Different Modes of

UNIT 2 DIFFERENT MODES OF HEAT Heat Transfer

TRANSFER
Structure
2.1 Introduction
Objectives
2.2 Conduction
2.2.1 Heat Conduction through a Plane Wall
2.2.2 Resistance Concept
2.2.3 Composite Walls
2.2.4 Contact Resistance
2.2.5 Thermal Conductivity
2.2.6 Heat Conduction through a Cylinder
2.2.7 Heat Conduction through a Sphere
2.2.8 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
2.2.9 Thermal Insulation
2.2.10 Critical Radius of Insulation
2.3 Convection
2.4 Radiation
2.5 Combined Heat Transfer Mechanism
2.6 Comparison of Conduction, Convection and Radiation
2.7 Summary
2.8 Key Words
2.9 Answers to SAQs

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Present unit is devoted to the three modes of heat transfer. Application of Fourier’s law
of heat conduction for calculation of heat flow in some simple one dimensional systems
such as plane wall, cylinder and sphere are discussed in details. Some important aspects
associated with conduction heat transfer, such as, thermal insulation, contact resistance,
etc. are described in this unit. More exposure is given to convection and radiation heat
transfer.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
• find heat transfer rate from a plane wall, cylinder or a sphere,
• recognize the importance of thermal conductivity,
• identify insulating materials and thickness of insulation calculation,
• estimate convective and radiative heat transfer and combined heat transfer
due to the presence of all mode of heat transfer, and
• appreciate the difference between the different modes of heat transfer.

2.2 CONDUCTION
An introduction to the conduction heat transfer and the mechanism involved was
introduced in Unit 1 (Section 1.4.1). Fourier’s law associated with conduction heat
transfer is phenomenological. This implies that it is developed from observed phenomena
27
Introduction to Heat rather than being derived from first principles. Hence, we view the rate equation as a
and Mass Transfer generalization based on much experimental evidence.
Consider the steady-state conduction through a cylindrical rod as shown in Figure 2.1.
The rod is insulated on its lateral surface, while its end faces are maintained at different
temperatures, with T1 > T2. We assume that the material properties of the rod are known.
The temperature difference causes conduction heat transfer in the positive x direction.

A, T1 ΔT=T1 - T2 T2

qx

Δx
x

Figure 2.1 : Steady State Heat Conduction through a Cylindrical Rod

We are able to measure the heat transfer rate qx, and we seek to determine how qx
depends on the following variables : ΔT, the temperature difference; Δx, the rod length;
and A, the cross-sectional area.
We might imagine the following :

(a) Consider that both the ΔT and Δx are constant and A is a variable. If we do
so, we find that qx is directly proportional to A.

(b) Similarly, holding ΔT and A constant, we observe that qx varies inversely

with Δx.

(c) We can also assume that both the A and Δx are constant, we find that qx is
directly proportional to ΔT.
The collective effect is then

ΔT
qx ∝ A . . . (2.1)
Δx
In changing the material (e.g. from a metal to a plastic), we would find that the above
proportionality remains valid. However, we would also find that, for equal values of A,
Δx, and ΔT, the value of qx would be smaller for the plastic than for metal. This suggests
that the proportionality may be converted to an equality by introducing a coefficient that
is a measure of the material behavior. Hence, we write

ΔT
q x = − kA . . . (2.2)
Δx
where k, the thermal conductivity (W/m.K), is an important property of the material.
Evaluating this expression in the limit as Δx → 0, we obtain for the heat rate

dT
qx = − kA . . . (2.3)
dx
or for the heat flux

qx dT
q′′x = =−k . . . (2.4)
A dx

28
As mentioned in Unit 1, the minus sign is necessary because heat is always transferred in Different Modes of
the direction of decreasing temperature. Heat Transfer

Fourier’s law, as written in Eq. (2.2), implies that the heat flux is a directional quantity.
In particular, the direction of q′′x is normal to the cross-sectional area A. or, more
generally, the direction of heat flow will always be normal to a surface of constant
temperature, called an isothermal surface. Figure 2.2 illustrates the direction of heat flow
dT
q′′x in a plane wall for which the temperature gradient is negative. From
dx
Eq. (2.2), it follows that q′′x is positive. Note that the isothermal surfaces are planes
normal to the x direction.

T(x)

T1

q”x

T2

Figure 2.2 : Heat Transfer through a Plane Wall

Recognizing that the heat flux is a vector quantity, we can write a more general statement
of the conduction rate equation (Fourier’s law) as follows :
⎛ ∂T ˆ ∂T ∂T ⎞
q′′ = − k ∇T = − k ⎜ iˆ + j + kˆ ⎟ . . . (2.5)
⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎠
where ∇ is the three-dimensional del operator and T (x, y, z) is the scalar temperature
field. It is implicit in Eq. (2.3) that the heat flux vector is in a direction perpendicular to
the isothermal surfaces. An alternative form of Fourier’s law is therefore,
∂T
qn′′ = − k . . . (2.6)
∂n
where q′′x is the heat flux in a direction n, which is normal to an isothermal, as shown for
the two-dimensional case in Figure 2.3.
qy” qn”

qx ”
y

n x
Isotherm

Figure 2.3 : Heat Flux Vector Normal to an Isotherm in a 2-D Coordinate System

The heat transfer is sustained by a temperature gradient along n. Note also that the heat
flux vector can be resolved into components such that, in Cartesian coordinates, the
general expression for q′′ is
q′′ = i q′′x + j q′′y + k q′′z . . . (2.7)

where, from Eq. (2.5), it follows that 29

Introduction to Heat ∂T
and Mass Transfer q′′x = − k . . . (2.8)
∂x
∂T
q′′y = − k
∂y
∂T
q′′z = − k
∂z
Each of these expressions relates the heat flux across a surface to the temperature
gradient in a direction perpendicular to the surface. It is also implicit in Eq. (2.5) that the
medium in which the conduction occurs is isotropic. For such a medium the value of the
thermal conductivity is independent of the coordinate direction.
Fourier’s law is the cornerstone of conduction heat transfer, and its key features are
summarized as follows :
(a) It is not an expression that may be derived from first principles; it is instead
a generalization based on experimental evidence.
(b) It is an expression that defines an important material property, the thermal
conductivity.
(c) In addition, Fourier’s law is a vector expression indicating that the heat flux
is normal to an isotherm and in the direction of decreasing temperature.
(d) Finally, note that Fourier’s law applies for all matter, regardless of its state
(solid, liquid, or gas).
2.2.1 Heat Conduction through a Plane Wall
For the simple case of steady-state one-dimensional heat flow through plane wall
(Figure 2.4), the temperature gradient and the heat flow do not vary with time, so from
Eq. (2.4),
L& T2
dT
q′′x ∫ dx = − k ∫ dx
. . . (2.9)
0 T1

Physical System

T1 = Thot
Tx
qk

T2 = Tcold

Figure 2.4 : Steady State Conduction through a Plane Wall

where the temperature at the left face (x = 0) is uniform at T1 and the temperature at the
right face (x = L) is uniform at T2.
If k is independent of T, we obtain after integration of Eq. (2.9)
T1 − T2
q′′x = k . . . (2.10)
L
ΔT
or, q′′x = k . . . (2.11)
L
If A is the surface area normal to heat flow, then the rate of heat transfer in Watt is
30
 ΔT Different Modes of
Q&x = kA . . . (2.12) Heat Transfer
L
dT q′′ dT
Since, = − x , for the same qx, if k is low (i.e. for an insulator), will be large,
dx k dx
i.e. there will be large temperature difference across the wall, and if k is high (i.e. for a
dT
conductor), will be small, or there will be a small temperature difference across the
dx
wall (Figure 2.5).
L

T1

T2

L
R= Q
kA

Q
T1 T2
Figure 2.5 : Thermal Resistance Offered by a Plane Wall
2.2.2 Resistance Concept
Heat flow has an analogy to flow of electricity. Ohm’s law states that the current i
flowing through a wire (Figure 2.6) equal to the voltage potential E1 – E2, divided by the
electrical resistance Re
Thermal Circuit
qk

T1 T2

L
Rk =
Ak

Electrical Circuit
i

E1 E2

Re
Figure 2.6 : Analogy Between Thermal and Electrical Circuits Corresponding to Figure 2.4
E1 − E2
or I= . . . (2.13)
Re
Since the temperature difference and heat flux in conduction are similar to the potential
difference and electric current respectively, the rate of heat conduction through the wall
Eq. (2.12) can be written as
T − T2 T1 − T2
Q= 1 = . . . (2.14)
L Rc
kA
L
where Rc = is the conductive thermal resistance to heat flow offered by the wall. 31
kA
Introduction to Heat Again electrical resistance is related to the specific resistance as
and Mass Transfer
l
Re = ρ . . . (2.15)
A
where ρ is the specific resistance (Ω.m), l is the length of the conductor and A is the
cross-sectional area of the conductor. Eq. (2.13) can be written as
E1 − E2 E − E2 dE
I= = σA 1 = σA . . . (2.16)
l l dl
ρ
A
I dE
or, i= =−σ . . . (2.17)
A dl
1 dE
where σ = is the electrical conductivity and is the potential gradient. The
ρ dl
reciprocal of the thermal resistance is referred to as thermal conductance, KC defined by
kA
KC = . . . (2.18)
L
k
The ratio is the thermal conductance per unit area.
L
Concept of resistance is very useful for analysis of conduction heat transfer problems,
particularly for composite systems.
2.2.3 Composite Walls
In industrial heat transfer problems one is often concerned with conduction through walls
made up of layers of various materials, each with its own thermal conductivity. We can
establish how various resistances to heat transfer are combined into a total resistance.
The composite wall, as shown in Figure 2.7, has three materials of different thicknesses
L1, L2 and L3 with different thermal conductivity k1, k2 and k3, respectively.
Physical System

Material 1 Material 2 Material 3

K1 K2 K3

qk qk
qk

L1 L2 L3

Thermal Circuit

T1 T2 T3 T4

L1 L2 L3
R1 = R2 = R3 =
K1A K2A K3 A

Figure 2.7 : Heat Conduction Through Composite Walls

Wall 1 is in contact with a fluid at temperature T1. There are three resistances in series.
The rate of heat conduction is the same throughout the sections. The slope of the
temperature profile in each depends on the thermal conductivity k, the more will be the
32
slope and the higher is the temperature difference. The higher the k, the less will be the Different Modes of
slope and lower is the temperature difference. Heat Transfer

The total thermal resistance is

L1 L L
R = R1 + R2 + R3 = + 2 + 3 . . . (2.19)
k1 A k2 A k3 A

Now, the rate of heat conduction is

T1 − T4 T1 − T4
QC = = . . . (2.20)
R L1 L L
+ 2 + 3
k1 A k2 A k3 A

⎛ kA ⎞ ⎛ kA ⎞ ⎛ kA ⎞
Also QC = ⎜ ⎟ (T1 − T2 ) = ⎜ ⎟ (T2 − T3 ) = ⎜ ⎟ (T3 − T4 ) . . . (2.21)
⎝ L ⎠1 ⎝ L ⎠2 ⎝ L ⎠3
where T2 and T3 are the interface temperatures. The walls are assumed to be in good
thermal contact, with no contact resistance.
Conduction can occur in a wall with two different materials in parallel (Figure 2.8).
T1 T2

A1 k1

A qk

A2 k2

Physical System

Figure 2.8 : Conduction through Two Resistances in Parallel

If the temperature over the left and right faces are uniform at T1 and T2, the equivalent
thermal circuit is shown in Figure 2.9.
R1 = L
k1A 1

T1 T2

L
R2 =
k2A2

Thermal Circuit

Figure 2.9 : Thermal Circuit for Figure 2.8

The total resistance R is given by

1 1 1
= + . . . (2.22)
R R1 R2 33
Introduction to Heat R1 R2
and Mass Transfer or R= . . . (2.23)
R1 + R2
L L
where R1 = and R2 =
k1 A1 k2 A2
The rate of heat conduction is
T1 − T2 (T − T2 )
QC = = (k1 A1 + k2 A2 ) 1 . . . (2.24)
R L
Since heat is conducted through two separate parallel paths between the same
temperature difference,
T1 − T2 T1 − T2
QC = Q1 + Q2 = + . . . (2.25)
⎛ L ⎞ ⎛ L ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ kA ⎠1 ⎝ kA ⎠2
Example 2.1
Consider a conduction heat transfer problem through a complex composite
structure as shown in Figure 2.10. Here thermal resistances are both in series and
parallel (Figure 2.10). Total resistance of the system as a whole is
RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 + R5
= R1 + R3 + R5 + ( R2 + R4 ) . . . (2.26)

Section1 Section 2 Section 3

T1 Material 1 Material 2 Material 4

K1 K2 K4
qk

Material 3
K3 If K2 > K3
More Heat Flows Thru B:

2
L1 L2 = L3 L4

L
R2 = 2 1 4
k A
2 2
3
T1 qk Tx Ty qk T2

L4
R1 = L1 R4 =
Actual heat flow assumed as if heat flow is 1-D
k1A1 k4A4 and isothermal interfaces to yield the said result
L3
R3 =
k3 A3

Figure 2.10 : Heat Conduction Through Resistances in Series and Parallel

SAQ 1
(a) How does conduction occur in a composite wall with different materials put
in (i) series and (ii) parallel?
(b) How are Fourier’s law and Ohm’s law similar?
(c) Explain the resistance concept to illustrate the analogy of heat flow and the
flow of electricity.
2.2.4 Contact Resistance
Thermal contact resistance develops when two conducting surfaces do not fit tightly
together and a thin layer of fluid is trapped between them (Figure 2.11). This resistance is
primarily a function of surface roughness, the pressure holding the two surfaces in
34
contact. The interface fluid resistance and interface temperature. The direct contact Different Modes of
between the two solid surfaces, as shown in the expanded view (Figure 2.11), takes place Heat Transfer
at a limited number of spots, and the voids between them are usually filled with air or
surrounding fluid. Heat transfer through the fluid filling the voids is mainly by
conduction, since there is no convection in such a thin layer of fluid and the radiation
effects are negligible at normal temperatures.

Interface Fluid

2
qk

1 2

Expanded View
of Interface

Contact Interface

T
Temperature Drop
Through Contact
Ts1
Resistance = Δ T1

T1 contact

T2 contact Ts2
x

Figure 2.11 : Contact Resistance between Two Solid Bodies

If the heat flux through the two solid surfaces in contact is q′′ and the temperature
difference across the gap is Δ Ti ( = Ts1 − Ts 2 ) , the interface resistance Ri is defined by
ΔTi
Ri = . . . (2.27)
q′′
The effect of contact pressure on the thermal contact resistance between metal surfaces
under vacuum conditions is presented in Table 2.1. An increase in contact pressure can
reduce the contact resistance significantly.
Table 2.1 : Thermal Contact Resistance at different Contact Pressures
under Vacuum Conditions [1]
Resistance Ri Contact Resistance Ri (m2K/W)
Interface Material
Pressure (1 Bar) Contact Pressure (100 Bar)
Stainless steel 6-25 0.7-4.0
Copper 1-10 0.1-0.5
Magnesium 1.5-3.5 0.2-0.4
Aluminium 1.5-5.0 0.2-0.4

The interfacial fluid also affects the thermal resistance, as shown in Table 2.2. Putting a
viscous liquid like glycerin on the interface reduces the contact resistance 10 times with
respect to air at a given pressure. A thermally conducting liquid called a thermal grease
such as silicone oil is applied between the contact surfaces before they are pressed
against each other. This is commonly done when attaching electronic components such as
power transistors to heat sinks.
Table 2.2 : Thermal Contact Resistance for Aluminium-Aluminium Interface
with different Interfacial Fluids having 1 μm Surface Roughness
under 1 Bar Contact Pressure [1]
Interfacial Fluid Resistance Ri (m2 K/W)
35
Introduction to Heat Air 2.75 × 10– 4
and Mass Transfer
Helium 1.05 × 10– 4
Hydrogen 0.72 × 10– 4
Silicon oil 0.525 × 10– 4
Glycerin 0.265 × 10– 4

SAQ 2
(a) What do you understand by thermal contact resistance?
(b) What parameters does the contact resistance depend?
(c) Explain the effect of contact pressure on thermal contact resistance.

2.2.5 Thermal Conductivity

As defined by Fourier law (Eq. 2.3), the thermal conductivity is
q′′
k=− . . . (2.28)
dT
dx
This equation can be used to determine the thermal conductivity of a material. A layer of
solid material of known thickness and area can be heated from one side by an electric
resistance heater of known output. If the other surface of the heater is perfectly insulated,
all the heat generated by the resistance heater will be transferred through the material
whose conductivity is to be determined. Then measuring the two surface temperatures T1
and T2 of the layers of material when steady state has been reached, the thermal
conductivity can be estimated, as shown in Figure 2.12.

Insulation

k
T1 Sample
Material
Electric
Heater

T2
Insulation

Q = We

We

Insulation

L
k= Q&
A (T1 − T2 )

Figure 2.12 : Schematic Diagram of an Experimental Set Up to Determine

the Thermal Conductivity of a Material

For engineering purposes, the experimentally measured values of thermal conductivity

are generally used. These values can be predicted fairly well for gases with the help of
kinetic theory of gases. But in case of liquids and solids, theories are not adequate to
predict the thermal conductivity with sufficient accuracy.
36
Table 2.3 gives values of thermal conductivity for several materials. It may be noted that Different Modes of
pure metals are the best conductors and gases are the poorest one. Heat Transfer

Table 2.3 : Thermal Conductivity of Some Materials

Thermal Conductivity
Sl. No. Material at 300 K
(W/m.K)

1. Copper 396.00

2. Aluminium 238.00

Carbon steel,
3. 42.0
1% C

4. Glass 0.81

5. Plastics 0.2-0.3

6. Water 0.6

7. Ethylene Glycol 0.26

8. Engine oil 0.15

9. Freon (liquid) 0.07

10. Hydrogen 0.18

11. Air 0.026

The mechanism of thermal conduction in a gas can be explained on a molecular level

from basic concepts of the kinetic theory of gases. The kinetic energy (KE) of a molecule
is a function of temperature. Molecules in a high temperature region have higher KE and
hence higher velocities than those in a lower-temperature region. Since molecules are in
continuous random motion, as they collide with one another they exchange energy as
well as momentum. When a molecule moves from higher temperature region to a lower
temperature region, it transports KE from the
higher-to-lower temperature part of the system. Upon collision with slower molecules,
the faster molecules gives up some of its energy. In this manner thermal energy is
transferred from higher to lower temperature regions in gas by molecular motion.
The faster the molecules move, the faster they will transport energy. Thus, the transport
property called thermal conductivity depends on the temperature of the gas. At moderate
pressures the space between molecules is large compared to the size of a molecule.
Thermal conductivity of gases is therefore essentially independent of pressure (or
density). Figure 2.13 shows how the thermal conductivities of some typical gases vary
with temperature.
The basic mechanism of heat conduction in liquids is qualitatively similar to that in
gases. However, molecular conditions in liquids are more difficult to describe and details
of the conduction mechanisms in liquids are not well understood. The curves in Figure
2.14 show the thermal conductivity of some non-metallic liquids as a function of
temperature.
0
F
0 200 400 600 800 1000
0.5
0.3

0.4 37
0.2
ductivity K

0.3 H2
K)

B B
)
Introduction to Heat
and Mass Transfer

Figure 2.13 : Variation of Thermal Conductivity with Temperature for Gases

0
F
0 100 200 300 400 500

0.4
Water (Saturated Liquid)

0.6 0.3
Thermal Conductivity K
(W/mK)

0.4 0.2
Glycerin

0.2 Benzene 0.1

Light Oil

Freon 12

0 50 100 150 200 o

250 ( C)
273 323 373 423 473 523 (K)
Temperature

Figure 2.14 : Variation of Thermal Conductivity with Temperature for Liquids

For most liquids, the thermal conductivity decreases with temperature, but water is a
notable exception. Generally thermal conductivity of liquids decreases with increasing
molecular weight.
Solid materials consist of free electrons and atoms in a periodic lattice arrangement. Heat
can be conducted in a solid by two mechanisms :
(a) Migration of free electrons, and
(b) Lattice vibration.
These two effects are additive. But in general, the transport due to electrons is more
effective than the transport due to vibrational energy in the lattice structure. Since
electrons transport electric charge in a manner similar to the way in which they carry
thermal energy from higher to a lower temperature region, good electrical conductors are
also good heat conductors, whereas good electrical insulators are poor heat conductors.
In non-metallic solids there is little or no electronic transport and conductivity is
38 therefore determined primarily by lattice vibration. Thus, these materials have lower
thermal conductivities than metals. Thermal conductivities of some typical metals and Different Modes of
alloys are shown in Figure 2.15. Heat Transfer

Figure 2.15 : Variation of Thermal Conductivity with Temperature for Metals and Alloys

SAQ 3
(a) Define thermal conductivity.
(b) How does thermal conductivity vary with temperature for metals and alloys?
(c) How does thermal conductivity can be measured experimentally?

2.2.6 Heat Conduction through a Cylinder

Let us assume that the inside and outside surfaces of the cylinder (Figure 2.16) are
maintained at temperature T1 and T2, respectively (T1 > T2). Heat will be assumed to be
flowing under steady state condition only in the radial direction and there is no heat
conduction along the length or periphery of the cylinder. The rate of heat transfer through
the thin cylinder of thickness dr is given by
dT dT
Qk = − kA = − k (2 π r L) . . . (2.29)
dr dr
where L is the length of the cylinder.
T2 r2
Qk dr
Now, ∫ dT = − ∫ 2πkL r
. . . (2.30)
T1 r1

Qk r
or T2 − T1 = − ln 2 . . . (2.31)
2π k L r1

39
Introduction to Heat 2π k L (T1 − T2 )
and Mass Transfer Hence, Qk = . . . (2.32)
⎛r ⎞
ln ⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ r1 ⎠

r L
r2
r1 dr

q
T2
T1
In (r2 / r1 )
Rth =
2 πkL
Figure 2.16 : One Dimensional Heat Flow through a Hollow Cylinder with Electrical Analogy

Alternatively,
2π (r2 − r1 ) kL (T1 − T2 ) ( A − A1 ) (T1 − T2 ) T − T1
Qk = =k 2 = − k Alm 2 . . . (2.33)
⎛ 2π r2 L ⎞ ⎛A ⎞ r −r xw
(r2 − r1 ) ln ⎜ ⎟ ln ⎜ 2 ⎟ 2 1
⎝ 2π r1 L ⎠ ⎝ A1 ⎠
A2 − A1
where Alm = = log-mean area,
A
ln 2
A1

A2 = 2π r2 L = outside surface area,

A1 = 2π r1 L = inside surface area, and

xw = r2 − r1 = wall thickness of the cylinder.

The thermal resistance offered by the cylinder wall to radial heat conduction is
T2 − T1 x
Rk = = w . . . (2.34)
Qk kAlm

From Eq. (2.29),

Qk dr dr
dT = − = C1 . . . (2.35)
2π k L r r

T = C1 ln r + C2 . . . (2.36)

where C1 and C2 are constants to be evaluated from the conditions :

(a) when r = r1, T = T1
(b) r = r2, T = T2
Thus the temperature distribution along the radial direction of the cylinder is
40
 ⎡ ⎤ Different Modes of

T1 − T2 ⎢ T1 − T2 ⎥ Heat Transfer
T = ln r + ⎢T1 − . ln r1 ⎥ . . . (2.37)
r
ln 1 ⎢ r
ln 1 ⎥
r2 ⎢
⎣ r2 ⎥⎦

The temperature across the wall of the cylinder varies logarithmically with the radius.
For two concentric cylinders, the fitted one over the other, resistances are in series
(Figure 2.17).
q

q
r1 r2
T2 R1 T2 R2 T3 R3 T4
r3 T1
T1 T3
r4
1 T4 In (r2 / r1 ) In (r3 / r2 ) In (r4 / r3 )
2
3 2πk1 L 2πk2 L 2πk3 L

(a) (b)
Figure 2.17 : One Dimensional Heat Flow through Multiple Cylindrical Sections
and Electrical Analogy

xw1 xw2
R = R1 + R2 = + . . . (2.38)
k1 Alm1 k2 Alm 2

where xw1 = r2 − r1 , xw2 = r3 − r2

A2 − A1 2π (r2 − r1 ) L
Alm1 = = . . . (2.39)
A2 r
ln ln 2
A1 r1

A3 − A2 2π (r3 − r2 ) L
Alm 2 = = . . . (2.40)
A r
ln 3 ln 3
A2 r2

The rate of heat transfer will be

T1 − T3 T1 − T2 T2 − T3
Qk = = = . . . (2.41)
R R1 R2

From the above equation, the interface temperature T2 can be evaluated.

2.2.7 Heat Conduction through a Sphere
Consider a sphere as shown in Figure 2.18.
Heat flowing through a thin spherical strip of the sphere at radius r of thickness dr is
dT
Qk = − kA . . . (2.42)
dr

T2

dr 41
r1
r
B B

T1
B B

r2
B B
Introduction to Heat
and Mass Transfer

Figure 2.18 : Heat Conduction through a Sphere

where A is the spherical surface at radius r normal to heat flow
dT
Qk = − k (4π r 2 ) . . . (2.43)
dr
T2 r2
Qk dr
or ∫ dT = ∫ −
4π k r 2
. . . (2.44)
T1 r1

Qk ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
T2 − T1 = − ⎜ − ⎟ . . . (2.45)
4π k ⎝ r1 r2 ⎠
4π k (T1 − T2 ) r1 r2
or Qk = . . . (2.46)
(r2 − r1 )
T2 − T1
Qk = − k Agm . . . (2.47)
xw
1 1
where Agm = geometric mean area = ( A1 . A2 ) 2 = (4π r12 . 4π r22 ) 2 = 4π r1 r2
and xw = r2 − r1 = wall thickness of the sphere.
Here, thermal resistance offered by the wall to heat conduction is
xw
Rk = . . . (2.48)
k Agm
It is observed that thermal resistance for plane wall, cylinder and a sphere are similar
(Table 2.4).
Table 2.4 : Thermal Resistances for Different Geometry
Geometry Thermal Resistance
x
Flat plate Rk = w
kA
x
Cylinder Rk = w
kAlm

x
Sphere Rk = w
kAgm

2.2.8 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient

The problem largely encountered in engineering practice is heat being transferred
between two fluids of specified temperatures separated by walls (Figure 2.19). In such a
situation the surface temperatures are not known, but they can be calculated if the
convection heat transfer coefficients on both sides of the wall are known.

42

q
 Different Modes of
Heat Transfer

Figure 2.19 : Conduction Heat Transfer through a Slab with Convection at Boundaries

From the Figure 2.19 it is clear that there are three resistances in series.
1 x 1
R = R1 + R2 + R3 = + + . . . (2.49)
hc,1 A kA hc ,2 A

Th − Tc Th − Tc
Now, Qc = = = UA (Th − Tc ) . . . (2.50)
R ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ x ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ hc,1 A ⎠ ⎝ kA ⎠ ⎝ hc ,2 A ⎠
where U is known as the overall heat transfer coefficient (W/m2K) and is given by
1 1 x 1
= + + . . . (2.51)
UA hc,1 A kA hc,2 A

1 1 x 1
or = + + . . . (2.52)
U hc,1 k hc ,2

For a composite wall with three different layers in series

1 1 L L L 1
= + 1 + 2 + 3 + . . . (2.53)
UA hc , hot A k1 A k2 A k3 A hc, cold A

and Q = UA (Th − Tc ) . . . (2.54)

Similarly, heat transfer from a hot fluid inside a cylinder to the cold fluid outside
(Figure 2.20).

T0
h0
T1

kw
Th ro
r1 43
Introduction to Heat
and Mass Transfer

Figure 2.20 : Heat Flow through a Cylindrical Pipe with Cold Fluid Inside
and Hot Fluid Outside the Cylinder

Th − Tc Th − Tc
Qc = = = U o Ao (Th − Tc ) . . . (2.55)
R1 + R2 + R3 1 xw 1
+ +
hi Ai k w Alm ho Ao

1 1 xw 1
where = + + . . . (2.56)
U o Ao hi Ai kw Alm ho Ao

Uo being the overall heat transfer coefficient based on the outside surface area Ao, hi the
inside heat transfer coefficient and ho the outside heat transfer coefficient.
1
Now, Th − Tc = Qc R1 = Qc . . . (2.57)
hi Ai

xw
T1 − T2 = Qc R2 = Qc . . . (2.58)
kw Alm

1
T2 − Tc = Qc R3 = Qc . . . (2.59)
ho Ao

From which the interface temperatures T1 and T2 can be estimated. When the wall
thickness xw is small
Ao = Alm = Ai . . . (2.60)

1 1 x 1 1
Then = + w + = . . . (2.61)
U o hi k w ho U i

where Ui is the overall heat transfer coefficient based on the inside surface area Ai. It may
be noted that U o Ao = U i Ai .

If more resistances are put in series, these are to be added up and the same procedure will
follow.
SAQ 4
Derive an expression for overall heat transfer coefficient for a infinitely long
cylinder through which hot water is conveying at T1. The cylinder is exposed to
atmosphere at temperature T2.

44
2.2.9 Thermal Insulation Different Modes of
Heat Transfer
In most of the engineering applications, such as heat exchangers, building, steam pipes in
power plants, etc. it is essential to reduce the heat loss from the devices. This is
accompliced by providing layers of low thermal conductivity materials over the device.
Thermal insulation materials must have a low thermal conductivity. In most of the cases
it is achieved by trapping air or some other gases inside small cavities in a solid. It uses
the low thermal conductivity of a gas to inhibit heat flow. Heat can be transferred by
natural convection inside the gas pockets and by radiation between the solid enclosures.
The overall thermal conductivity of the insulating material is the result of a combination
of heat transfer mechanism as shown in Figure 2.21.
Conduction
Convection Radiation

Air Pockets

Insulating Material with

Voids

Figure 2.21 : Insulating Material with Voids

The insulating materials can be classified as :

Fibrous Material
High porosity material consists of small diameter particles or filaments of low
density that can be poured into the gap as “loose-fill” or formed into boards or
blankets. Mineral wool, fibre glass, alumina and silica are some of the fibrous
insulators.
Cellular
These are closed or open cell materials that are usually in the form of flexible or
rigid boards. They can also be formed or sprayed to achieve desired geometrical
shapes. Low density, low heat capacity and good compressive strength are their
advantages. Polyurethane and expanded polystyrene foam are some examples of
cellular insulators.
Granular
Granular insulation consists of small flakes or particles of inorganic materials
bonded into shapes or used as powders. Examples are polyurethane and expanded
polystyrene foam.
Both the fibrous and granular insulations can be evacuated to eliminate convection and
conduction, thus decreasing the effective thermal conductivity effectively. Sometimes
reflective sheets are used to provide the insulation. An example is the thermos bottle, in
which the space between the reflective surfaces is evacuated to suppress convection and
conduction.

45
Introduction to Heat SAQ 5
and Mass Transfer
(a) Explain the characteristics of thermal insulating materials.
(b) What are the different types of insulating materials? Give a comparative
estimate of fibrous, cellular and granular materials in providing insulation.
(c) What are the insulating materials used in high temperature applications?

2.2.10 Critical Radius of Insulation

Let us consider a small-diameter tube, cable or wire the outside surface of which has a
constant temperature and dissipates heat by convection into the surrounding air. Let the
surface be covered with a layer of insulation. It is desired to examine the variation in heat
loss from the tube surface as the thickness of insulation is changed. As insulation is
added to the tube, the outer exposed surface temperature will decrease because of higher
conduction resistance but at the same time the surface area available for convective heat
dissipation will increase causing more heat loss. These two opposing effects lead to an
optimum insulation thickness.
Let the tube of radius rt and temperature Tt be covered with insulation. At the outer
radius of the insulation ro, a surface coefficient ha is assumed for heat transfer to the
atmosphere at temperature Ta (Figure 2.22). As ro increases, xw (= ro − r1 ) increases and
Q decreases. Again, as ro increases, Ao increases and Q increases. There is thus an
optimum ro at which Q is the maximum.
Insulation

r0

Rconv
rt Rins
Ki Ta
Tt
ha

Tt Ta

Figure 2.22 : Thermal Resistance with Insulating Materials Over a Cylinder

⎡ ⎛ ro ⎞ ⎤
⎢ ln ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
Tt − Ta = Q ( R1 + R2 ) = Q ⎢ ⎝ ri ⎠
+
1 ⎥ . . . (2.62)
⎢ 2π ki L 2π ro L ha ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎦⎥
2π L [Tt − Ta ]
Q= . . . (2.63)
1 r 1
ln o +
ki rt ha ro
Since Tt, Ta, ki, ri and ha are all constant, the heat loss Q depends only on ro.
1 ⎛r ⎞ 1
As ro increases, ln ⎜ o ⎟ increases, but decreases. Differentiating Q with ro,
ki ⎝ t ⎠
r ( ha ro )

46
 Different Modes of
dQ ⎛ 1 rt 1 1 ⎞
= − 2π L (Tt − Ta ) ⎜ − 2⎟
. . . (2.64) Heat Transfer
dro ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ki ro rt ha ro ⎠
ki
(ro )cr = . . . (2.65)
ha

If rt < (ro )cr , as ro increases, Q increases till ro = (ro )cr (Figure 2.23).

Qmax

Cable or Pipe
wire

r0 < (r0)cr r0 > (r0)cr

(r0)cr r0

Figure 2.23 : Variation of Insulation Radius Influence Heat Loss to the Outside

If rt > (ro )cr , as increase ro, Q decreases. If rt > (ro )cr , any increase of insulation will
decrease the rate of heat transfer. If ro < (ro )cr , the increase of insulation will increase Q
till Q = Qmax.
For pipes, r1, is taken higher than (ro)cr, so that any insulation added will only decrease
the heat loss from the pipe. For wires and cables, rt is kept lower than (ro)cr so that added
increases the heat loss from the wire or cable. An insulated small diameter wire has a
higher current carrying capacity than an uninsulated one. If the current flowing through
an uninsulated wire increases, I2R increases, and if heat dissipation from the wire is not
equal to I2R, the temperature of the wire goes on increasing till it exceeds the melting
point and the wire snaps. If the wire is insulated, it can dissipate more heat (till rt = (ro)cr)
and the wire temperature remains below the melting point.
In the case of a sphere, by following a similar procedure, it can be shown that the critical
radius of insulation is given by
2k
(ro )cr = . . . (2.66)
ha

SAQ 6
(a) What do you mean by critical radius of insulation?
(b) A pipe is insulated to reduce the heat loss from it. However, measurements
indicate that the rate of heat loss has increased instead of decreasing. Can
the measurements be right?

2.3 CONVECTION
Consider the flow condition of Figure 2.24. A fluid of velocity U∞ and temperature T∞
flows over a surface of arbitrary shape and of area As. The surface is presumed to be at a
uniform temperature Tw, and if Tw ≠ T∞, we know that convection heat transfer will occur.
Flow
y Velocity Temperature
Profile Profile
47

U∞ B B T∞
B B
Introduction to Heat
and Mass Transfer

Figure 2.24 : Velocity and Temperature Profiles for a Convection Heat Transfer
( Forced Convection)

The local heat flux q′′ may be expressed as

q′′ = h (Tw − T∞ ) . . . (2.67)

where q′′ = Convective heat flux (W/m2),

Tw = Wall surface temperature (K),

T∞ = Fluid temperature (K), and

h = Local convection heat transfer coefficient (W/m2.K).
Eq. (2.67) is also known as the Newton’s law of cooling.

In Eq. (2.67), the heat flux is assumed positive if Tw > T∞, i.e. heat is transferred from
surface to the fluid and same is considered negative if heat flows to the surface
(T∞ > Tw). In case of the heat transfer from fluid to the surface, we can rewrite the
equation in the form

q′′ = h (T∞ − Tw ) . . . (2.68)

where T∞ > Tw.

It may be worth mentioning here that the proportionality constant known as convective
heat transfer constant h depends on
(a) Condition of the boundary layer which itself depends on the surface
geometry.
(b) Nature of the fluid motion.
Any study of convection ultimately reduces to a study of the means by which h may be
determined. Convection heat transfer coefficient will frequently appear q″ = h (T∞ − Tw)
as a in Eq. (2.67), because the flow conditions vary from point to point on the surface,
both q′′ and h also vary along the surface.

The total heat transfer rate q may be obtained by integrating the local flux over the entire
surface.
That is q= ∫ q′′ d As . . . (2.69)
As

or, from Eq. (2.67),

q = (Tw − T∞ ) ∫ h dAs . . . (2.70)
As

48
It follows that the average and local convection coefficients are related by an expression Different Modes of
of the form Heat Transfer

1
h =
As ∫ h dAs . . . (2.71)
As

Defining an average convection heat transfer coefficient h for the entire surface, the
total heat transfer rate may be expressed as
q = h As (Tw − T∞ ) . . . (2.72)
Convection heat transfer coefficient will frequently appear as a boundary condition in the
solution of conduction problems. In the solution of such problems we presume h to be
known. Some of the typical values of convective heat transfer coefficient h are given in
Table 2.5.
Table 2.5 : Typical Values of the Convection Heat Transfer Coefficient
Convective Heat Transfer
Sl. No. Process
Coefficient h (W/m2.K)
Free convection
1. Gases 2-25
Liquids 50-1000
Forced convection
2. Gases 25-250
Liquids 100-20,000
Convection with phase
3. change
Boiling or condensation 2500-100,000

SAQ 7
(a) State the Newton’s law of cooling.
(b) Define heat transfer coefficient. On what factor does it depend?

2.4 RADIATION
Radiative heat transfer is one of the most fundamental and pervasive process interacting
with every natural and man made system on earth. Every emerging technology such as
global warming to optical computing, energy conversion devices, industrial heating and
drying, rocket nozzles, space vehicles reentry, nuclear fisson, fusion, plasma involves the
study of radiative heat transfer. Recent increase in interest for study of radiation is due to
the development of high temperature applications in furnaces, engines, MHD generators,
Circulating fluidized bed boilers, development of high temperature ceramics, etc.
Radiation is energy emitted by matter at finite temperature. All bodies emit radiation
whenever the same are at a temperature more than the ambient temperature/reference
temperature. Although we will focus on radiation from solid surfaces, emission may also
occur from liquid and gases. Regardless of the form of matter, emission may be attributed
to the changes in the electron configurations of the constituent atoms or molecules. The
energy of the radiation field is transported by electromagnetic waves (Photons).
Thermal radiation is a part of radiation emitted by particles of matter as they undergo
internal energy state transition. Generally the internal energy state transition is in
equilibrium and hence the phenomenon of thermal radiation is associated with the
temperature of the matter. Radiation is emitted and absorbed by electromagnetic waves or
photons by lowering or raising the molecular energy level of any material. The strength
of emission or absorption covers a wide range of wave lengths starting from gamma rays
(≤ 10– 4 μm), X-rays (10– 4 – 10– 2 μm)), ultraviolet rays (10– 2 – 0.4 μ m), visible
(0.4 – 0.7 μ m), infrared (0.1 0 100 μ m) to microwaves (> 100 μm) (Figure 2.25).
49
Introduction to Heat
Visible
and Mass Transfer

Green

Yellow
Violet
Blue

Red
Infrared
X-rays
Ultraviolet Micro ways

Gamma rays
Thermal Radiation

0.4 0.7

-5 -4 3 -2 -1 2 3 4
10 10 10 10 10 1 10 10 10 10

λ(μm)

Figure 2.25 : Spectrum of Electromagnetic Radiation

Thermal radiation is in the wave length rage of 0.1 – 100 μm. That gives mankind heat,
light, photosynthesis and all their attendant benefits. At higher and higher temperature,
radiation is restricted to near visible or infrared region of the spectrum.
2.4.1 Distinction between Surface and Volumetric Radiation
Thermal radiation (as shown in Figure 2.26) may be categorically divided into two parts
(a) surface radiation, and
(b) volumetric radiation.
Radiation Emission

Radiation Emission

Gas or Vacuum

Solid or Liquid

High Temperature Gas or

Semitransparent Medium

(a) (b)
Figure 2.26 : The Emission Process (a) Surface Radiation and (b) Volumetric Radiation

In most solids and liquids, radiation emitted from interior molecules is strongly absorbed
by adjoining molecules. Accordingly, radiation emitted from a solid or liquid originates
from the molecule, those are within a distance of 1 μm from the exposed surface. It is for
this reason that emission from a solid or liquid into an adjoining gas or vacuum is viewed
as a surface phenomenon. Both these radiation phenomena will be discussed in details in
Units 9 and 10.
Consider radiative heat transfer processes for ideal surface in Figure 2.27.

50 Radiation from
Surroundings qrad, net
B B
 Different Modes of
Heat Transfer

Figure 2.27 : Radiation Heat Transfer from an Ideal Surface Bounded by an Enclosure

Radiation emitted by the surface originates from the thermal energy of matter bounded
by the surface, and the rate at which energy is released per unit area (W/m2) is termed the
surface emissive power E. There is an upper limit to the emissive power, which is
prescribed by the Stefan-Boltzmann law :

Eb = σ Ts4 . . . (2.73)

where Ts = absolute temperature of the surface (K), and

σ = Stefan-Boltzmann constant = 5.67 × 10– 8 W/m2 K4.
The surface, as mentioned earlier is an ideal radiator or a blackbody. The heat flux
emitted by a real surface is complex with involvement of different spatial, directional,
spectral properties, surface properties as well as enclosure properties. Hence the heat flux
for real surface is less than that of an ideal surface at the same temperature and is given
by

Eb = ε σ Ts4 . . . (2.74)

where ε = radiative property of the surface termed as emissivity. With values in the range
0 ≤ ε ≤ 1, this property provides a measure of how efficiently a surface emits energy
relative to a blackbody. It depends strongly on the surface and finish.
A portion or all, of the irradiation may be absorbed by the surface, thereby increasing the
thermal energy of the material. The rate at which the radiant energy is absorbed per unit
surface area may be evaluated from the knowledge of a surface radiative property termed
the absoptivity α. That is
Gabs = α G . . . (2.75)

where 0 ≤ α ≤ 1. If α ≤ 1 and the surface is opaque, portions of the irradiation are

reflected. If the surface is semitransparent. Portion of the irradiation also be transmitted.
However, while absorbed and emitted radiation increase and reduce, respectively, the
thermal energy of the matter, reflected and transmitted radiation have no effect on this
energy. Note that the value of α depends on the nature of the irradiation, as well as on the
surface itself. For example, absorptivity of a surface to solar radiation may differ from
the absorptivity to radiation emitted by the wall of a furnace.
A special case that occurs frequently involves radiation exchange between a small
surface at Ts and a much larger, isothermal surface that completely surrounds the smaller
one (Figure 2.28).

Gas
Thot,h
Gas
Surroundings Tα,h
G E
at Tsur
q″conv q″rad q″conv 51

Surface of emissivity,
Surface of emissivity, ε
Introduction to Heat
and Mass Transfer

(a) (b)
Figure 2.28 : Radiation Exchange between a Surface and Large Surroundings

The surroundings could, for example, be the walls of a room or a furnace whose
temperature Tsw differs from that of an enclosed surface (Ts ≠ Tsur). For such a condition
the irradiation may be approximated by emission from a black body at Tsur in which case
Gabs = σ Tsur4
. If the surface is assumed to be one for which α = ε (a gray surface), the
net rate of radiative heat transfer from the surface, expressed per unit area of the surface,
is
q
′′ =
qrad = ε Eb (Ts ) − α G = ε σ (Ts4 − Tsur
4
) . . . (2.76)
A
Eq. (2.76) gives the difference between the thermal energy that is released due to
radiation emission and that which is gained due to radiation absorption.
There are many applications for which it is convenient to express the net radiation heat
exchange in the form
′′ = hr A (Ts − Tsur )
qrad . . . (2.77)

where in Eq. (2.77), the radiation heat transfer coefficient hr is

hr ≡ ε σ (Ts + Tsur ) (Ts2 + Tsur

2
) . . . (2.78)

Here we have modeled radiation mode in a manner similar to convection. In this sense
we have linearized the radiation rate equation, making the heat rate proportional to a
temperature difference rather than to the difference between the temperatures to the
fourth power. Note, however, that hr depends strongly upon temperature, while the
temperature dependence of the convection heat transfer coefficient h is generally weak.
SAQ 8
(a) Distinguish between the surface and volumetric radiation.
(b) What is the wavelength range for infra red and visible radiation?
(c) Define radiative heat transfer coefficient.

2.5 COMBINED HEAT TRANSFER MECHANISM

In the earlier sections we have discussed the heat transfer mechanism, conduction,
convection and radiation separately. In many practical situations heat transfer from a
surface takes place simultaneously by convection to the ambient air and by radiation to
the surroundings. For example, consider a small plate of surface area A and emissivity ε
maintained at temperature Ts (Figure 2.22). This plate exchanges heat by (a) convection
with a fluid at temperature T∞ with a heat transfer coefficient h and (b) radiation with the
surroundings at Tsur.
For the conditions of Figure 2.22, the total rate of heat transfer from the surface is then
52
 Different Modes of
q = q conv + qrad = h A (Ts − T∞ ) + ε A σ (Ts4 − Tsur
4
) . . . (2.79) Heat Transfer

If | Ts – Tsur | < < Ts, the second term in Eq. (2.79) can be linearized. We then obtain
q = q conv + qrad = h A (Ts − T∞ ) + hr (Ts − Tsur ) . . . (2.80)

where hr ≡ 4ε σ Ts3 . . . (2.81)

2.6 COMPARISON OF CONDUCTION, CONVECTION

AND RADIATION
(a) Conduction and convection occur due to the direct exchange of kinetic
energy between particles of matter, whereas radiation is the energy in transit
propagated by the electromagnetic wave or photons.
(b) No medium is essential for the transport of energy by radiation whereas both
the conduction and convection mode of heat transfer can occur only if there
is a material medium. Radiation is the dominating mode of heat transfer in
case of vacuum.
(c) Heat transfer by conduction or convection between two locations depends
on the temperature differences of the locations to the first power. Transfer of
heat by radiation between two bodies depends on the differences of
individual absolute temperature of each body raised to the power of four.
Thus, importance of radiation will be significant at high temperature.
Example 2.2
A wall of a furnace consists of 120 mm thick refractory bricks and 150 mm thick
insulating firebricks separated by an air gap. A 15 mm thick plaster covers the
outer surface wall. The inner surface of the wall is at 1200oC and the ambient
temperature is 25oC. The heat transfer coefficient on the outside wall to the air is
27 W/m2K, and the resistance to heat flow of the air gap is 0.14 K/W. The thermal
conductivities of refractory brick, insulating firebrick and plasters are 2.6, 0.8 and
0.44 W/mK, respectively. Calculate :
(a) the rate of loss of heat per unit area of the wall,
(b) the interface temperatures throughout the wall, and
(c) the temperature at the outside surface of the wall.
Solution
Consider 1 m2 of surface area of the wall.
x1 0.12
R1 = Resistance of the refractory brick = = = 0.0461 K/W
k1 A 2.6 × 1

x2 0.150
R2 = Resistance of the insulating firebrick = = = 0.1875 K/W
k2 A 0.8 × 1

x3 0.015
R3 = Resistance of the plaster = = = 0.0341 K/W
k3 A 0.44 × 1

1 1
R4 = Resistance of the air film on outside surface = = = 0.037 K/W
h0 A 27 × 1
R5 = Resistance of the air gap = 0.14 K/W.
Insulated Fire Brick
(K = 0.8 w/mk)

2
53
ho = 27 w/m k
o
1200 C P P
Introduction to Heat
and Mass Transfer

Figure 2.29
Total resistance
RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 + R5
= 0.0461 + 0.1875 + 0.0341 + 0.037 + 0.14 = 0.442 K/W
Rate of heat loss per unit area
T1 − T2 1200 − 25
Q= = = 658.37 W = 2.658 kW
RT 0.442
The interface temperatures are T3, T4 and T5 and the outside surface is at T6.
Applying electrical analogy to each layer,
T1 − T3 1200 − T3
Qk = 2658.37 = =
R1 0.0461

T3 = 1077.45o C
T3 − T4 1077.45 − T4
Qk = 2658.37 = =
R5 0.14

T4 = 705.277o C
T4 − T5 705.277 − T5
Qk = 2658.37 = =
R2 0.1875

T5 = 206.83o C
T5 − T6 206.83 − T6
Qk = 2658.37 = =
R3 0.0341
Temperature at the outside surface of the wall is
T6 = 116.18o C
Example 2.3
Steam at 380o is flowing in a pipe (k = 100 W/mK) of 8 cm inner diameter and
8.5 cm outer diameter is covered with 10 cm thick insulation of thermal
conductivity k = 0.15 W/mK. Heat is lost to the surroundings at 8oC by natural
convection and radiation, the combined h being 40 W/m2K. Taking the heat
transfer coefficient inside the pipe as 40 W/m2K, determine
(a) the rate of heat loss from the steam per unit length of the pipe, and
(b) the temperature drop across the pipe and the insulation.
Solution
54
For steady and one dimensional heat transfer through the pipe, the thermal Different Modes of
resistances in series are given in the Figure 2.30. Heat Transfer

T∞2
h2

Insulation Q
r1 r2

Steam r3
T1
T∞1 T2
h1
T3
T∞1 T1 T2 T3 T∞2

R1 R2 R3 R0
Figure 2.30
D1 8
r1 = = = 4 cm
2 2
D2 8.5
r2 = = = 4.25 cm
2 2
r3 = r2 + t = 4.25 + 10 = 14.25 cm

A1 = 2π r1 L = 2 × π × 0.04 × 1 = 0.251 m 2

A3 = 2π r3 L = 2 × π × 0.1425 × 1 = 0.895 m 2
1 1
Ri = = = 0.0996 K/W
h1 A1 40 × 0.251

⎛r ⎞ ⎛ 4.25 ⎞
ln ⎜ 2 ⎟ ln ⎜ ⎟
R1 = ⎝ 1 ⎠ = ⎝ 4.0 ⎠ = 9.65 × 10− 5 K/W
r
2π k1 L 2 × π × 100 × 1

⎛r ⎞ ⎛ 14.25 ⎞
ln ⎜ 3 ⎟ ln ⎜ ⎟
R2 = ⎝ 2 ⎠ = ⎝ 4.25 ⎠ = 1.283 K/W
r
2π k2 L 2 × π × 0.15 × 1
1 1
R0 = = = 0.0279 K/W
h2 A3 40 × 0.895

Rtotal = Ri + R1 + R2 + R0

= 0.0996 + 9.65 × 10− 5 + 1.283 + 0.0279

= 1.41 K/W
(a) Rate of heat transfer
T − T2 380 − 8
Q&= 1 = = 263.83 W
Rtotal 1.41

(b) ΔTpipe = Q × R1 = 263.83 × 9.65 × 10− 5 = 0.025o C

55
Introduction to Heat
and Mass Transfer
ΔTinsulation = Q × R2 = 263.83 × 1.283 = 338.494o C
Example 2.4
A tube with outer diameter 1.5 cm is maintained at uniform temperature and is
covered with an insulative tube having thermal conductivity k = 0.18 W/mK in
order to reduce the heat loss. Heat is dissipated from the outer surface of the cover
by natural circulation with h0 = 22 W/m2K into the ambient air at constant
temperature. Determine the critical thickness of the insulation of insulation.
Calculate the ratio of the heat loss from the tube with insulation to that without any
insulation for
(a) the thickness of insulation equal to that at the critical thickness, and
(b) the thickness of insulation 4.0 cm thicker than the critical thickness.
Solution
The critical radius roc of insulation is determined by
k 0.18
roc = = = 0.0082 m = 0.82 cm
h0 22
Then the critical thickness of insulation is = 0.82 – 0.75 = 0.07 cm
The heat losses from the tube with and without insulation are respectively,
1
Qwith = 2π ro H ho Δ T
⎛r h ⎞ ⎛ ro ⎞
1+ ⎜ o o ⎟ ln ⎜ r ⎟
⎝ k ⎠ ⎝ i ⎠
Qwithout = 2π ri H ho Δ T
where H = tube length, and
ri = tube radius.
Heat loss ratio becomes
−1
Qwith r ⎛ r ⎞
= o ⎜ 1 + ln oc ⎟
Qwithout ri ⎝ ri ⎠
For ro = roc, this ratio reduces to
−1
Qwith r ⎛ r ⎞
= oc ⎜1 + ln oc ⎟
Qwithout ri ⎝ ri ⎠
ho
Since, roc =1
k
For the critical radius roc = 0.82 cm, we get
−1
Qwith 0.82 ⎛ 0.82 ⎞
= ⎜1 + ln 0.75 ⎟ = 1.004
Qwithout 0.75 ⎝ ⎠
This shows that the heat loss is increased about 0.4% despite the fact that there is
an insulation of thickness 0.07 cm. If another layer of 4.0 cm insulation is added,
we have ro = 0.82 + 4.0 = 4.82 cm, and the heat loss ratio is
−1
Qwith 4.82 ⎛ 0.0482 × 22 4.82 ⎞
= ⎜ 1+ = 0.537
0.75 ⎟⎠
ln
Qwithout 0.75 ⎝ 0.18
This implies that with a 4.82 cm thick insulation layer, the heat loss is reduced by
about 46.3%.
Example 2.5

56
 Two large aluminium plates (k = 250 W/mK) each 3 cm thick, with 8 μm surface Different Modes of
Heat Transfer
roughness are placed in contact under 105 N/m2 pressure in air as shown in
Figure 2.31 given below.

8 μm
Surface
Roughness

1.5 1.5
cm cm
Figure 2.31

The temperature at the outside surfaces are 420oC and 450oC. Calculate :
(a) the heat flux,
(b) the temperature drop due to the contact resistance, and
(c) the contact temperatures.
Thermal contact resistance with air as the interface fluid for 8 μm roughness is
2.65 × 10– 4 m2 K/W.
Solution
(a) The rate of heat flow per unit area
T1 − T2 ΔT
q= =
R1 + R2 + R3 ⎛ ⎞L ⎛L⎞
⎜ k ⎟ + Ri + ⎜ k ⎟
⎝ ⎠1 ⎝ ⎠2
where Ri = 2.65 × 10– 4 m2 K/W and each of the other two resistances is
equal to
L 0.03
= = 1.2 × 10− 4 m 2 K/W
k 250
Heat flux, q
450 − 420
q= −4 −4 −4
= 5.94 × 104 W/m 2
1.2 × 10 + 2.65 × 10 + 1.2 × 10

(b) The temperature drop in each section is proportional to the resistance. The
fraction of the contact resistance is

Ri 2.65 × 10− 4
= = 0.525
R (1.2 + 2.65 + 1.2) × 10− 4

Temperature drop = 0.525 × (450 – 420) = 15.74oC. 57

Introduction to Heat (c) The temperature drop in each aluminium plate is
and Mass Transfer
30 − 15.74
ΔT = = 7.13o C
2

TC1 = 450 − 7.13 = 442.87o C

TC 2 = 420 − 7.13 = 412.87o C

These are the contact surface temperatures.

Example 2.6
A steam pipe (ε = 0.85) of 0.5 m diameter has a surface temperature of 550 K. The
pipe is located in a room at 30oC, and the convection heat transfer coefficient is
28 W/m2K. Calculate the combined heat transfer coefficient and the rate of heat
transfer per unit length of the pipe.
Solution
Rate of radiant heat transfer

Qr = σ A1 ε (T14 − T24 ) = hr A1 (T1 − T2 )

hr = σ ε (T1 + T2 ) (T12 + T22 )

= 5.67 × 10− 8 × 0.85 × (550 + 303) (5502 + 3032 )

= 16.21 W/m 2 K

Example 2.7
A small hot surface at temperature T1 = 650 K having an emissivity ε1 = 0.8
dissipates heat by radiation into surrounding area at T2 = 610 K. If this radiation
transfer process is characterized by a radiation heat transfer coefficient hr, calculate
the value of hr.
Solution
Refer to Eqs. (2.66) and (2.67)
Here, T1 = Ts = 650 K

T2 = Tsur = 610 K

As T1 − T2 = Ts − Tsur < < T1

We can apply Eq. (2.67)

hr ≡ 4ε σ Ts3 = 4 [0.8 × 5.67 × 10− 8 × (650)3 ] W/m 2 .K = 49.83 W/m 2 .K

Exercise 2.1
(a) A steam pipe is covered with two layers of insulation. The inner layer
(k = 0.19 W/m.K) is 36 mm thick and the outer layer (k = 0.048 W/m.K) is
60 mm thick. The pipe is made of steel (k = 60 W/m.K) and has the inner
diameter of 170 mm and thickness of 10 mm. The temperature of saturated
steam is 439oC and ambient air is at 28oC. If the inside and outside heat
transfer coefficients are 28 and 6 W/m2.K, respectively, calculate the rate of
heat loss per unit length of the pipe.
(b) A 60 W lamp is buried in soil (k = 0.92 W/m.K) at 23oC and switched on.
Find the temperature 0.25 m and 0.50 m away from the lamp, when steady
58 state is reached.
 (c) A 1.2 m high and 2 m wide double-pane window consists of two 3 mm thick Different Modes of
layers of glass (k = 0.78 W/m.K) separated by a 12 mm wide stagnant air Heat Transfer
gap (k = 0.026 W/m.K). Determine the steady rate of heat transfer through
this double paned window and temperature of its inner surface for a day
during which the room is maintained at 24oC while the temperature of the
outdoors is – 5oC. Take the convection heat transfer coefficients on the inner
and outer surfaces of the window to be hi = 10 W/m2.K and
ho = 25 W/m2.K, respectively. Neglect heat transfer by radiation.
(d) A composite wall consisting of four different materials is shown in
Figure 2.32. Since the upper and the lower surfaces are insulated, the heat
flow can be considered to be one-dimensional. The dimensions and thermal
conductivity of each layer are indicated in the figure. Using the thermal
resistance concept, determine the heat flow rate per square meter of the
exposed surface for a temperature difference of ΔT = 300oC between the two
outer surfaces.
Insulated

A B C

KB = 70
o
HB = 1 m W/ (m C)

H=2m
EC = 100 EC = 70
o
W/ (m C) o
W/ (m C)

HD = 1 m KD = 20
o
W/ (m C)
D

Insulated

L1 = 4 cm L2 = 10 cm L3 = 5 cm

Figure 2.32

Exercise 2.2
(a) Derive an expression for the critical radius appropriate for the insulation of a
sphere. An electrically heated sphere with diameter D = 6 cm is exposed to
an ambient at T∞ = 25oC with a convection heat transfer coefficient
h = 20 W/m2.oC. The surface of the sphere is to be maintained at Ti = 125oC.
Calculate the rate of heat loss from the sphere for (i) the un-insulated sphere,
(ii) the sphere covered with an insulation (k = 1.0 W/m.oC) with the radius
corresponding to the critical radius of the insulator.
(b) A flat surface has one surface insulated and the other surface exposed to the
sun. The exposed surface absorbs solar radiation at a rate 800 W/m2 and
dissipates it by both convection and radiation into ambient air at 300 K. If
the emissivity of the surface is ε = 0.9 and the convection heat transfer
coefficient between the plate and air is12 W/m2.oC, determine the
temperature of the plate.
(c) An overhead 25 m long, uninsulated industrial steam pipe of 100 mm
diameter is routed through a building whose walls and air are at 25oC.
Pressurized steam maintains a pipe surface temperature of 150oC, and
coefficient associated with natural convection is h = 10 W/m2.K. The
surface emissivity is ε = 0.8.
(i) What is the rate of heat loss from the steam line?
59
Introduction to Heat (ii) If the steam is generated in a gas fired boiler operating at an
and Mass Transfer efficiency of ηf = 0.90 and natural gas is priced at Vg = Rs 2/MJ, what
is the annual cost of heat loss from the line?
(d) A spherical interplanetary probe of 0.5 m diameter contains electronics that
dissipate 150 W. If the probe surface has an emissivity of 0.8 and the probe
does not receive radiation from other surfaces, what is its surface
temperature?
Exercise 2.3
(a) A surface of area 0.5 m2, emissivity 0.8, and temperature 150oC is placed in
a large, evacuated chamber whose walls are maintained at 25oC. What is the
rate at which radiation is emitted by the surface? What is the net rate at
which radiation is exchanged between the surface and the chamber walls?
(b) Air at 40oC flows over a long, 25 mm diameter cylinder with embedded
electrical heater. In a series of tests, measurements were made of the power
per unit length, P′, require to maintain the cylinder surface temperature at
300oC for different free stream velocities V of air. The results are as
follows :

Air Velocity V (m/s) 1 2 4 8 12

Power, P′ (W/m) 450 658 983 1507 1963

(i) Determine the convection coefficient for each velocity and display the
results graphically.
(ii) Assuming the dependence of the convection coefficient on the
velocity to be of the form h = CVn, determine the parameters C and n
from the results of part (a).
(c) An electric resistance heater is embedded in a long cylinder of diameter
30 mm. When water with a temperature of 25oC and velocity of 1 m/s flows
crosswise over the cylinder, the power per unit length required to maintain
the surface at uniform temperature of 90oC is 28 kW/m. When air, also, at
25oC, but with a velocity of 10 m/s is flowing, the power per unit length
required to maintain the same surface temperature is 400 W/m. Calculate
and compare the convection heat transfer coefficients for the flows of water
and air.
(d) Find the heat transfer rate for the following composite layers. Assume a
temperature difference between the two extremes, if not provided in the
Figures 2.33(a) to (e).

K2 K3
K1

T2 T3
T1
T0

L2 L3
L1

(a)

60 B
A Convection into an
ambient at Tb with
B B

Convection into an a heat transfer

ambient at Ta with hc
coefficient hb
B B

B B
Kb B B
B B
 Different Modes of
Heat Transfer

(b)

Insulated

A
HB B F

kb HF
K
H
kf Maintained
HC C E
at T2
Maintained kc
at T1
Ke HG G
o
W/(m C) Ke
HD o
W/(m C) kk
D
kd
Kg

Insulated
L1 L2 L3 L4 L5

(c)

K3 = 100
K2 = 50 0
W/(m C)
0 o
K1 = 20 W/(m C) T2 = 50 C
0
W/(m C)

5 cm 10 cm 15 cm
o
T1 = 400 C

(d)
2 o
hc = 3 W/(m . C)

Kb = 0.05
Ka = 0.1
o
W/(m C) Convection into an
Convection into an ambient at
ambient at o
Tb = 50 C with
o
Ta = 200 C with 2 o
hb = 25 W/(m . C)
2 o
ha = 15 W/(m . C)

Lb = 2 cm Lb = 4 cm

(e)
61
Introduction to Heat Figure 2.33
and Mass Transfer

2.7 SUMMARY
Fourier’s law of heat conduction can be applied to simple surfaces such as plane wall,
cylinder and sphere to evaluate heat transfer rate. Resistance concept is a simple method
to solve such problems. In case of composite systems, application resistance method
gives easy solution. Physical significance of thermal conductivity is discussed in this
unit. Importance of thermal insulation, contact thermal resistance are discussed.
Discussion on heat transfer by convection and radiation are also presented. Heat transfer
may occur in real situation.

2.8 KEY WORDS

Thermal Conductivity
Thermal Insulation
Thermal Contact Resistance
Spectral Property
Emissive Power
Semitransparent Medium
Opaque Surface
: Property of a material medium arises from
Fourier’s law of conduction.
: Materials with poor thermal conductivity used to
reduce heat loss from a system.
: Resistance developed when two conducting
surfaces do not fit tightly together and a thin layer
of fluid is trapped between them.
: Property dependent upon the wavelength.
: Indicates rate of radiation emitted from a surface.
: Portion of the irradiation is transmitted through
the medium.
: Surface does not allow radiation to penetrate.

2.9 ANSWERS TO SAQs

Refer the preceding text in this unit for all the Answers to SAQs.

62