Geology, Ecology, and Landscapes

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Remote sensing approach to assess salt-affected

soils in the north-east part of Tadla plain, Morocco

Widad Ennaji, Ahmed Barakat, Ismail Karaoui, Mohamed El Baghdadi &

Abdelkrim Arioua

To cite this article: Widad Ennaji, Ahmed Barakat, Ismail Karaoui, Mohamed El Baghdadi
& Abdelkrim Arioua (2018) Remote sensing approach to assess salt-affected soils in the
north-east part of Tadla plain, Morocco, Geology, Ecology, and Landscapes, 2:1, 22-28, DOI:
10.1080/24749508.2018.1438744

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/24749508.2018.1438744

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Geology, Ecology, and Landscapes, 2018
VOL. 2, NO. 1, 22–28
https://doi.org/10.1080/24749508.2018.1438744 INWASCON

OPEN ACCESS

Remote sensing approach to assess salt-affected soils in the north-east part of

Tadla plain, Morocco
Widad Ennajia, Ahmed Barakata, Ismail Karaouib, Mohamed El Baghdadia and Abdelkrim Ariouab
a
Georessources and Environment Laboratory, Faculty of Sciences and Techniques, University Sultan Moulay Slimane, Béni-Mellal, Morocco;
b
Management and Enhancement of Water Resources Laboratory, Faculty of Sciences and Techniques, University Sultan Moulay Slimane,
Béni-Mellal, Morocco

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Recently, the remote sensing technologies have been used increasingly in various domains in Received 30 July 2017
order to explain or detect different phenomena in a rapid manner and covering large areas. This Accepted 20 October 2017
study aims to use Landsat 8 Oli imagery product to elaborate a map of soil salinity in the north- KEYWORDS
east part of Tadla plain, by implication of spectral reflectance and electrical conductivity (EC) Tadla plain; soil salinity; SI;
measured in the laboratory. Based on salinity Index (SI), the Normalized Differential Salinity Index NDSI; Landsat 8 Oli
(NDSI), and Landsat bands, we carried out a statistical study via the JMP13 software to determine
the most correlated bands with EC measured. The obtained results were very satisfactory with
an R2 = 71.3% and root mean square error (RMSE) of 0.084. The elaborated map showed that
the salinity is high near Oum Er Rbia River and the two cities of Beni-Mellal and Ouled Yaich,
which is due to saline waters of Oum Er Rbia River and Béni-Moussa-East (Dir) groundwater used
for irrigation. These results signify that the combination of remote sensing and laboratory EC
measurements would be a suitable method for predicting soil salinity.

1. Introduction 2002). The new remote sensing technologies become a

Soil salinization is the accumulation of salt in soils,
which is considered as an ecological problem that is often
attributed to natural influences (80% in salinized lands),
rather than anthropogenic activities. The high soil salin-
ity or “salt-affected soils” affecting, in particular, the arid
and semi-arid regions, contribute to the degradation of
soil quality (Abrol, Yadav, & Massoud, 1988), and conse-
quently constitutes a real threat to global food security.
Furthermore, the Food and Agriculture Organization
(Food & Agriculture Organization of the UN, 1989)
indicates that in 227 million hectares of irrigated lands
in the world, 20% are salt-affected. This salt-affected soil
is increasing day after day to more than 30% in countries
such as Egypt, Iran, and Argentina (Ghassemi, Jakeman,
& Nix, 1995). This situation was similar in Morocco,
where 5% of agricultural soils are affected by saliniza-
tion in different degrees (Antipolis, 2003), reducing thus
their productivity. Assessing the spatial distribution of
salinity became, therefore, so important to appropriately
manage and to protect the soils for agriculture purpose.
In recent decades, with the progress of remote sensing
technologies, the prediction of soil salinity and mapping
its spatial distribution in large-scales are becoming more
important and easy. This prediction helps to prevent and
minimize the salinity phenomena (Zhang, Wang, & Wang,
powerful method to provide global and rich information
on the spatiotemporal evolution of surface soil without
any direct contact. This ability has been demonstrated
in some studies, such as in Thailand by Shrestha (2006),
Mehrjardi, Mahmoodi, Taze, and Sahebjalal (2008), and
Bouaziz, Matschullat, and Gloaguen (2011). Shrestha
(2006) conducted an assessment of soil salinity in north-
east Thailand using soil properties and remote sensing, and
developed different salinity prediction models contain-
ing the spectral variables, and including the Normalized
Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), Normalized
Difference Salinity Index (NDSI), eight original bands of
Landsat ETM+, and soil properties. The results obtained
indicated that near-infrared (band 4) and mid-infrared
(band 7) had the highest correlation with the measured
electrical conductivity (EC). Otherwise, Mehrjardi et al.
(2008), working on an assessment of soil salinity map in
Yazd-Ardakan Plain, has shown that among the Landsat
ETM + bands the third one (red band) had the highest
correlation with EC measured. Bouaziz et al. (2011) has
demonstrated by conducting research on soil salinity
from a semi-arid climate in North-east Brazil that the
incorporation of the Salinity Index (SI2) with near-
infrared (NIR) (band 3) into a statistical model allowed
to gain a great insight into the spatial detection of the

CONTACT  Ahmed Barakat  a.barakat@usms.ma

© 2018 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted
use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

spread of soil salinity. Tajgardan, Shataee, and Ayoubi
(2007) evaluated the spatial distribution of soil salinity
North of Ag ghala, Golestan Province (Iran) by combining
remote sensing and field EC measurement, and demon-
strated that the use of ASTER sensor (Advanced Space
borne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer)
can be used to elaborate a suitable regression model to
predict soil salinity. The common between all previous
studies is that they apply statistical methods as Principal
Components Analysis (PCA) techniques and regression
analysis. This combination has enabled them to predict
and map soil salinity in their regions.
The current soil salinity problem is related to time and
space, for which traditional methods (field investigation
and laboratory analysis) are insufficient to monitor this
phenomenon. The aim of this research article is to iden-
tify the saline areas in the north-east part of the Tadla
plain using the new imagery techniques of Landsat Oli
8 with a spatial resolution of 30 m.
2.  Study area
The study area is located in the north-east area of Tadla
plain, which extends over an estimated area of 3,600 km2,
between the High Atlas in the south and the Phosphates’
Figure 1. Study area and sampling points.
GEOLOGY, ECOLOGY, AND LANDSCAPES   23
Plateau in the north (Figure 1). The geological forma-
tions are mainly composed of limestone, marls, and
sandstone. They are aged from Palaeozoic to Quaternary.
Concerning the altitude, it varies from 400 m to 700 m
with high peaks located close to the Atlas Piedmont. The
annual temperatures range from 38 to 40 °C in summer
and from 3 to 4 °C in winter. The average rain fall is 259
mm/y in the plain while 456 mm/y in mountain. It’s
characterized by a Mediterranean climate with a domi-
nance of semi-arid weather by a dry season from April
to October and a rainy season from November to March.
The Tadla plain is one of the main agricultural zones
in Morocco. This is owing to suitable soil conditions,
favourable climate, and abundant underground and
surface water resources. Hence, agriculture is the first
socio-economic activity in the region (Barakat, Ennaji,
El Jazouli, Amediaz, & Touhami, 2017). Cropping is
based on cereals, forages, orchards (olive and citrus fruit
trees), sugar beet and cotton, and vegetables. However,
due to the agricultural intensification and to the water
stress that the region is having in the last decades, irri-
gation and excessive inputs are required for intensive
crop production. Such human activities are responsible
for increasing the salt in the soil and for degradation
of water resource quality, as reported in the scientific
24   W. ENNAJI ET AL.
Field sampling
Laboratory analyzes
Electrical conductivity
value
Correlation between laboratory EC and
different indices
Statistical and ground validation
Salinity map
Figure 2. Flowchart of the methodology used in the study.
literature in some other areas of the Tadla plain (Barakat,
El Baghdadi, Rais, Aghezzaf, & Slassi, 2016; Barbouchi et
al., 2015; Hammoumi, Sinan, Lekhlif, & Lakhdar, 2013;
Lahlou, Ajerame, Bogaert, & Bousetta, 2013; Lhissoui,
El Harti, & Chokmani, 2014). Such investigation was
not realized in our study area; hence the need to assess
and map soil salinity in this area is becoming a wide
necessity.
3.  Materials and methods
The methodology adopted in the present work began
with a field campaign to collect representative soil
samples spread throughout the study area. These sam-
ples were analysed by the saturated paste method to
determine the electrical conductivity. Simultaneously,
Landsat Oli8 images with the same time as our field
campaign were used to calculate the various stand-
ard indices giving information about soil salinity.
Afterwards, a statistical correlation between the elec-
trical conductivity data and the computed spectral
indices was made. Figure 2 summarized the steps
that we have followed to map the soil salinity in the
study area.
3.1.  Sampling and analysis
Soil samples were collected during March month 2015,
from 97 sites scattered in a way to cover the entire north-
east part of the Tadla plain. The exact coordinate of each
composite sample was recorded using a global position-
ing system (GPS) with an accuracy of ±5 m (Figure 1).
The samples were dried in open air and sieved to 2 mm,
and the fraction less than 2 mm was used to measure
the electrical conductivity (EC) of the soil with a con-
ductivity metre. To measure the ECe that is the electrical
conductivity of a saturated soil-water extract, the water
is removed from a just-saturated soil sample by a cen-
trifuge or vacuum pump, and ECe of the water extract
Raw images
Processed images
Indices calculation (SI,
NDSI….
is measured. EC measurement by the saturated paste
method is the preferred method to estimate soil salinity
(Figure 3).
3.2.  Satellite data acquisition and processing
Free satellite images became widely used in several
domains that require cartographic information. Satellite
imagery data help to investigate the large area with low
cost and time consuming. The remote sensing data
selected in this study are captured by the Landsat sen-
sor launched on 11 February 2013, which consists of
two science instruments, the Operational Land Imager
(OLI) and the Thermal Infrared Sensor (TIRS). These
two sensors provide seasonal coverage of the global
landmass at a spatial resolution of 30 m (visible, NIR,
SWIR), 100 m (thermal), and 15 m (panchromatic). The
wavelength and the use of all bands in Landsat 8 sonar
are given in Table 1.
The satellite image used in this study was acquired
on 1 March 2015, simultaneously with soil sampling
dates. This image was corrected atmospherically using
the Dark Object Subtraction (DOS) model, which is a
radiative transfer model that corrects the raw image and
takes into account the state of the atmosphere at the
acquisition date (Dial, Bowen, Gerlach, Grodecki, &
Oleszczuk, 2003). All the remote sensing processing was
performed using ENVI (Environment for Visualizing
Images) software. Producing the soil salinity maps was
carried out using ArcGIS 10.2.
3.3.  Data analysis and model generation and
selection
The data processing step consisted to separate the
Landsat sensor bands individually. Then, some spec-
tral soil salinity indices were tested and computed for
assessing and enhancing the variation in surface soil
salinity. Out of all indices tested, the SI (Salinity Index)
 GEOLOGY, ECOLOGY, AND LANDSCAPES   25

Figure 3. Procedure for measuring the electric conductivity.

Table 1. Wavelengths of all bands in Landsat 8 and their uses. √

Wavelength SI = (Band1 × Band3) (1)
Band (μm) Useful for mapping
Band 1: coastal .43–.45 Coastal and aerosol studies
aerosol (Band3 − Band4)
Band 2: blue .45–.51 Bathymetric mapping, distinguish- NDSI = (2)
ing soil from vegetation and decid-
(Band3 + Band4)
uous from coniferous vegetation
Band 3: green .53–.59 Emphasizes peak vegetation, which After computation of SI and NDSI index, and extrac-
is useful for assessing plant vigour tion of Landsat bands, an extraction has been done
Band 4: red .64–.67 Discriminates vegetation slopes
Band 5: near- .85–.88 Emphasizes biomass content and
into the field sampling points corresponding values
infrared (NIR) shorelines in all Landsat bands and two indices created. The
Band6: short- 1.57–1.65 Discriminates moisture content of values extracted from the different bands are then
wave infrared soil and vegetation, penetrates
(SWIR) 1 thin clouds used to determine their correlation with the results
Band 7: short- 2.11–2.29 Improved moisture content of soil obtained in the electrical conductivity measured in
wave infrared and vegetation and thin cloud
(SWIR) 2 penetration the laboratory.
Band 8: pan- .50–.68 15 m resolution, sharper image In order to determine the band’s ration in our model,
chromatic definition
Band 9: cirrus 1.36–1.38 Improved detection of cirrus cloud a stepwise regression method was performed to gener-
contamination ate several suggestion models with different components
Band 10: TIRS 1 10.60–11.19 100 m resolution, thermal mapping
and estimated soil moisture
characterized. These models are statistically evaluated
Band 11: TIRS 2 11.5–12.51 100 m resolution improved thermal based on their estimated error and correlation.
mapping and estimated soil The performance and choice of the developed linear
moisture
regression models that met the selection criteria were
quantified using the test subset to ensure the use of the
(Equation 1), which has been proposed by Tripathi, Rai, different data-sets and not only a particular set. The two
and Dwivedi (1997), and the NDSI index (normalized quantitative criteria, a coefficient of determination (R2)
salinity index) (Equation 2) by Aldakheel, Elprince, and a root mean square error (RMSE) were calculated
and Al-Hosaini (2005) are the wildly used to create an based on Equations (3) and (4) for evaluating the rela-
enhanced images for soil salinity due to their very highly tionship between soil EC measured and EC predicted
significant correlation with EC. from satellite images index.
26   W. ENNAJI ET AL.

2
⎛ ∑n � �� � ⎞
⎜ i=1 xi − x
̄ yi − ȳ ⎟ constant.
2
R =⎜�
� � � � ⎟
⎜ ∑n x − x̄ 2 + ∑n y − ȳ 2 ⎟
⎝ i=1 i i=1 i ⎠
� salinity map showed a variable soil salinity distribution
∑n � �2
i=1 xi − yi
RMES =
n According to the produced soil salinity map (Figure 4),
With xi and yi are the measured and predicted values,
respectively; x̄ and ȳ represent, respectively, the means
of the measured and predicted values; n is the number
of samples.
The values of R2 indicate the strength of the statistical
linear relationship between the measured and predicted
values of soil salinity, and the mean root means square
error (RMSE) indicates absolute estimation errors.
4.  Results and discussion
The results obtained using stepwise regression anal-
ysis allowed us to determine the most correlated and
uncorrelated bands with EC measured in the laboratory,
then eliminate and select these able bands to be used
during the development of our salinity Model. From
these results, only the NDSI index, B4 and B1 bands
were selected for our model with their different integra-
tion coefficients. The results obtained from the stepwise
regression are summarized in Table 2.
According to several research studies (Eldeiry &
Garcia, 2008, 2010; Hick & Russell, 1990; Howari,
2003; McLaughlin, Palmer, Tiller, Beech, & Smart,
1994; Metternicht & Zinck, 2003; Tripathi et al., 1997),
the model equation is determined by multiplying the
integration coefficients of each band into the band pixel
values itself, then adding a model constant. Equation
(5) is our model equation that can describe the most
variation of EC:
Estimated EC = 8.42 ∗ (B1) + 2.11 × (B4)
− .16 × (NDSI) − .31
with the values 8.42, 2.11, and .16 are the integration
coefficients of every band, and .31 is the elaborate model
(3)
This elaborate equation has been integrated into a
satellite image processing software, which allows us to
develop a new salinity map for the study area. This soil
varying from .11 to 2.86 ds/cm (Figure 4).
(4)
the salinity is high in the north part of the study area, in
proximity of the Oum Er Rbia River. Such salinity could
be attributed to the use of the river saline water of Oum Er
Rbia that is used in irrigation, and subsequently, affected
agricultural soil by salinization (Faouzi & Larabi, 2001).
Compared to the Piedmont area, this zone presented a
high rate of salinity in the study area. The increased salin-
ity near the two cities of Ouled Yaich and Beni-Mellal
could be linked into irrigation by groundwater originat-
ing from Béni-Moussa-East (Dir) water table, which con-
tains salinity between 700 and 1000 mg/l. These values
are classified of high salinity concentrations according to
Moroccan standards (Bellouti et al., 2002).
The resulting model from the R2 and RMSE param-
eters showed an increase in prediction power (R2 = .71)
of predicting soil electrical conductivity and mapping
the spatial variability of soil salinity in the study area,
compared to similar case studies, i.e. that carried out by
Fallah Shamsi, Zare, and Abtahi (2013) where R2 = .39,
and recently that conducted by Allbed, Kumar, and Sinha
(2014) showed R2 value of .65, which have been devel-
oped using different spatial resolution satellite images,
this is partly due to the high spatial resolution of the
Landsat 8 Oli images. We precise that the prediction
of soil salinity based on the Landsat 8 Oli images offers
better results than these based on moderate resolution
images. It should be taken into account that spatial res-
olution is one of the important factors to deduce the soil
salinity. In order to validate and verify the accuracy of
the elaborate model results, a field trip was made on 1
May 2015 to take seven arbitrary samples in the study
area, and compare their results with those obtained from
(5) our elaborate model. Table 3 showed the values obtained

Table 2. Results obtained from the stepwise regression.

Degree of
Sum of squares of freedom of error
deviations (SSE) (DFE) RMSE R2 R2 adjusted Cp p AlCc BIC
Current estimates
Degrees of
freedom of the
Lock Seizure Coefficient Estimate numerator Sum of squares Report F Prob. ˃ F  
0,5898391 82 .0848125 .7130 .7025 4 4 −173,666 −162,145
Constant −.312658 1 0 .000 1  
NDSI −.1618451 1 .02208 3.070 .08351  
B1 8.42057941 1 .119895 16.668 .0001  
B4 2.11426761 1 .036538 5.079 .02688  
 GEOLOGY, ECOLOGY, AND LANDSCAPES   27

Figure 4. Soil salinity map.

Table 3. Validation of the elaborated model using other samples.

Point P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7
X 428828.77 423788.07 409405.48 415854.63 411599.09 407927.76 449366.73
Y 213473.53 209193.92 216155.96 205038.25 195250.21 201572.51 225531.39
EC estimated (ds/cm) .134 .198 .712 .152 .154 .163 .203
EC measured (ds/cm) .145 .267 .643 .135 .166 .154 .210

for these seven samples and their equivalent in the elab-
orated model.
From the validation points, we can say that our model
gives results with ± .016 ds/cm, which means that this
model can be very well used to give an estimation of the
salinity at a large surface scale in a very fast and reliable
manner.
5. Conclusion
Mapping and monitoring affected soils are a difficult
study because salinization is a dynamic process. Yet,
this study was conducted with the aim to assess the
spatial soil salinity in the north-east part of Tadla plain
because of its impacts on soil, water resource quality, and
crop production. Remote sensing has been used for its
synoptic coverage and the sensitivity of the electromag-
netic signal to surface soil parameters. The OLI-SI and
NDSI indices were evaluated by carrying out a series
of regression analysis. The correlation between meas-
ured soil salinity and terrain OLI-SI and NDSI indices
showed significant correlation with R2 of about 71.3%.
This study, thus, demonstrated that the use of the remote
sensing approach and image enhancement techniques
are satisfactory for the detection and mapping of soil
salinity, with a lower cost compared to other conven-
tional approaches. Thus, this approach can be used by
decision-makers to develop effective programmes to
reduce or prevent future increases in soil salinity.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
Funding
This work was supported by Sultan My Slimane University.
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