereas cost trends change sharply with the advancement of technology
• Published cost indexes reflect national averages and may not reflect local
conditions
22
• Cost Indexes – Cost Escalation Factor
• Cost Indexes vary from country to country and conversion factor is used
• For long term projects (e.g. steam turbines, supertankers etc.), with inflation
ever-present, a common way is to use a Cost Escalation Factor to estimate
the cost of equipment at the date it is ready to be shipped to the customer
• A typical cost escalation formula is:
• (BLS)A,B = Bureau of Labor Statistics Index for Material cost – at time A and B
• (BLS)’A,B = Bureau of Labor Statistics Index for Labor cost – at time A and B
• Co original cost
• F is the stipulated escalated factor
• M is material cost to labor cost ratio the

23
• Cost Indexes – cost escalation factor: EXAMPLE
24
• Cost Indexes – cost escalation factor: EXAMPLE
This is the escalated cost in June 1976 for the fraction of the original
cost subject to escalation
The fraction not subject to escalation is:
Therefore, the total cost of the equipment at the time of shipment will be:
$289,920 + 230,000 = $ 519,920
25
ME – 362
Design
Part 14.2
Muhammad Ilyas
Cost-Capacity Factor
• Cost of most capital equipment is not directly proportional to the size
or capacity of the equipment (e.g. doubling horse power of motor
increases the cost by only about one-half)
• Economy of scale is an important factor in engineering design
• Cost-capacity relationship may be used to estimate the effect of plant
size on capital cost
2
Mathematically it is expressed as:
where
C1 = Capital cost associated with capacity Q1
C0 = Capital cost associated with capacity Q0
Size Exponent: x varies from 0.4 to 0.8
For many instances x = 0.6, the above relationship is sometimes called as “six-
tenths rule”
3
4
Cost-Capacity Factor – Example
• Cost Capacity and Cost Index can also be combined
× (I1/I0)
C0 = $ 900,000
Q1 = 200 ton/ day
Q2 = 400 ton/day
5
Practice Assignment
In an environmental upgrade of a minimill

making steel bar, it is found that a purchase
must be made for a large cyclone dust collector.
It is the time of the year for capital budget
submission, so there is no time for quotation
from supplier. The last unit of that type was
purchased in 1985 with a cost of 35,000$. It had
a 100 ft3/min capacity. The new installation in
2015 will require 1000 ft3/min capacity. The cost
escalation for this kind of equipment has been
about 5% per year. For budget purpose, estimate
what it will cost to purchase the dust collector.
6
Practice Assignment
Solution: As we know that:
Here,
Q0 = 100 ft3/min
Q1 = 1000 ft3/min
C0 = 35,000
C1 = ?
Based on Table given in previous slides, x for dust

collector= 0.61.
The above equation gives that
C1 = 35,000*4.0738 = $142,583
Thus C1 is approx. 4 times C0

7
Practice Assignment
Because of economies of scale, the new unit has 10

times the capacity as the unit purchased in 1985
and will not cost 10 times more. However, the
purchase cost will have increased because of
inflation in the 30 years.
8
Practice Assignment
Assuming cost inflation of 10% per year, the

original cost of $35,000 is now equivalent to:
35000(1+0.10)30 = 35000(17.5) = $610,729
9
Estimating Plant Cost

• New designs are mostly variant of existing designs so the historical
data can be used along with cost indexes and cost capacity factors to
estimate new design cost
• Preliminary costing of chemical/process plant design is done by

making a list of all the needed pieces of equipment and then applying
factors to estimate the overall plant cost
10
Cp = fCb
where
Cp = Installed plant
Cb = Base cost
f = Lang factor, which depends on the nature of the plant
f = 3.1 for solid-processing plant
f = 3.6 for a solid-fluid-processing plant
f = 4.7 for a fluid-processing plant
Additionally, as it is easy to forget needed items of equipment at an early

design stage, some contingency allowance, generally between 10 and 50
percent will be needed
11
Example
Solution:
12
Example
Solution: Suppose cost

I t2
Ct2  Ct1 index is available
I t1 for 1987, and 1972
1987 1995 : 08 years

13
Design to Cost
• Design to cost: also called target costing (sometimes called “should-

cost” data)
• This term is becoming accepted for the use of costing methods early in the
design process to predict the manufacturing costs so that if they are too
high, the design can be changed at an early stage
• In the past the only practice was to remove the excessive cost out of the
manufacturing process or to substitute a less expensive material, usually
at the expense of quality
• Early cost estimation depends on an experienced cost estimator, who can
compare the part cost to one made in the past, making due allowances for
the differences
14
Design to Cost
• Guidelines for Design to Cost:
• for reducing product cost at conceptual and embodiment design stages:
• Minimum accuracy, tolerances and conformance to standards
• Use concepts which lead to smaller size
• Use higher speeds for power transmission (reduce torque)
• Make your design as simple as possible
• Use smaller parts
• Use similar parts
• Production in large quantity
• Use high strength materials so the size will be minimum and hence the cost
• Reduce scrape generation
• Reduce the machining operations
15
Manufacturing Cost
• Manufacturing Cost
• Determined in embodiment design as design details are confirmed, so can
be made only after BOM and design details are confirmed
• Most commonly done in process planning step as it follows detail design
• It gives an idea to make a decision about Make/Buy (should the part be
made in house or should it be purchased/manufactured outside)
16
Manufacturing Cost
• A detailed estimate of manufacturing cost follows the following steps:
1. Make a detailed analysis of the product and prepare a list of components
that can be made
2. Crate a manufacturing process plan for each component
3. Determine the material cost
4. Determine the manufacturing time
5. Apply the labor and overhead rates to each operation
6. The manufacturing cost is the sum of step 3 and step 5. The
manufacturing cost per unit Cu is given by:
where:
Cu  CM  CL  OH
• CM = Material cost
• CL = Labor cost
• OH = Overheads
17
Manufacturing Cost
• Material cost (CM) includes the cost of standard components

and the cost of raw materials and is given by:
CM  (Vn kv  OH M )  ( B  OH B )
18
Manufacturing Cost
• The labor cost (CL) depends on the time tu to carry out the specific
operation.
• This includes:
• Time spent in changing tool
• Lubrication
• Resting
• Waiting for part
19
Manufacturing Cost
• The total labor cost is given by
CL  Cdl  Csu  OH L
where
Cdl  k L tu
Cdl is the direct labor cost. kL is the labor rate (Rs/hr.) multiplied by Time. Csu
is the cost of machine setup and OHL is the overheads on direct labor
20
Overhead Cost
Overhead Cost:
• Any cost not specifically or directly associated with the production of
the product or services
• The two main types are
• Factory overheads:
• It includes the cost of manufacturing that are not related to direct labor or material
• Corporate overheads:
• It is based on the costs of running the company that are outside the manufacturing
or production activities. For example the salaries and fringe benefits, sales
personnel, accounting and finance, legal staff, R & D, etc.
21
Example
Solution:
22
Example
Solution:
The direct labor cost is
(No. parts)*(time/part)*($/time)
The factory overhead charge is

160% of direct labor cost
= 1.6*1050 = $1680
23
Practice Problem
24
Practice Problem
25
Product Profit Model
• The total cost to produce and market a product can be written as:
C p  Q(CM  C L  OH )  T  S  C D
where:
Q = Total lifetime volume of production
T = One time capital cost for equipment and tooling
S = Corporate overhead costs
CD = the cost for developing the product until it enters production
Cm = Material cost
CL = Labor cost
OH = Overheads
26
• A simple product profit model can be calculated using the following
relations
27
Cost Model
• Cost modeling can show which element of the design or
manufacturing contribute most to the cost
• It determines which process of the manufacturing have the best chance

of achieving the goal at minimum cost
• Example: A simple machining process for a part can be described by

the following steps:
1. Load the piece
2. Advance the tool
3. Cutting
The Cost Model is shown on next slide
4. Retract the tool
5. Unload the piece
28
Machining Cost Model
A = the time for machining and work handling per piece
29
• After extensive work on metal removal process, the following relation
was developed
nA  B B
Cost / piece   A
n n
where
A = machining + work-handling cost/piece
B = tool cost (including cost of tool changing and tool grinding)
n = number of pieces produced/tool
30
• A more detailed cost model in terms of Time for turning a bar on a

lathe is given by:
L L L D
tc   
V feed fN f 12v
Where
Vfeed = feed velocity (in/min)
f = feed rate (in/rev)
N = rotational velocity (rpm)
D = work piece diameter (in)
v = cutting velocity (ft/min)
31
• A total cost/piece Cu of a turned part is the sum of the machining

cost Cmc, the cost of the tooling Ct, and the cost of the material Cm
Cu  Cmc  Ct  Cm  (1)
Cu = total cost/piece
Cmc = machining cost
Ct = tooling cost
Cm = material cost
32
• The machining cost Cmc is the major part of the unit production cost
• It depends on the machining time and the cost of the machine and
overheads
Cmc  C1tunit
where 1  M (1  OH m ) W (1  OH op ) 
C1    
60  100 100 
and
C1 = cost rate (Rs./min)
M = machine cost (Rs./hr.)
OHm = machine overhead rate (%)
W = labor rate for operator (Rs./hr.)
OHop = operator overheads (%)
33
Production Time for a unit:
• The production time for a unit tunit is given by:
tunit  tm  ti
where
tm = machining time for one cut
ti = idle time which is given by:
ti  t set  tchange  t hand  t down

where
tset = time for job setup
tchange = time for changing the cutting tool
thand = time to load and unload the work
tdown = time lost because of tool or machine failure
34
Cutting Tool Cost:
Then cost of cutting tool per unit is given by:
tm
Ct  Ctool
T
where
Ctool = Cost of cutting tool, Rs
tm = Machining time, min
T = Tool life, min
35
Cutting tool (brazed to the tool-holder) life is expressed by Taylor tool life
equation:
K t  rK s
Ctool 
r 1
where
Kt = cost of tool
r = number of re-sharpening
Ks = cost of re-sharpening
36
Putting for Cmc, and Ct in equation 1 (cost/piece),
Cu  Cmc  Ct  Cm  (1)
Cu = total cost/piece
we have Cmc = machining cost
Ct = tooling cost
  ttool   tm Cm = material cost

Cu  C1 t m 1    t O   Ct  C m
  T   T
where
ttool = tool change time
tO = overhead on tool
37
ME – 362
Design
Part 15.1
Muhammad Ilyas
Detail Design
The final stage of the design process is the detail design
2
Detail design
Detail Design
• It is no longer correct to say that detail design is the phase of

design where all of the dimensions, tolerances and details are
finalized
• It is the phase where all of the details are brought together, all
decisions are finalized, and a decision is made by management to
release the design for production
3
Detail Design
• Poor detail design can ruin a brilliant design concept and lead to
manufacturing defects, high cost and poor reliability in service.
Poor design Design improvement
4
Detail Design
• Poor detail design can ruin a brilliant design concept and lead to
manufacturing defects, high cost and poor reliability in service
• The reverse is not true i.e. a brilliant detail design will not rescue a
poor conceptual design
Gear Shift in Early Prius:

You push the handle forwards to
go backwards, backwards to go
forwards, and what the heck is B?
Gear Shift in VW Golf
5
Detail Design
• Major activities
and deliverables
of detail design
• Listed below the

dashed line are
activities that
extend beyond
detail design
until product
launch.
6
Steps involved in Detail Design Process
• Steps of Detail Design:

1. Detail drawing
2. Qualification prototype testing
3. Bill of materials (BOM)
4. Decision on make/buy
5. Detailed product specification
6. Detailed cost estimate
7. Final design review
8. Release to manufacture
7
Detail Drawings
Detail Drawings:
• To produce drawings that contain the information needed to
manufacture the product
• The information on detail drawing includes:
• Standard views of orthogonal projection (top, front and side views)
• Auxiliary views (sections, enlarged views, isometric views)
• Dimensions
• Tolerances
• Material specification
• Manufacturing details (surface finish etc.)
8
Detail Drawings
Other
Major detail information,
like surface
Notes finish etc.
Minor detail
Example of a detail drawing of a connecting rod

9
Detail Drawings
• Assembly drawings:
• They are of two types:
• Design Layouts: It shows the relationship of all components in the assembled
products
10
Detail Drawings
• Assembly drawings:
• They are of two types:
• Design Layouts: It shows the relationship of all components in the assembled
products
• Exploded views: show the individual parts of a mechanism separately but indicates
their proper relationship
11 Exploded views
Detail Drawings
• Keeping the drawing change history:
• To record the history of the project and the changes that are made
along the way
Title block
12
Bill of Materials (BOM)
Bill of Materials:
• The part list of each component in the product:
• The part description
• Quantity BoM
• Part
• Number
• Purchase order
13
• It is very helpful to determine the cost of

the product
• A bill of material will be started early in
the embodiment design phase, when the
product architecture has been established
• It will be finalized in the detailed design
phase and will be used in the detailed cost
analysis
• It is vital for tracking the part during
manufacturing and assembly
• For simple assemblies the bill of materials
is placed in the assembly drawing
14
Impact of CAE on Detail Design
• Engineering design is a complex process that produces large quantities
of data and information
• Moreover, there is a strong importance to reduce the product design
cycle time, improve the quality of the product, and decrease
manufacturing cost
• Computer-aided engineering (CAE) has an important and growing influence
on these goals
• The ability to make computer models and carry out computer-based
simulation has greatly increased the ability to efficiently size parts and
improve their durability
15
• CAE advantages:
• ability to design for robustness
• greater economic impact
• CAE has significantly reduced the drafting task of preparing engineering drawings
• ability to make changes quickly
• Parts/ assembly associativity
• BOM
• With help of CAE, following activities are easily managed:

• Enterprise Requirement Planning (ERP)
• Product data management (PDM)
• Component & Supplier management (CSM)
16
17
windchill is a PLM (Product Lifecycle Management) software product that is offered by PTC
- capabilities to help manufacturers manage their products through all phases of the product
lifecycle
18
Final Design Review
Final Design Review:
• It is done when the production drawings are complete

• It compares the final design to the most recent PDS
• The design reviews for all design parameters including safety,
reliability, quality, etc
19
Final Design Review
• Final design review consists of 3 elements:
1. Input documents
2. Effective meeting process
3. Appropriate output
20
Final Design Review
• Input documents:
• It consists of the documents like PDS, QFD, and the technical analysis like
FEA, CFD etc
• It also consists of the test results, detail and assembly drawings etc.
• Member(s) of the design review team give presentation to review all the
technical aspects of the product
21
Final Design Review

• Meeting Process:
• Should have a clear agenda
• It is a problem solving session
• The review meeting has a checklist of
items to be considered
• Decisions are made to finalize the
design
• A checklist is shown on next slide:
22
Final Design Review
Design Checklist
23
Final Design Review
24
Final Design Review
Output from review:
• Decision is made weather the product is ready to release to the
manufacturing department or not
• A detailed design report is submitted after necessary reviews
• Based on the design report and confirmation of material and parts
availability the design is released for manufacturing
25
Thank You
and
Good Luck with Your Exams!
26

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ME362-Part1.1.

Experience: Design for Manufacturing

 Philosophy and concept of engineering design

 Philosophy and concept of engineering design

 Phases and procedures in design

 Management of engineering projects

 Computer aided design (CAD)

 Case studies in design with emphasis on

 Mechanical Engineering Design by G E Dieter and L C

 Final class grade will be based on:

 Case Studies / Design Projects have a major role

This lecture will mainly cover the following topics

 Engineering Design – Introduction

 Design is a practice used not only by engineers but also

 artist, a sculptor, a composer, a playwright etc.

 Everyday we see so many examples of designing same

 Design examples of general and engineering applications?

 Generally we design to;

Design is something we do in social,

Design is something we do in social,

To design is to pull together

Engineering Design is a purposeful activity directed

Total Design – the systematic activity necessary from the

packaging defence manufacturing

Design Product could be

• Consumer goods, Appliances,

It may be complex engineering

Is Design a Science or Art?

What is a Good Design…… ?

Analysis offers a science of parts – you take portions of

Synthesis a science of the integration of parts – you

What is a Real World Problem that you Design

Partial Design Vs Total Design

engineering discipline (economics,

 The process through which a product is designed from

Problem identification Specifications

Conceptual design Concepts

Embodiment design Layouts

Detail design Drawings

~ 95% of cost incurred

• Although design costs are very little in terms of the overall

• The conventional concept of product quality : inspect the

• Cycle time : the development time required to bring a new

Engineering design Adaptive design

Selection design: In this case, the design task consists of

This lecture will mainly cover the following topics

 Static vs Dynamic product

 Description of Design Process

Is Design a Science or Art?

What is a Good Design…… ?

Analysis offers a science of parts – you take portions of

Synthesis a science of the integration of parts – you

What is a Real World Problem that you Design

Partial Design Vs Total Design

engineering discipline (economics,

 The process through which a product is designed from

Problem identification Specifications

Conceptual design Concepts

Embodiment design Layouts

Detail design Drawings

~ 95% of cost incurred

• Although design costs are very little in terms of the overall

• The conventional concept of product quality : inspect the