VIVEKANANDHA

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING FOR WOMEN

[AUTONOMOUS]

COMMON FOR ALL DEPARTMENTS

(EEE, ECE, IT, CSE & Biotech)

LAB MANUAL

SUBJECT CODE: U13GE203

SUBJECT NAME: ENGINEERING PRACTICES LABORATORY

GROUP B (ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS)
 ENGINEERING PRACTICES LABORATORY
GROUP B (ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS)

To provide exposure to the students with hands on experience on various basic

Objective
engineering practices in Electrical and Electronics Engineering.

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING PRACTICE

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS:
1. Residential house wiring using switches, fuse, indicator, lamp and energy meter.
2. Fluorescent lamp wiring.
3. Stair case wiring
4. Measurement of electrical quantities – voltage, current, power & power factor in RLC
Circuit.
5. Measurement of energy using single phase energy meter.
6. Measurement of resistance to earth of electrical equipment.

ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING PRACTICE

1. Study of Electronic components and equipments – Resistor, colour coding measurement
of AC signal parameter (peak-peak, rms period, frequency) using CRO.
2. Study of logic gates AND, OR, EOR and NOT.
3. Generation of Clock Signal.
4. Soldering p r a c t ic e – Components Devices and Circuits – Using g e n e r a l purpose PCB.
5. Measurement of ripple factor of HWR and FWR.
References
Jeyachandran.K, Natarajan.S. & Balasubramanian.S.,“A Primer on Engineering Practices
1.
Laboratory”, Anuradha Publications, (2007).
Jeyapoovan T., Saravanapandian M. & Pranitha S., “Engineering Practices Lab Manual”,
2.
Vikas Puplishing House Pvt.Ltd, (2006)
3. Bawa H.S., “Workshop Practice”, Tata McGraw – Hill Publishing Company Limited, (2007).
4. Rajendra Prasad A. & Sarma P.M.M.S., “Workshop Practice”, Sree Sai Publication, (2002).
5 Kannaiah P. & Narayana K.L., “Manual on Workshop Practice”, Scitech Publications, (1999).
 CIRCUIT SYMBOLS FOR ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS

S.NO COMPONENTS SYMBOLS

1.
Direct current

2.
Alternative current

3.
Resistor

4.
Variable Resistor

5.
Inductor

6.
Capacitor

7.
Variable Capacitor

8.
Fuse

9.
Main Switch Light

10.
Main Switch Power
11.
Meter

12.
One Way Switch

13.
Two Way Switch

14.
Lamp

15.
Single Tube Light

16.
Double Tube Light

17.
Bell

18.
Horn

19.
Buzzer

20.
Siren

21.
Ceiling fan
22.
Fan regulator

23.
Earth

24.
Bracket fan

25.
Exhaust fan

26.
Heater

27.
Fire alarm fuse

28.
Fire alarm bell

29.
Two pin socket with switch

30. Three pin socket with switch

31. Single phase alternating current

32. Single phase alternating current

33. Neutral

34. Generator

35. Motor

36. Alternator

37. AC motor

38. Two pin socket

39. Three pin socket

40. Choke

41. Cell
42.
Battery

43.
DC voltmeter

44.
DC ammeter

45.
DC/AC ammeter

46.
Wattmeter

47.
Ohm meter

48.
Energy meter

49.
Lamp

50.
Wire

51.
Wires joined

52. Wires not joined

53. DPSTS

54. Reversing Switch

55. Relay

56. Capacitor polarized

57. Variable Capacitor

58. Trimmer Capacitor

59. Diode

60. LED Light Emitting Diode

61. Zener Diode

62. Transistor NPN

63. Transistor PNP

64. Phototransistor

65. Galvanometer

66. Oscilloscope

67. Ohmmeter

68. Microphone

69. Aerial (Antenna)

70. Amplifier (general symbol)

71. Piezo Transducer

72. Loudspeaker
73. Earphone

74. Thermistor

75. LDR

76. NOT

77. AND

78. OR

79. EXOR

80. NOR

81. NAND

82. EXNOR
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Ex No:
Date :

RESIDENTIAL HOUSE WIRING USING SWITCHES, FUSE,

INDICATOR, LAMP
1 .a ) ONE LAMP CONTROLLED BY ONE WAY SWITCH

AIM:

To construct a wiring for one lamp controlled by using one way switch.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO COMPONENTS RANGE QUANTITY

1. One way switch 5A 1
2. Lamp holder - 1
3. Lamp 60W 1
4. Switch box 4”*4” 1
5. Junction box 1
-
(one way)
6. T-bend - 1
7. Clamp - 1
8. 1/8 wire-3m - 1
9. Screw - 1
10. Insulating tape - 1
11. Connecting Wire - As Required

TOOLS REQUIRED:

1. Screw driver : 6”
2. Pocker : 1
3. Insulator cutting plier : 6”
4. Wooden hammer : 1

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS:

 Ensure that the power is switched off or not before connections are being made.
 Make sure that the fuse is connected in phase sheet select the correct current
rating of wires.
LAYOUT DIAGRAM:
PROCEDURE:

 The wiring diagram of the one lamp controlled by one way switch was drawn one
the wiring chalk and scale.
 The PVC pipe of required length and pipe fittings are taken and fixed in the
wiring board.As per the wiring diagram using clamp and screw.
 The wires of required guage,colours are chosen and the wiring is being made
through PVC.
 The lamp holder and switch are fixed in the corresponding location.
 Using red colour wire the phase line was given the lamp through one way switch.
 The other point of the lamp is being connected to neutral line using black wire.
 The terminal of the red and black wires are connected to main switch.
 The power supply was given to the circuit and the lamp was being made to glow
by operating the switch.

RESULT:

The wiring of one lamp controlled by one lamp controlled by one way switch was
constructed and operated successfully.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
 1.b) TWO LAMP CONTROLLED BY USING TWO ONE WAY SWITCH

AIM:

Construct a wiring for two lamp controlled by using two switch [one way].

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO COMPONENTS RANGE QUANTITY

1. One way switch 5A 2
2. Lamp holder 240V,6V 2
3. Lamp 60W 2
4. Switch box 4”11*4”11 2
5. PVC pipe -------- --------
6. Junction box One way 2
7. T-bend -------- 2
8. Clamp -------- 5
9. Screw -------- Required
10. Insulating tape - 1
11. Connecting Wire - As Required

TOOLS REQUIRED:

1. Screw driver -6” : 1

2. Poker : 1
3. Insulating cutting plier 6” : 1
4. Wooden hammer : 1

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS:

 Ensure that the power is switched off or not before connections are being made.
 Make sure that the fuse is connected in phase sheet select the correct current
rating of wires.
LAYOUT DIAGRAM:
PROCEDURE:

 The wiring diagram of two lamp controlled by two way switches was drawn on the
wiring board using clamps.
 The PVC pipe of required length and pipe fitting were taken and tired on the board as
per the diagram using screws.
 The lamp holder and switches were fixed in the corresponding location.
 Using red color wire the phase line was given to the two lamps using one way
switches.
 The other points of the bulbs were being connected to the neutral line using black
wire.
 The terminals of the red and black wires are connected to main switch.
 The power supply was given to the circuit and it glow bright.

RESULT:
The wiring of the two lamps in parallel controlled by single switch was constructed and
operated successfully.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Ex No:
Date :
FLUORESCENT LAMP WIRING

AIM:

To construct a flourescent lamp wiring using the given components.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO COMPONENTS QTY

1 Tube light frame 1
2 Tube light holder 2
3 Choke 1
4 Starter 1
5 Tube light 1
6 Wires Req
7 Insulating tape 1

TOOLS REQUIRED:

1. Screw driver : 1
2. lnsulated cutting plier 6” : 1.
3. Wooden hammer : 1

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS:

 Ensure that the power is switched off or not before connections are being made.
 Make sure that the fuse is connected in phase sheet select the correct current
rating of wires
PROCEDURE:

 The wire diagram of the fluroscent lamp controlled by one way switches drawn
on the wiring board.
 The pvc pipe of the required length and pipe fittings were taken and fixed in the
wiring board as per the wiring diagram using clamp and screw.
 The wire of required gauge and the wiring is being made through the pvc contact.
 The bulb holder and switch were fixed in corresponding location.
 The bulb holder consists of two points on either side.
 The sound point of the bulb holder located on either side is being short circuited
through starter.
 The first point of one side of the bulb holder was connected to the phase line
through one way switch and choke.
 The first point of other end of the bulb holder was connected with neutral line.
 The phase and neutral wires were connected to main switch.
 The power supply was given to the circuit and the bulb was made to glow by
operating switch.

RESULT:

The wiring of fluorescent lamp was constructed and operated successfully.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Ex No:
Date :
STAIR- CASE WIRING
AIM:

To construct the wiring for one lamp controlled by using two switches (two way)

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO COMPONENTS RANGE QUANTITY

1 Two way switch 5A 2
2 Lamp holder 240,6A 1
3 Lamp 60W 1
4 Switch box 4”*4” 2
5 PVC pipe - Required no’s
6 Junction box One way 1
7 T-bend - 2
8 L-bend - 1
9 Screw - Required no’s
10 Wires 1/18 Required no’s

TOOLS REQUIRED:

1. Screw driver -6” : 1

2. Pocker : 1
3. Insulation cutting plier-6” : 1
4. Wooden hammer : 1

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS:

 Ensure that the power is switched off or not before connections are being made.
 Make sure that the fuse is connected in phase sheet select the correct current
rating of wires
LAYOUT DIAGRAM:
INDIRECT CONNECTION
PROCEDURE:
  The wire diagram of one of the controlled by two one-way switches was drawn on
the wiring board using chalk and the scale.
 The wires of required length and pipe fittings were taken and time in the wiring
board as per the wiring diagram using clamp and the screw.
 The wire of required guage and colour was choosen wiring is being made through
the pvc contact.
 The bulb holder and switches was fixed in a corresponding location.
 The two way switch have three terminals the middle point of I switch was
connected to one end of the bulb.
 The other point of the bulb being connected to the neutral like using black wire.
 The terminal of the red,black wires was connected to main switch.
 The power supply was given to the circuit and the bulb was being made close by
operation switch.

DIRECT CONNECTION
RESULT:

The stair-case wiring was constructed and operated successfully

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Ex No:
Date :
 MEASUREMENT OF ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES –
VOLTAGE, CURRENT, POWER & POWER FACTOR
IN RLC CIRCUIT.

AIM:

To measure the Voltage, Current ,Power & Power factor consumed by the
resisitive load using Voltmeter,Ammeter & Wattmeter respectively.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO COMPONENTS RANGE QUANTITY

1. Wattmeter 300V,10A,UPF 1

2. Voltmeter (0-300)V 1

3. Ammeter (0-10)A 1

4. Variac (0-270V / 10A) 1

5. Resistive load 230V,2.7KW 1

Connecting Wire - As Required
6.

FORMULA USED:

POWER = V* I Watts
Where,
V is voltmeter reading in volts
I is ammeter reading in amperes

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS:
Before switch on the supply
i)Load rheostat should be kept at off condition
ii)The wattmeter readings should be checked for power value

TABULATION:
 Multiplication Factor:

Wattmeter reading
Voltmeter Ammeter (Watts) Apparent
P.F =
S.No reading reading Actual Power
Observed (W/VI)
(Volts) (Amps) value (V * I)
Value (W)
(W)

PROCEDURE:

 Connections are given as per the circuit diagram.

  Switch on the single phase AC supply.
 Load is varied gradually in each step. The ammeter, voltmeter and wattmeter
readings are tabulated and power factor is calculated.

MODEL CALCULATION:
RESULT:

Thus the Voltage, Current ,Power & Powerfactor consumed by the resistive load
was measured and calculated.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Ex No:
Date :

MEASUREMENT OF ENERGY USING SINGLE PHASE

ENERGY METER.

AIM:

To measure the energy using single phase energy meter at UPF load condition.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO COMPONENTS TYPE/RANGE QTY

1. Voltmeter MI/(0-300)V 1
2. Ammeter MI/(0-10)A 1
3. Stop clock - 1
4. Energy meter - 1
5. Watt meter 300V,10A,UPF 1
6. Lamp load - 1

FORMULA:

Energy meter specification = 3200 imp/kwhr

3200 imp = 1 kwhr
1 imp = ( 1 kwhr ) / 3200
= (3600*1000) / 3200
= 1125 watt sec
For UPF conditions
Power calculated from energy meter reading = 1125 / Time for 3 imp

% Error = [( Power calculated from energy meter reading - Wattmeter reading) ] * 100

Wattmeter reading

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS:

1. There should be no load at the time of starting.

2. The connections must be made proper for UPF.
TABULATION:
Multiplication Factor:

Wattmeter Reading Power

Voltmeter Ammeter (Watts) Time for from
S.No Reading Reading 3 energy % Error
Observed Actual
(Volts) (Amps) impulse meter
Value Value
(Watts)

Energy meter constant: s

PROCEDURE:

 The connections are given as per the circuit diagram.

 The DPST switch is closed and the supply is effected and the load is adjusted to
full load value.
 The time taken for 10revolutions of the aluminium disc in the energy meter is
noted.
 The error is calculated if it is more than +- 3% the brake magnet is adjusted such
that the error is within +- 3%.
 The load is reduced in steps and for each step the step3 is repeated and the %
error is calculated.
MODEL CALCULATION:
RESULT:
Thus the given single phase energy meter was used to measure the energy
consumed at UPF load conditions and the error curve was drawn successfully.
Ex No:
Date :
MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE TO EARTH OF
ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT

AIM:

To measure the earth resistance of the given electrical equipment(transformer).

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO APPARATUS DESCRIPTION QUANTITY

1. Transformer 230V,50Hz 1No
2. Megger ∞ to ─ ∞ 1No
3. Fuse 15A 1No
4. DPST ─ 1No

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS:

1. DPST – Switch should be kept open.

2. Megger – Should read zero value.
PROCEDURE:

 Connections are given as per the circuit diagram

 The DPST should kept open .

 Supply the desired voltage to megger for its operations for one minute. (either by
its operations for hand megger or through external source for power megger).
 Take the readings of megger.
 Repeat step 3 for at least five times take the average value .The average value
gives the earth resistance of the given equipment(Transformer).

RESULT:
Thus the earth resistance of the given electrical equipment (Transformer) was
found by using Megger.
RESISTOR COLOUR CODING:

RESISTOR STANDARD COLOUR CODE TABLE:

Colour Value Digit Multiplier Tolerance

Black 0
0 x10
Brown 1
1 x10 ±1%
Red 2
2 x10 ±2%
Orange 3
3 x10
Yellow 4
4 x10
Green 5
5 x10 ±0.5%
Blue 6
6 x10 ±0.25%
Violet 7
7 x10 ±0.1%
Grey 8
8 x10 ±0.05%
White 9
9 x10
Gold -1
x10 ±5%
Silver -2
x10 ±10%
None ±20%
Ex No:
Date :

1. a) STUDY OF ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS AND EQUIPMENTS –

RESISTOR, COLOUR CODING

AIM:
To study the electronic components and equipments – resistor, colour coding
THEORY:

Electronic components are divided into types

1. Active component
2. passive component

S.NO ACTIVE COMPONENT PASSIVE COMPONENT

1. Active components are non-linear.
2. The character of the signal changes
when they pass through these
components.
3. These components deliver power.
Eg.
Transistor,diode,SCR,FET,UJT,MOSFET
Passive components are linear.
The character of signal does not
changes when they pass through
these
components.
Passive components consumes
power.
Eg. Resistors,capacitors,and
inductors.

RESISTOR:

It is a electronic passive component.It’s used to control the flow of current and to get
required voltage drops in required places.The symbol of the resistor is ‘R’ the unit is ‘Ohm’.

Ohm:Ohm is defined as the amount of resistance that allows one ampere of current to flow when
one volt potential is applied.
Resistors are classified into two types
1.Fixed resistor
2.variable resistor

COLOUR CODING OF RESISTOR:

Colour coding is a system of colour used to indicate the electrical resistance value of a
component.In this,four colour bands are printed on the resistance body.There are four colour
bands 1,2,3 and 4.The first two bands (1 and 2) denotes the first and second digits of the
resistance value and third band (3) indicates how many zeroes follow the first two digits.The
fourth band (4) danotes the tolerance.

Colour/order 1st order 2nd order

of band First digit Second digit
Black 0 0
Brown 1 1
Red 2 2
Orange 3 3
Yellow 4 4
Green 5 5
Blue 6 6
Violet 7 7
Grey 8 8
White 9 9
Gold - -
Silver - -

RESULT:
Thus the electronic components and equipments – resistor, colour coding was
studied
AC WAVEFORM:

Fig.1.Wave form with amplitude ,peak-peak voltage and time period

Fig.2.Wave form with peak voltage & RMS voltage

1.b) MEASUREMENT OF AC SIGNAL PARAMETER (PEAK-PEAK, RMS
PERIOD, FREQUENCY) USING CRO.

AIM:
To measure peak, rms, peak to peak, period and frequency of an alternating quantity
(sinusoidal voltage) by using CRO.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

S.NO NAME OF THE APPARATUS RANGE QUANTITY

1 CRO - 1

2 Function Generator - 1

3 Connecting wires - As required

THEORY:
AC FUNDAMENTALS:
Alternating quantity:
A quantity in which the magnitude and direction change with respect to time is called an
alternating quantity. Exanple: sinusoidal quantity

Cycle:
One complete set of changes in magnitude and direction of any alternating quantity is
called a cycle.

Period:
Time taken by an alternating quantity to complete one cycle is called period. Its unit is
seconds.

Frequency:
The number of cycles completed by an alternating quantity per second is called
frequency. Its unit is Hertz.

Instantaneous value:
The value of an alternating quantity at any instant is called an instantaneous value.
 TABULATION:

No. of No. of Voltage Time Peak Peak - RMS Time Frequency

S. divisions divisions base base value Peak value Period (Hertz)
No in X-axis in Y-axis reading reading (Volt) Value (Volt) ( milli
of CRO of CRO (Volt) ( milli (Volt) Sec)
monitor monitor Sec)

CALCULATION:
Frequency =1/ time period
Vrms = 0.7 × Vpeak
Irms = Imax x 0.707
Where I1, I2 , I3……. In are the instantaneous value of an alternating current .
I max is the peak value of the alternating current.
Peak value or amplitude:
The maximum value that an alternating quantity attains during a cycle is called peak
value or Amplitude. There are positive and negative peak values. The magnitude between these
two peaks is called peak-peak value.

Average value:
It is a DC quantity which transfers the same charge as that of an alternating quantity in a
circuit for a given time.
Vav = (V1 +V2 +V3……. Vn) / n
Where V1,V2 ,V3 ……. Vn are instantaneous value of the sinusoidal voltage.
Vav is average or DC voltage of the sinusoidal voltage.

Root mean square value (RMS):

It is that value of direct current which when flows through the given circuit for a
given amount of time produces same heat as that of an alternating current flowing through the
same circuit for the same amount of time .It is also called as effective or virtual value .
RMS value of an alternating current can be determined as
Irms =√ (I21 +I22 +I23……. I2n) / n

PROCEDURE:
1. Output of the function generator is connected to one of the channels of CRO through a probe.
2. AC supply to CRO is switched ON.
3. CRO is kept in dual mode and ground knobs in the two channels are enabled.
4. Focus and intensity knobs in CRO are suitably adjusted to observe both the ground signals. If
there is any problem in tracing the signal position X and Y position knobs are suitably adjusted.
5. Function generator is switched on. Sinusoidal quantity is chosen as the output signal.
6. Amplitude of the sinusoidal quantity is varied and maintained at a particular value
7. Frequency of the sinusoidal quantity is varied and maintained at a particular value.
8. The sinusoidal output of function generator is observed using CRO by enabling AC knob and
disabling ground knob in the channel to which function generator is connected.
9. Peak value and peak-peak values of the sinusoidal wave can be calculated as the product of
number of divisions in Y-axis of CRO monitor and value of the voltage in the voltage base knob.
10.Number of divisions in X axis of CRO is monitored and value of the time in the time base
knob is noted.
11.Time period of the sinusoidal wave is obtained by multiplying the number of divisions in X
axis of CRO and value of the time in the time base knob.
12. Reciprocal of the time period is the frequency of the sinusoidal waveform. Frequency can
also be checked by noting the digital value in the function generator.
13. RMS voltage of the sinusoidal wave is obtained by multiplying the peak voltage with 0.707.

RESULT
Thus peak, rms, peak to peak values, time period and frequency of a sinusoidal voltage
waveform is observed and measured by using CRO.
AND Gate Truth Table IC7408 AND Gate

OR Gate Truth Table IC7432 OR Gate

NOT Gate Truth Table IC7404 NOT Gate

Ex No:
Date :

STUDY OF LOGIC GATES AND, OR, EXOR AND NOT.

AIM:
To study the truth tables of various logic gates.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No Component Name Part No/Range Quantity in Nos

1. AND Gate IC 7408 1
2. OR Gate IC 7432 1
3. NOT Gate IC 7404 1
4. NOR Gate IC 7402 1
5. EXOR Gate IC 7486 1
6. IC Trainer Kit - 1
7. Connecting Wires - As required

THEORY:

LOGIC gates are a circuit with one or more input signal but only one output signal. The
common logic gates are OR, AND,NOT,NOR & EX-OR gates

a. AND gate:

An AND gate is the physical realization of logical multiplication operation. It is

an electronic circuit which generates an output signal of ‘1’ only if all the input signals
are ‘1’.
b. OR gate:

An OR gate is the physical realization of the logical addition operation. It is an

electronic circuit which generates an output signal of ‘1’ if any of the input signal is ‘1’.

c. NOT gate:

A NOT gate is the physical realization of the complementation operation. It is an

electronic circuit which generates an output signal which is the reverse of the input
signal. A NOT gate is also known as an inverter because it inverts the input.
NOR Gate Truth Table IC7402 NOR Gate

XOR Gate Truth Table IC7486 XOR Gate

 d. NOR gate:

A NOR gate is a complemented OR gate. The output of the OR gate will be ‘1’ if
all the inputs are ‘0’ and will be ‘0’ if any one of the input signal is ‘1’.

e. EX-OR gate:

An Ex-OR gate performs the following Boolean function,

A B = ( A . B’ ) + ( A’ . B )

It is similar to OR gate but excludes the combination of both A and B being equal to one.
The exclusive OR is a function that give an output signal ‘0’ when the two input signals
are equal either ‘0’ or ‘1’.

Procedure:
1. Connections are made as shown in the wiring diagram.
2. The input logic levels are applied from D.C. power supply and the corresponding output
logic level is checked through an LED.
3. Pin No.7 is connected to ground and pin No.14 is connected to +Vcc of +5V.
4. All possible input combinations and their corresponding outputs as per the truth table are
verified.

RESULT:
Thus the logic gates was studied and verified through the truth table.
Astable Operation:

Circuit diagram:
Ex No:
Date :
GENERATION OF CLOCK SIGNAL.

AIM:
To generate a clock signal using the IC 555 timer in Astable mode.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.NO. NAME OF THE APPARATUS TYPE/RANGE QUANTITY

1 Timer IC IC 555 1
2. Regulated power supply (0-30)V 1
2 DRB 1
3 DCB 1
4 RPS 1
5 CRO 1
6 Bread board 1
7 Connecting wires - As required

THEORY:

ASTABLE OPERATION:

 The timing resistor is split into two sections Ra and Rb. Pin 7 of discharging transistor T1
is connected to the junction of Ra and Rb.
 When the power supply Vcc is connected, the external timing capacitor C charges towards
Vcc with a time constant (Ra + Rb)C. During this time, the lower comparator will be in
positive saturation which in turn sets the control flip flop (i.e. Reset R=0, Set S=1), this
makes Q =0 Output (pin 3) goes high (equals V cc), which has unclamped the timing
capacitor C.
 When the capacitor voltage is just greater than (2/3)Vcc the upper comparator triggers to
positive saturation and resets the control flip flop(i.e. Reset R=1, Set S=0) so that Q =1.
This in turn, makes transistor T1 on and capacitor C starts discharging towards ground
through Rb and transistor T1 with a time constant RbC (neglecting the forward resistance
of T1).
Explanation of Each pin in IC 555

S.No. Pin Purpose

1 GND Ground, low level (Logic 0) ZERO VOLTS.

2 TR An input to one comparator in IC 555

3 Q Output.

A timing interval can be interrupted by applying a reset pulse. This

4 R
will reset Q(Q will be driven to 0)
Control voltage allows access to the internal voltage divider (2/3
5 CV
VCC)

6 THR An Input to another comparator in IC 555

Connected to a capacitor whose discharge time will influence the

7 DIS
timing interval

8 V+, VCC The positive external supply voltage, (5 to15 V)

Output voltage waveforms:

 Current also flows into transistor T1 through Ra. Resistors Ra and Rb must be large
enough to limit this current and prevent damage to the discharge transistor T1. The
minimum value of Ra is approximately equal to Vcc/0.2 where 0.2A is the maximum
current through the on transistor T1.
 During the discharge of the timing capacitor C, as it reaches just less than) Vcc/3, the
lower comparator is triggered and sets the control flip flop (i.e. Reset R=0, Set S=1),
which turns Q =0.

 Now Q =0 unclamps the external timing capacitor C.

 The capacitor C is thus periodically charged and discharged between (2/3) Vcc and (1/3)
Vcc respectively
The total time,
T = 0.69(Ra+2Rb)C
1.45
f
( Ra  2Rb )C
The duty cycle defined here as the ratio of the time the output is low as compared to the
total time period
t2 Rb
Duty cycle = 
T R a  2R b

Rb
Duty cycle %=  100
R a  2R b
Tabulation:
Time Period (ms)
Amplitude
Description
(V) Ton (ms) Toff(ms)

Output
Voltage

Capacitor
Voltage
Design of R1 , R2 and C to obtain clock pulse of desired frequency, ON and
OFF times:
According to the circuit operation, it is found that the output remains high for duration of
charge time equal to tH. In the astable mode of operation, clock pulse remains high (on)for the
duration given by

tH = 0.693(R1+R2)C --------- 1

In the astable mode of operation, clock pulse remains low (off) for the duration (equal to
discharge time) given by

tL = 0.693R2C -------- 2

where R1 and R2 are the values of the resistors in ohms and C is the value of the capacitor in
farads.

Time period of clock pulse T = tL+ tH

To get the clock pulse of a desired frequency f, time period T is calculated as

T =1/f
From T, tL and tH can be suitably fixed. Accordingly, the values of R1, R2 and C can be
calculated from equations 1 and 2.
For instance, let f = 100 KHz. T = 1/f = 10 s

T = tL+ tH = 10 s

If it is desired to have tL = 1 s and tH = 9 s, then from 2,

0.693R2C = 1  10-6

Let C = 0.001 F. Then R2 = 1  10-6/(0.6930.001 10-6) = 1443 ohms.

From 1, 0.693(R1+R2)C = 9 s

Substitution of R2 and C into the above will yield R1 as 1.15 ohms.

The designed values of R1 , R2 and C can be set using two DRBs and one DCB.
PROCEDURE:

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram after designing suitable values of R1, R2
and C for the desired clock frequency, ON and OFF times.

2. Pin.8 is connected to the supply.

3. Pin.3 is connected to the CRO for observing the output clock signal.

4. ON and OFF times are measured from CRO. Time period and frequency are then
calculated.

RESULT
Thus a clock signal using the IC 555 timer is generated in Astable mode.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Network diagram1:

Network diagram2:

TABULATION:

Effective resistances between A & B:

Network Theoretical value Practical value

1

2
Ex No:
Date :
SOLDERING PRACTICE

AIM:

To solder the given electric networks and determine the effective resistance of each
circuit.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.NO. COMPONENTS QUANTITY
1. Soldering iron 1
2. Soldering lead 1
3. Soldering flux 1
4. Soldering stand 1
5. General purpose PCB 1
Three different
6. Resistors
values

PROCEDURE:
1. Resistors of three different values are chosen.
2. Clean the given PCB Board.
3. Clean the tip of the soldering iron before heating.
4. Heat the soldering iron and apply the solder to the tip as soon as it is hot to melt on it.
5. Bend the resistor leads to fit in to the holes on the board and insert the resistors as per the
network-1 shown in the diagram.
6. Apply the hot tip to the joints and apply solder.
7. Remove the soldering tip and hold the resistor tightly until the solder has cooled and set.
8. Trim excess component lead with side cutter.
9. The above step is repeated for the second network diagram also.
10. Effective resistances between terminals A & B of both the networks are determined using
a Multimeter.
11. The above values are verified theoretically.
RESULT:
The given electric networks are soldered and effective resistances of two networks are
determined practically and verified theoretically.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Half Wave Rectifier:

MODEL GRAPH :
Half Wave Rectifier:
Exp.No:
Date:

MEASUREMENT OF RIPPLE FACTOR OF HWR AND FWR

AIM :
To design half wave and full wave rectifiers and to measure the ripple factor.
APPARATUS REQUIRED
SL.No Apparatus Required Type/range Quantity
1. Transformer (9-0-9)v 1
2. Resistor 1KΩ 1
3. Diode 1N4001 4
4. CRO 1
5. Bread board - 1
6. Connecting Wires Single Strand few

THEORY:
Half Wave Rectifier:
In a half wave rectifier only one diode is used in the secondary of the transformer, during
the positive half cycle the diode conducts and only the positive portion of the input signal is
delivered to the load. During the negative half cycle the diode will not conduct, since it is reverse
biased and there is no output delivered to the load.

Full Wave Rectifier Using Centre Tapped Transformer :

The full wave centre tapped rectifier uses two diodes connected to the secondary of
centre tapped transformer. The input voltage is coupled through the transformer to the centre
tapped secondary, half of the total secondary voltage appears between the centre tapped and each
end of the secondary winding. For a positive half cycle of the input voltage, the upper diode D1 is
forward biased and the lower diode D2 is reverse biased. The current path is through D1 and load
(RL), for negative half cycle of the input voltage the diode D1 is reverse biased and diode D2 is
forward biased. Now the current path is through diode (D2) and resistor (RL), because of output
current during both cycle is in same direction, the output voltage developed across the load
resistor is a full wave rectified voltage.
Full Wave Rectifier:

MODEL GRAPH:
Full Wave Rectifier:
CALCULATION
RMS value of voltage (Vrms) = Vm /√2
Average of dc voltage (VDC) =(2Vm) / π

Ripple factor(r) % = = Vac  100 or

Vdc
For half wave rectifier the ripple factor is given by r  Vrms  100  0.385Vm  100
Vdc 0.318Vm
For full wave rectifier the ripple factor is given by r  Vrms  100  0.308Vm  100
Vdc 0.636Vm
Half wave rectifier

The RMS voltage is given by V rms  Vm

2
The average dc voltage for half wave rectified output is Vdc = Vm / ∏
The ripple factor is calculated as Vac 2  Vrms 2  Vdc 2

Therefore ripple factor(r) % = Vac  100

Vdc
Full wave Rectifier

The RMS voltage is given by Vrms  Vm

2
The average dc voltage for half wave rectified output is Vdc= (2Vm) / ∏
The ripple factor is calculated as Vac 2  Vrms 2  Vdc 2

Therefore ripple factor(r) % = Vac  100

Vdc

Full Wave Bridge Rectifier

The full wave bridge rectifier uses four diodes, when the input cycle is + ve, the diode D2
& D3 are forward biased and conducts current , the voltage is developed across RL which is the
+ve half of the input cycle during this time D1 & D4 are reverse biased. When input cycle is –ve
the diodes D1 & D4 are forward biased and conducts current in same direction through RL as
during +ve cycle. During –ve half diode D2 & D3 are reverse biased, so a full wave rectifier
output appears occurs the RL as a result of this action.
Bridge Rectifier

TABULATION
% of Ripple factor
Rectifier type
Theoretical value Practical value

Half wave
121

Full wave or bridge

48

Note
CRO displays the peak-peak voltage.
Multimeter displays the RMS voltage.
DC Voltmeter displays the Average dc voltage.
PROCEDURE

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram, with correct polarity provision given to
the circuit from the transformer.
2. The Peak voltage (Vm) is noted and the corresponding % of ripple factor(r) is calculated
and compared with theoretical calculation.

RESULT

Thus half wave and full wave rectifier is designed, ripple factor is measured and output is
verified.
 ELECTRICAL
ENGINEERING
PRACTICE
ELECTRONICS
ENGINEERING
PRACTICE