The Development of Sight-Reading Exercises

THE DEVELOPMENT OF SIGHT-READING EXERCISES AND
PROCEDURES FOR A SOLFÉGE-BASED PIANO CURRICULUM FOR
BEGINNING STUDENTS
_______________
A Thesis
Presented to the
Faculty of
San Diego State University
_______________
In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
Master of Arts
in
Music
_______________
by
Elyse Nicole Reed
Spring 2012
iii
Copyright © 2012
by
Elyse Nicole Reed
All Rights Reserved
iv
ABSTRACT OF THE THESIS
The Development of Sight-Reading Exercises and Procedures for a

Solfége-Based Piano Curriculum for Beginning Students
by
Elyse Nicole Reed
Master of Arts in Music
San Diego State University, 2012
The ability to sight-read is a vital skill to pianists. There are many long-term benefits,
such as being able to learn more repertoire in less time. In the professional world, musicians
with better sight-reading skills have greater opportunities for collaboration with other
instrumentalists and vocalists. Good sight-readers may also have a better chance to be hired
as a church musician, accompanist, or music teacher.
In the United States, curricula have been designed to develop sight-reading in group
or private piano lessons. These curricula are used to supplement standard piano method
books that utilize note reading as the primary teaching approach. Alternatively, there are
curricula from Japan that focus on aural techniques such as singing solfége to teach
beginning piano students. The purpose of this study is to identify the sequential strategies
used for sight-reading in the United States, to apply these reading strategies to an aural
solfége-based curriculum through the development of original sight-reading exercises and
procedures, and to provide teachers with a collection of customized sight-reading materials.
This study was limited to the examination of three sight-reading curricula used in the
United States, including Four-Star Sight-Reading and Ear Tests by Boris Berlin, Sight
Reading by Lin Ling Ling, and Improve Your Sight-reading! by Paul Harris. These sight-
reading series were examined according to seven criteria including organizational
framework, fingering, hand coordination, rhythm, key signatures, harmony, and aural
development. Selected strategies from these curricula were applied to the development of
original sight-reading exercises and procedures to accompany pieces in a solfége-based
curriculum called Yamaha’s Young Musician’s Course (YMC). After five pieces were
selected from each of the first three levels of YMC, three to four sight-reading exercises were
designed for each piece. The teaching procedures for each exercise followed a sequence of
rhythm, direction and interval, pitch, and play. Several techniques used in this process
incorporated singing solfége prior to playing, combining aural techniques with sight-reading.
In conclusion, there were three primary characteristics that were shared among the
examined sight-reading curricula: the sight-reading exercises were short in length (four
measures), focused on one concept, and progressed gradually in challenge. In designing the
sight-reading exercises that correspond with the repertoire of YMC, these standards were
maintained.
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
ABSTRACT............................................................................................................................. iv
LIST OF TABLES .....................................................................................................................x
LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................. xi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................... xiii
CHAPTER
1 INTRODUCTION .........................................................................................................1
Purpose.....................................................................................................................8
Limitations ...............................................................................................................8
Methodology ............................................................................................................8
Definitions................................................................................................................9
Organization...........................................................................................................10
2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE ......................................................................................12
General Principles for Sight-Reading: Significance and Long-Term
Benefits ..................................................................................................................12
Physiological Elements ..........................................................................................15
Visual: Physical Properties, Intervallic Reading, Chunking ............................16
Physical Properties .....................................................................................16
Intervallic Reading .....................................................................................17
Chunking ....................................................................................................18
Aural ................................................................................................................19
Kinesthetic: Keyboard Geography...................................................................21
Teaching Strategies ................................................................................................21
Visual: Scanning, Anticipating, Intervals, Eye Contact, Chunking .................22
Scanning.....................................................................................................22
Anticipating................................................................................................23
Intervals......................................................................................................25
Eye Contact ................................................................................................25
vi
Chunking ....................................................................................................26
Aural: Playing by Ear, Sight-Singing ..............................................................26
Playing by Ear ............................................................................................27
Sight-Singing .............................................................................................28
Kinesthetic: Keyboard Geography, Constant Pulse, Rhythm ..........................29
Keyboard Geography .................................................................................29
Constant Pulse............................................................................................29
Rhythm .......................................................................................................31
Conceptual: Transposition, Improvisation, Harmony......................................32
Transposition..............................................................................................32
Improvisation .............................................................................................33
Harmony ....................................................................................................34
Motivating Factors: Collaboration and Challenge ...........................................35
Collaboration..............................................................................................35
Challenge ...................................................................................................36
Summary ................................................................................................................37
3 ANALYSIS: SIGHT-READING CURRICULA AND YAMAHA’S YOUNG
MUSICIAN’S COURSE .............................................................................................39
Analysis of Three Sight-Reading Curricula in the United States ..........................39
Four-Star Sight-Reading and Ear Tests, Boris Berlin and Andrew
Markow (2002) ................................................................................................40
Organizational Framework ........................................................................41
Fingering ....................................................................................................41
Hand Coordination .....................................................................................42
Rhythm .......................................................................................................42
Key Signatures ...........................................................................................43
Melodic Intervals .......................................................................................44
Harmony ....................................................................................................44
Aural Development ....................................................................................44
Sight Reading Lin Ling Ling (2005)................................................................45
Fingering ....................................................................................................46
vii
Rhythm .......................................................................................................47
Key Signatures ...........................................................................................47
Harmony ....................................................................................................48
Improve Your Sight-Reading! Paul Harris (2008) ...........................................48
Fingering ....................................................................................................50
Rhythm .......................................................................................................51
Key Signatures ...........................................................................................51
Harmony ....................................................................................................52
Summary ................................................................................................................53
Yamaha ..................................................................................................................54
Yamaha Corporation of America (YCA) .........................................................54
Yamaha Music Foundation (YMF) ..................................................................55
Yamaha Music Education System (YMES) ....................................................56
Yamaha’s Young Musician’s Course (YMC)..................................................56
4 YAMAHA’S YOUNG MUSICIAN’S COURSE: SIGHT READING
PROCEDURES............................................................................................................59
Young Musician’s Course, Book 1: Let’s Go to the Zoo.......................................61
“A Peacock Welcomes Me”.............................................................................61
Significant Concepts ..................................................................................61
Sight-Reading Procedures for Significant Concepts..................................62
“Giraffes” .........................................................................................................63
“Tumbling Pandas” ..........................................................................................65
viii
“An Elephant’s Amazing Trunk”.....................................................................66

“Lions” .............................................................................................................68
Young Musician’s Course, Book 2: Delicious Dreams .........................................69
“Crunchy Rice-Crackers” ................................................................................69
“Chinese Buns” ................................................................................................72
“I Love Treats” ................................................................................................73
“My Cream Puffs Didn’t Puff” ........................................................................74
“Oops, I Swallowed a Candy” .........................................................................77
Young Musician’s Course, Book 3: Let’s Have Fun Together .............................78
“Computer Games” ..........................................................................................79
“Fireworks” ......................................................................................................80
“Playing Tag”...................................................................................................82
ix
“Japanese Carnival” .........................................................................................83

“Soccer/Football” .............................................................................................85
Summary ................................................................................................................86
5 SUMMARY .................................................................................................................87
Pedagogy: Teaching Strategies and Curricula .......................................................87
Designing Sight-Reading Material ........................................................................88
Conclusions ............................................................................................................89
Suggestions for Further Study ...............................................................................89
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................91
APPENDIX
A SIGHT-READING EXERCISES: YOUNG MUSICIAN’S COURSE, BOOK
1: LET’S GO TO THE ZOO .........................................................................................95
B SIGHT-READING EXERCISES: YOUNG MUSICIAN’S COURSE, BOOK
2: DELICIOUS DREAMS ..........................................................................................101
C SIGHT-READING EXERCISES: YOUNG MUSICIAN’S COURSE, BOOK
3: LET’S HAVE FUN TOGETHER............................................................................107
x
LIST OF TABLES
PAGE
Table 1. Selected Pieces ...........................................................................................................10

Table 2. Scope and Sequence: Young Musician’s Course 1 – 3 .............................................58
Table 3. Rhythmic Chanting ....................................................................................................60
Table 4. Sight-Reading Procedures: ‘A Peacock Welcomes Me’ ...........................................63
Table 5. Sight-Reading Procedures: ‘Giraffes’ ........................................................................64
Table 6. Sight-Reading Procedures: ‘Tumbling Pandas’ .........................................................66
Table 7. Sight-Reading Procedures: ‘Lions’ ............................................................................70
Table 8. Sight-Reading Procedures: ‘I Love Treats’ ...............................................................75
xi
LIST OF FIGURES
PAGE
Figure 1. “A Peacock Welcomes Me,” pages 8 –9. .................................................................62

Figure 2. Sight-reading: ‘A Peacock Welcomes Me,’ exercise 1. ...........................................62
Figure 3. “Giraffes,” pages 10 – 11. ........................................................................................63
Figure 4. Sight-reading: ‘Giraffes,’ exercise 1. .......................................................................64
Figure 5. “Rhythmic Pointing.” ...............................................................................................65
Figure 6. “Tumbling Pandas,” pages 12 – 13, measures 1 – 2. ...............................................65
Figure 7. Sight-reading: ‘Tumbling Pandas,’ exercise 1. ........................................................66
Figure 8. “An Elephant’s Amazing Trunk,” pages 14 – 15, measures 1 – 4. ..........................67
Figure 9. Sight-reading: ‘An Elephant’s Amazing Trunk,’ exercise 1. ...................................67
Figure 10. “Lions,” pages 28–29, measures 1 – 4.. .................................................................68
Figure 11. Sight-reading: ‘Lions,’ exercise 1. .........................................................................69
Figure 12. “Crunchy Rice-Crackers,” pages 8 – 9, measures 1 – 4.. .......................................71
Figure 13. Sight-reading: ‘Crunchy Rice-Crackers,’ exercise 1. .............................................71
Figure 14. “Chinese Buns,” pages 12 – 13, measures 1 – 4. ...................................................72
Figure 15. Sight-reading: “Chinese Buns,” exercise 1. ...........................................................73
Figure 16. “I Love Treats,” pages 14 – 15, measures 1 – 4. ....................................................73
Figure 17. Sight-reading: ‘I Love Treats,’ exercise 1. .............................................................74
Figure 18. “My Cream Puffs Didn’t Puff,” pages 18 – 19, measures 1 – 4.............................76
Figure 19. Sight-reading: ‘My Cream Puffs Didn’t Puff,’ exercise 1. ....................................76
Figure 20. “Oops, I Swallowed a Candy,” pages 20 – 21, measures 1 – 4. .............................77
Figure 21. Sight-reading: ‘Oops, I Swallowed a Candy,’ exercise 1. ......................................78
Figure 22. “Computer Games,” pages 8 – 9, measures 1 – 2. .................................................79
Figure 23. Sight-reading: ‘Computer Games,’ exercise 1. ......................................................80
Figure 24. “Fireworks,” pages 10 – 11, measures 1 – 4. .........................................................80
Figure 25. Sight-reading: ‘Fireworks,’ exercise 1. ..................................................................81
Figure 26. “Playing Tag,” pages 12 – 13, measures 1 – 4. ......................................................82
Figure 27. Sight-reading: ‘Playing Tag,’ exercise 1. ...............................................................83
xii
Figure 28. “Japanese Carnival,” pages 14 – 15, measures 13 – 16..........................................83

Figure 29. Sight-reading: ‘Japanese Carnival,’ exercise 1. .....................................................84
Figure 30. “Soccer/Football,” pages 16 – 17, measures 1 – 2. ................................................85
Figure 31. Sight-reading: ‘Soccer/Football,’ exercise 1. .........................................................85
xiii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
There are many people who encouraged me throughout the course of this study. First
and foremost, I would like to thank my steadfast graduate advisor, Dr. J. Mitzi Kolar, who
counseled me with her expertise from start to finish. I would also like to thank fellow San
Diego State University graduate, Maya Ginsberg, for generously offering her meticulous aid
during the formatting process. Lastly, I would like to give my sincere appreciation and
gratitude to the teacher training staff of the Yamaha Music Education System who introduced
me to the Yamaha teaching philosophy and helped me experience the joy and satisfaction
that comes with teaching my own Yamaha classes.
1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Our world contains over 6,000 different languages, most of which encompass a
written form as well as an aural component. Language is a necessary element of any society:
“A systematic means of communicating ideas or feelings by the use of conventionalized
signs, sounds, gestures, or marks having understood meanings.” 1
Just as verbal language can be written for interpretation and preservation, the same is
true for music. Prior to the existence of musical notation, singers in early medieval churches
were required to aurally memorize the entire collection of their chant repertoire in order to
pass it on to the next generation. 2 The introduction of the standard musical staff, as well as
the use of solfége, was brought about by Italian Benedictine Monk Guido d’Arezzo. 3 Miller
cites Guido’s comment about the arduous task that aural instruction presented for the church:
“Marvelous singers, and singers’ pupils, though they sing every day for a hundred years, will
never sing one antiphon, not even a short one, of themselves, without a master, losing time
enough in singing to have learned thoroughly both sacred and secular letters.” 4 As Guido
indicates, teaching music completely by rote is time consuming. While the development of
the musical staff alleviated the burden of learning music aurally, it also brought challenges of
teaching notation.
Although formal musical education in the United States also has vocal roots, having
been introduced through the singing schools of the eighteenth century, 5 music teachers
shifted their focus to the teaching of music through notation. In his book Teaching Children
1
Merriam-Webster Dictionary, s.v. “Language.”
2
David Hiley, “Recent Research on the Origins of Western Chant,” Early Music 16, no. 2 (May 1988):
203.
3
Samuel D. Miller, “Guido d’Arezzo: Medieval Musician and Educator,” Journal of Research Music
Education 21, no. 3 (Autumn 1973): 243.
4
Ibid.
5
Charles W. Heffernan, Teaching Children to Read Music (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1968), 2.
2
to Read Music, Heffernan mentions a specific figure named Lowell Mason who focused his
teaching on the reading of music in Boston schools in 1837. 6 This effort to encourage note
reading was preserved in music books of the late nineteenth century, which included the
methodical introduction of concepts such as the grand staff, rhythmic patterns, and sight-
reading pieces. To this day, note reading takes priority among piano teachers. A thesis
completed by Scott Dirkse discusses a survey conducted by James Lyke. This survey
classified the skills learned in a piano curriculum, and sight-reading was given the highest
value among many piano teachers. 7
Although many current curricula in the United States continue to emphasize the
importance of note reading, there are alternative methods to teaching music that depend
primarily on aural learning, minimizing the examination of music on the page. This
alternative focus can be traced to 1920 when music curricula became much more involved
and comprehensive. 8 In his thesis, Dirkse reflects on this shift in music education.
Within a few years, today’s six-fold program was well established: singing,
rhythms, reading, listening, instrumental music, and some attention to creative
activities and music drama. In the face of this expanded program, music reading
was either exalted or neglected according to the particular interests of the authors
and publishers of the period...In some books the concentration on developing
singing voices…excludes mention of the elements of notation and development of
reading ability, which apparently the children are supposed to obtain by some sort
of osmosis. 9
Methods were developed in Japan that promote solfége-singing as the primary means for
learning. Two of these methods are the Suzuki and Yamaha methods. The Suzuki method,
developed by Japanese violinist Shinichi Suzuki, is a music curriculum for children. Suzuki
designed his teaching approach to reflect the manner in which children learn to speak a
language. This system, based primarily on aural development, is known as the “mother-
6
Heffernan, 1.
7
Scott Dirkse, “A Survey of the Development of Sight-Reading Skills in Instructional Piano Methods for
Average-age Beginners and a Sample Primer-level Sight-reading Curriculum” (master’s thesis, University of
South Carolina, 2009), 5.
8
Ibid., 2.
9
Ibid.
3
tongue approach.” 10 Also from Japan, the Yamaha teaching method was developed
originally in Tokyo as a music program for pre-school children in 1954. 11 This method of
teaching introduces music by singing solfége, which also becomes the primary tool for
playing. The sequence of learning is: listen, sing, play, and then read. Similar to Suzuki, the
Yamaha method delays reading until a firm grasp of the solfége syllables has been achieved.
Other international teaching methods that use solfége are Kodály and Orff. Zoltán
Kodály, a Hungarian musician, developed the Kodály method in 1929. 12 He believed that in
order for one to develop an appreciation for music as an adult, one must be introduced to
music at an early stage of life: “If the child is not filled at least once by the life-giving stream
of music during the most susceptible period-between his sixth and sixteenth years-it will
hardly be of any use to him later on.” 13 Similar to other solfége methods, the Kodály
approach emphasizes singing as a pedagogical tool. As Kodály said, “Our age of
mechanization leads along a road ending with man himself as a machine; only the spirit of
singing can save us from this fate.” 14 Carl Orff was a German composer who developed
another teaching method. Similar to Kodály’s system, this method is based on learning music
as one learns to speak a language: the sequence of hearing before reading is a vital aspect. 15
In the Orff method, children experience the immediate satisfaction of producing a musical
sound using instruments such as wooden xylophones and glockenspiels. 16
Aural repetition is the common learning activity among solfége-based methods. As
vital as ear training is to the development of musicianship, there may be a neglect of
10
Suzuki Association of the Americas, “Suzuki Twinkler,” Suzuki Association of Americas, Inc.
http://suzukiassociation.org/teachers/twinkler/ (accessed November 2, 2011).
11
Yamaha Music Foundation, “Features of Yamaha Music Education System,” Yamaha Music
Foundation, http://www.yamaha-mf.or.jp/english/edu_system/about/index.html (accessed November 16, 2011).
12
Organization of American Kodály Educators, “Kodály, the Educator and Humanist,” Organization of
American Kodály Educators, http://oake.org/aboutus/Kodaly.aspx (accessed November 1, 2011).
13
Ibid.
14
Boosey & Hawkes, “Zoltán Kodály,” Boosey & Hawkes Website, http://www.boosey.com/composer/
Zoltan+ Kodaly (accessed November 1, 2011).
15
American Orff-Schulwerk Association, “What is Orff Schulwerk?” American Orff-Schulwerk
Association, http://www.aosa.org/orff.html (accessed November 1, 2011).
16
Ibid.
4
notational reading which creates a disconnect between what is heard and what appears on the
page. Charles Heffernan testifies to this in his book Teaching Children to Read Music:
Music reading is often neglected . . . It is more immediately satisfying to have
children learn songs by rote; teaching the rudiments is likely to be dismissed as
dull, uncreative, and out-of-date. This is a regrettable situation . . . [the students’]
ability to read immeasurably increases their comprehension and enjoyment of
music. 17
An examination of the piano curricula that have been produced in the United States
within the last five decades indicates a different approach than the methods that focus on
aural techniques. As opposed to a solfége-based system, which emphasizes a “sing before
play” approach, the American piano curricula focus on the sequential reading of notes on the
staff. These note-reading approaches are often categorized as intervallic, multi-key, and
middle-C. 18
In 2009, Dirkse compared the use of sight-reading materials in various piano
methods. The main purpose of his study was to “evaluate instructional piano methods for the
average-age beginner based on their inclusion of activities that promote the development of
sight-reading skills.” 19 Dirkse outlines the importance of “good sight-reading habits,”
including the goals of “looking ahead while playing, choosing appropriate fingerings, playing
without stopping, and moving the eyes efficiently.” 20 Using these goals as products of a
successful sight-reading method, Dirkse compared the following four piano curricula:
Alfred’s Premier Piano Course, Piano Adventures, Bastien Piano Basics, and The Music
Tree. Although there are supplemental sight-reading books available in each curriculum,
Dirkse concluded that each method lacks progressive sight-reading materials within the core
method books. To supplement these piano methods, Dirkse created a series of teaching plans
and activities in four categories: keyboard topography, directional reading, pattern
recognition, and sight-reading habits. 21 Although this thesis promoted the examination of
17
Heffernan, v.
18
Jeanine M. Jacobson, Professional Piano Teaching: A Comprehensive Piano Pedagogy Textbook for
Teaching Elementary-Level Students, ed. E. L. Lancaster (Los Angeles: Alfred, 2006), 41.
19
Dirkse, 7.
20
Ibid.
21
Ibid., 47– 63.
5
notation and pattern reading at an early stage of musical development, no aural components
were addressed to reinforce sight-reading skills.
The disconnect between aural and visual applications in traditional method books was
evaluated in a 2003 doctoral dissertation by H. Christian Bernhard II. The primary purpose of
his study was “to investigate the effects of tonal training, as applied using standard method
book melodies, on the melodic ear playing . . . and sight reading achievement of beginning
wind instrumentalists.” 22 This experiment involved forty-two sixth grade band students who
were divided into an experimental group and a control group. The two groups met regularly
with an instructor, but the experimental group was provided with aural instruction using
solfége to determine whether tonal instruction improved melodic ear playing and melodic
sight-reading. The procedure for the experimental group followed a “hear, sing, play”
approach. The students first listened to the instructor sing a melodic line using the syllable
“loo.” The students responded by singing “loo” as a syllable. Following this, the instructor
sang the same melody using solfége. The students repeat the same melody with solfége
syllables. After singing, the students played the melody on their instruments by ear. Finally,
the students played the given melody by reading notation. The control group received
standard instruction with notational symbols and fingerings only. When the two groups were
evaluated after ten weeks, the study showed that while aural development helped the students
to play patterns by ear, their sight-reading progress was not affected. 23 Based on the results
of his research, Bernhard stated that “ear playing and sight reading skills appear to be
important factors in the development of independent musicianship.” 24 While this research
examined the combined use of tonal training with notational tracking of standard band
melodies, the students who participated were not given the opportunity to excel in a
combined method of aural and notational training. The study also did not address beginning
piano students in a solfége-based curriculum.
22
H. Christian Bernhard II, “The Effects of Tonal Training on the Melodic Ear Playing and Sight Reading
Achievement of Beginning Wind Instrumentalists” (PhD diss., University of North Carolina at Greensboro,
2003), 44.
23
Ibid., 67.
24
Ibid., 2.
6
In 2009, Carol M. Hayward and Joyce Eastlund Gromko conducted a study entitled
“Relationships Among Music Sight-reading and Technical Proficiency, Spatial Visualization,
and Aural Discrimination” that was published in the Journal of Research in Music
Education. 25 In order to assess the combined effectiveness of kinesthetic skills, aural skills,
and the ability to discriminate visual patterns in sight-reading, seventy university wind
players were evaluated individually. Prior to the experiment, Hayward and Eastlund
hypothesized that “speed and accuracy of music sight-reading would be predicted by a
combination of aural pattern discrimination, spatial-temporal reasoning, and technical
proficiency.” 26 The results showed that “although aural-spatial skills and technical
proficiency skills were orthogonal, or separate, they both were essential to the complex task
of sight-reading.” 27 Although this article provided evidence that ear training and note reading
are most effective when combined, the participants were wind players at a matured stage of
musical development rather than beginning piano students of elementary age.
A dissertation completed by Judith Shirley Durocher in 2006 was designed to
“investigate the effect of kinesthetic activities on sight-singing achievement of secondary
choral music students.” 28 This study investigates the effectiveness of solfége as a teaching
aid in choral singing for students in seventh through twelfth grades. The control group
received solfége-based instruction with aural and visual tools, while the experimental group
received instruction that also included various movement-based activities such as solfége
hand signs. The study found that the kinesthetic movements “did not make a significant
difference in the students’ sight-singing achievement.” 29 Although Durocher’s research
focused on the application of solfége to enhance the sight-singing skills of secondary choral
students, there were implications that many of these students had not learned solfége at an
elementary age, therefore the results were not based on the use of sight-singing activities in
25
Joyce Gromko and Carol M. Hayward, “Relationships Among Music Sight-reading and Technical
Proficiency, Spatial Visualization, and Aural Discrimination,” Journal of Research in Music Education 57, no.
1 (April 2009): 26–36.
26
Ibid., 26.
27
Ibid.
28
Judith Shirley Durocher, “An Investigation of the Application of Kinesthetic Activities to a Solfége
Based Sight-Singing Program” (PhD diss., University of Arizona, 2006), 14.
29
Ibid., 175.
7
the context of an elementary-aged beginning piano class. There was also a neglect of
notational reading.
Julie Ann Ballard completed a dissertation that evaluated ten piano methods designed
for elementary-aged beginning students. The study, “An Analysis of the Music Content in
Ten Piano Methods (1994-2006) For the Elementary-aged Beginning Piano Student for
MENC National Standards Based Elements,” includes an examination of The Music Tree,
Piano Adventures, and Celebrate Piano! 30 The ten methods were analyzed according to
specific categories including: the variety of keys and meters being experienced through
music reading activities; the variety of repertoire; and the inclusion of music creating
activities. The methods that reinforced note-reading with the greatest variety of keys,
including whole tone, pentatonic, and modal scales 31 as well as major and minor key
signatures, were Celebrate Piano!, The Music Tree, and Piano Town. Of the ten methods,
The Music Tree and Celebrate Piano! were the only curricula that used the meter of 6/4.
Ballard’s research also evaluated each method according to the National Standards
for comprehensive music education that were created by the National Association for Music
Education (NAfME). Among the MENC standards are two categories that relate to aural and
reading skills: “Reading and notating music” and “Listening to, analyzing, and describing
music.” 32 Ballard’s study increases awareness of reading activities presented in many of the
current piano methods for elementary-aged beginning piano students in the United States.
However, the study did not investigate the use of solfége-based activities to assist in the note-
reading exercises.
Playing the piano effectively not only requires physical coordination, but also the
ability to interpret musical notation. To contribute to the development of future generations
of well-rounded musicians, elements of ear training must be coordinated with an ability to
interpret what is written on the page. As the early piano pedagogue Victor Booth states, “The
eye is responsible for reading the written page – the only link between composer and
30
Julie Ann Ballard, “An Analysis of the Music Content in Ten Piano Methods (1994–2006) for the
Elementary-aged Beginning Piano Student for MENC National Standards Based Elements” (DMA diss.,
University of Southern California, 2007), 73.
31
Ibid.
32
Ibid., 70.
8
performer. It brings all signs and symbols into understanding . . . Every pupil must be taught
early the significance of these three ways of regarding the written page: to notice, to
understand and to imagine the music.” 33
PURPOSE
The purpose of this study is to identify the sequential strategies used for sight-reading
in the United States, to apply these reading strategies to an aural solfége-based curriculum
through the development of original sight-reading exercises and procedures, and to provide
teachers with a collection of customized sight-reading materials.
LIMITATIONS
This study focuses on beginning piano students from six to eight years of age who are
involved in a solfége-based piano curriculum through group or private lessons. The
supplemental activities are limited to the reading of pitches on the staff, rhythmic reading
(whole notes, dotted half notes, quarter notes, and eight notes), and theoretical concepts such
as intervals, musical patterns, and pitch direction that will incorporate visual and aural
teaching strategies. The specific supplemental activities were designed for the Yamaha Young
Musician’s Course, Levels 1 – 3. The supplemental materials include sight-reading exercises
with a progressive development of hand coordination.
This research is limited to three sight-reading curricula used most frequently in the
United States: Four Star Sight Reading and Ear Tests by Boris Berlin and Andrew Markow
(edited by Scott McBride Smith), Sight-Reading by Ling Ling, and Improve Your Sight-
Reading! by Paul Harris. These three sight-reading series were chosen based on how
frequently they were purchased in the past few years by two local and national music sellers,
Robert Toschak and Tracy Lovley.
METHODOLOGY
Bibliographic research for this study provided an analysis of three sight-reading
curricula used in the United States: Four Star Sight Reading and Ear Tests by Boris Berlin
and Andrew Markow (edited by Scott McBride Smith), Sight-Reading by Ling Ling, and
33
Victor Booth, We Piano Teachers (London: Hutchinson & Co., 1982), 28.
9
Improve Your Sight-Reading! by Paul Harris. These three curricula were examined according
to the following elements: organizational framework, fingering, hand coordination, rhythm,
key signatures, harmony, and aural development. Following the examination of these three
sight-reading curricula was a discussion of the Yamaha brand, encompassing these four
branches: Yamaha Corporation of America (YCA), Yamaha Music Foundation (YMF),
Yamaha Music Education System (YMES), and Yamaha’s Young Musician’s Course
(YMC). A scope and sequence of musical concepts presented in the YMC was provided,
limited to their introduction to rhythm, time signatures, key signatures, articulation,
dynamics, and harmony in Level 1 (Let’s Go to the Zoo), Level 2 (Delicious Dreams), and
Level 3 (Let’s Have Fun Together).
Finally, original sight-reading examples were designed to accompany five pieces of
the Young Musician’s Course, Levels 1 – 3. Each of the five pieces were chosen based on
their introduction to major musical concepts. Within each piece selected, the beginning
measures were usually chosen, for which sight-reading examples were designed. The YMC
pieces used, as well as the corresponding measures that appear in this study, are presented in
Table 1.
For each YMC piece presented on the grand staff, three original sight-reading
exercises were created. Since the first four pieces in Let’s Go to the Zoo use either the treble
or the bass clef, four original sight-reading exercises were designed. The specific procedures
that accompany each sight-reading exercises were limited to four categories: rhythm,
direction and interval, pitch, and play. These procedures were designed for the teacher’s use
when teaching YMC group lessons.
DEFINITIONS
1. Elementary piano student: An elementary piano student is a child between the ages
of 6 and 8 years of age who is in the beginning stages of piano lessons.
2. Piano method: A method is a published series of books that provide a curriculum
(usually containing 4 – 6 levels) to guide the teacher in the systematic introduction of
basic musical concepts and skills.
3. Piano pedagogy: The term “piano pedagogy” refers to the study of guiding one
through a process of learning to play the piano.
4. Sight-reading: Sight-reading is the activity of playing a notated musical excerpt for
the first time, primarily based on the strengthening of visual skills.
10
Table 1. Selected Pieces

YMC Book Piece Selected Portion
Let’s Go to the Zoo “A Peacock Welcomes Me” Both rhythmic lines and
Middle Do on the staff
Let’s Go to the Zoo “Giraffes” mm. 1 – 2
Let’s Go to the Zoo ‘Tumbling Pandas” mm. 1 – 2
Let’s Go to the Zoo “An Elephant’s Amazing Trunk” mm. 1 – 4
Let’s Go to the Zoo “Lions” mm. 1 – 4
Delicious Dreams “Crunchy Rice-Crackers” mm. 1 – 4
Delicious Dreams “Chinese Buns” mm. 1 – 4
Delicious Dreams “I Love Treats” mm. 1 – 4
Delicious Dreams “My Cream Puffs Didn’t Puff” mm. 1 – 4
Delicious Dreams “Oops, I Swallowed a Candy” mm. 1 – 4
Let’s Have Fun Together “Computer Games” mm. 1 – 2
Let’s Have Fun Together “Fireworks” mm. 1 - 4
Let’s Have Fun Together “Playing Tag” mm. 1 – 4
Let’s Have Fun Together “Japanese Carnival” mm. 13 – 16
Let’s Have Fun Together “Soccer/Football” mm. 1 – 2
5. Solfége: Solfége is a singing tool that designates a syllable for each pitch of a scale,
i.e. Do, Re, Mi, Fa, Sol, La, Ti, Do.
6. Supplemental books: This term describes auxiliary books that coincide with each
method book to further reinforce each concept. Often, these books are titled
“Theory,” “Technique,” “Performance Pieces,” and “Sight-Reading.”
ORGANIZATION
This thesis is organized into five chapters. The first chapter includes an introduction
to the topic including the purpose for the study, limitations of the research, methods used,
definition of terms, and the organization of the thesis. Chapter Two presents a review of
literature including previous studies on sight-reading. Chapter Three provides a systematic
presentation of three sight-reading curricula used in the United States, as well as a discussion
on the Yamaha brand with its accompanying branches and a scope and sequence for major
concepts introduced in Levels 1 – 3 of Yamaha’s Young Musician’s Course. Chapter Four
11
applies the sight-reading principles examined in Chapter Three to the teaching pieces used in
the first three levels of Yamaha’s Young Musician’s Course. This includes specific
procedures directed to the teacher of the YMC classroom. Finally, Chapter Five summarizes
this study and provides suggestions for further research.
12
CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
For as long as composers have been writing music, sight-reading has been a necessary
element of music making. The ability to read a piece of music at first sight has many benefits
outside of music making itself. As piano pedagogue Earnest Fowles mentions in his article
“The Question of Sight-Reading,” without the ability to read and interpret musical notation
there would be a lack of historical appreciation: “Poverty in reading power is largely
responsible for the relinquishment of music study by numbers of young people; it is among
the most potent causes of indifferent taste; in particular, it prevents those subject to its
inhibitions from adventuring into the musically known.” 34 Sight-reading is a tool that helps
bring music history to life. This chapter discusses the advantages of sight-reading, the
physiological elements necessary to sight-read, and the teaching strategies designed to help
students sight-read, as discussed by musicians and piano pedagogues.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES FOR SIGHT-READING:

SIGNIFICANCE AND LONG-TERM BENEFITS
Sight-reading has always been an indispensible component in musicianship. Before
the nineteenth century, musicians would only perform unrehearsed pieces: as all scores were
played at sight (prima vista) 35. This was due, in part, to composers’ fear of plagiarism. In
fact, Clara Schumann and Felix Mendelssohn were the first musicians to rehearse a score
prior to their performance. 36 During this time period, a musician’s ability to perform was
dependent on their ability to read music at first sight.
While sight-reading played a crucial role in the history of music performance, many
piano pedagogues and musicians emphasize the importance of sight-reading today. In her
34
Ernest Fowles, “The Question of Sight-Reading,” The Musical Times 71, no. 1049 (July1930): 620.
35
Gary E. McPherson and Richard Parncutt, The Science & Psychology of Music Performing (New York:
Oxford University Press, 2002), 136.
36
Ibid.
13
article “Keyboard Sight Reading: Observations of a Teacher,” Katherine P. Clark compares

the fluency of music reading to the fluency of reading a language: “… it is satisfying
personally to be able to pick up a new piece of music and play it at sight – just as it is to read
a good novel.” 37 Clark also mentions that having children sight-read gives them the
opportunity to be exposed to a broader range of repertoire. Similarly, in his article
“Sightreading: No Longer a Dirty Word,” Jonathan Wikely affirms that sight-reading “…can
provide the pianist with a broadness of knowledge that is invaluable. It allows doors to open
quickly into unexplored territory, and surely that is much of what making piano playing
exciting is all about.” 38 Not only can one explore new domain in their own musical
endeavors, but one can also improve upon the end product of their practice: “ . . . research
literature suggests that better sight-readers tend to be better performers.” 39 Sight-reading is a
relevant skill to musicians today.
The advantages to sight-reading can be associated with career-based endeavors. In
Saxon’s article “The Science of Sight Reading,” he shows how the skill of sight-reading
impacts pianists in the professional world: “In the majority of the careers they may pursue
(church musician, piano teacher, public school teacher, accompanist), sight-reading ability
will be among the most vital job skills.”40 Likewise, sight-reading “ . . . is to this day an
indispensable part of any serious audition and subsequent training for musicians; piano
accompanists and studio orchestra musicians are proficient at it, and it is even the focus of a
few lesser known competitions.” 41 When musicians achieve sight-reading proficiency, they
become more qualified for professional opportunities.
From a teaching standpoint, the ability to sight-read enables students to learn more
repertoire in less time. In his article “Do It!,” former band director Maurice E. Wright points
out that, while sight-reading takes valuable time during a class session, it actually maximizes
37
Katherine P. Clark, “Keyboard Sight Reading: Observations of a Teacher,” Music Educators Journal 49,
no. 3 (January 1963): 88.
38
Jonathan Wikeley, “Sightreading: No Longer a Dirty Word,” International Piano, no. 3
(September/October 2010): 10.
39
McPherson and Parncutt, 142.
40
Kenneth Saxon, “The Science of Sight Reading,” American Music Teacher (June/July 2009): 25.
41
14
the amount of repertoire that can be learned. “The ability to sight-read gives the opportunity
to double or triple the amount of literature the group can explore during the school year . . .
avoiding some of the tedium and boredom of endless repetition.” 42 The amount of time
required to become skilled in sight-reading has been shown to reap long-term benefits. Music
Educator E.C. Moore identifies another significant reason why the regular activity of sight-
reading is so important to any instrumentalist: “Sight-reading is a normal part of auditions,
which are routine for getting into school groups, county and state bands, community groups,
military bands, and music schools and conservatories.” 43 Having the ability to sight-read
opens doors to collaborative opportunities.
Just as sight-reading is of great importance to the student, it is also of value to the
teacher. Piano pedagogue Reid Alexander promotes sight-reading, saying “ . . . there is no
better way to continually check on the ‘status’ of a pupil’s reading abilities than to sight-
read.” 44 Sight-reading can help to assess a student’s level of reading. Another way sight-
reading is of value to the teacher is by helping to maintain student enrollment. Saxon states
that within a teacher’s private studio, “ . . . improved sight reading can enhance retention as
well as the pleasure and fulfillment of our students.” 45 Students have a higher potential for
success when their ability to sight-read is improved.
The skill of sight-reading is particularly important for pianists who find themselves
accompanying solo instrumentalists or vocalists. Brenda Wristen, assistant professor of piano
pedagogy at the University of Nebraska, highlights pianists’ need for strong sight-reading
skills due to their collaborative involvement: “The widespread need for sight-reading at the
piano may be due to pianists’ widespread participation in collaborative music making.” 46 She
later adds that the need to sight-read is also due to the large amount of literature that exists in
the piano field: “. . . the repertoire is so voluminous that no one player can be familiar with
42
Maurice E. Wright, “Do it,” Music Educators Journal 62, no. 7 (March 1976): 63.
43
Robert J. Garofalo, “Six Commandments,” Music Educators Journal 62, no. 7 (March 1976): 64.
44
Reid Alexander, “Music Reading is Essential to Successful Music Making,” Clavier Companion 1, no. 5
45
Saxon, 25.
46
Brenda Wristen, “Cognition and Motor Execution in Piano Sight-Reading: A Review of Literature,”
UPDATE: Applications of Research in Music Education 24, no. 1 (Fall/Winter 2005): 44.
15
all of the solo and collaborative pieces written for piano, nor do recordings of every piece in
the literature exist.” 47 Pianists’ enjoyment of abundant literature is enhanced when sight-
reading ability is improved.
Sight-reading serves as the universal cornerstone for all musicians, having the
versatility to be incorporated at all levels of musical development with any instrument.
“Whether amateur or professional, ease of reading is at the foundation of successful music
making.” 48 The ability to sight-read gives the student a greater chance to be exposed to a
broader range of repertoire, as well as opens the door for professional opportunities. Not
only does sight-reading benefit the student, but it also guides the teacher in assessing the
student’s overall reading ability.
PHYSIOLOGICAL ELEMENTS
Although sight-reading is categorized as a singular activity, multiple aspects are
involved in the process. Lehmann and McArthur assert that “ . . . sight-reading is not a
unitary skill but should rather be regarded as a collection of sub skills that can be discussed
and studied separately.” 49 This distinction can be displayed in the contrast between inputting
and outputting information. Music educator and performer Kenneth Saxon differentiates
between input skills (collecting information on the page) and output skills (performing) in his
article “The Science of Sight Reading” by saying that “ . . . an expert performer with poor
sight-reading skills can demonstrate expert output skills, while remaining weak at input
skills.” 50 Aside from input and output skills, sight-reading requires the acquisition of other
physiological abilities. This chapter presents four categories of sub skills that are involved
when sight-reading including visual, aural, kinesthetic, and conceptual elements.
47
Wristen, 44.
48
Alexander, 28.
49
50
Saxon, 23.
16
Visual: Physical Properties, Intervallic Reading,

Chunking
Since sight-reading involves visual exertion, it is important to examine how the eyes
visualize and perceive. The following discussion presents a glimpse into the physical
mechanics behind one’s field of vision, as well as the specific sight-reading techniques of
intervallic reading and “chunking.”
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
According to Lehmann and McArthur, there are two main aspects involved in one’s
field of vision: fovea (smaller area of focus) and parafovea (the surrounding peripheral
area). 51 Since our eye can only focus on less than two degrees of the overall field of vision,
our eyes perform “ocular saccades” (subtle back-and-forth movements between areas of
fixation) at the rate of four to six per second. 52 Lehmann and McArthur make an analogy to a
“ . . . flashlight being pointed to different locations in a dark room.” 53 In order to generate an
entire picture from individual elements, our eyes must perform many small and rapid
movements that result in a visual response, “Gestalt principles.” 54 The capacity of one’s eyes
to process visual information is dependent on many subtle movements at an accelerated
speed.
There are two processes that enable us to perceive visual information: the data-driven
process and the conceptually driven process. 55 Whereas the data-driven process allows us to
examine physical properties of an object, the conceptually driven process goes a step further
and makes connections between what we have previously learned and what we have stored in
our memory. Thus, the success of one’s sight-reading ability is based on their innate ability
to coincide their data-driven process with their conceptually driven process. This process of
synchronization allows students to make assumptions about the characteristics of music.
Although these abilities are innate, “the two processes and their interaction are likely to
51
52
Ibid.
53
Ibid.
54
Ibid.
55
Ibid., 138.
17
develop with training.” 56 Just like any musical skill, sight-reading can improve with teacher
guidance and practice.
INTERVALLIC READING
Intervallic reading necessitates the recognition of spatial relationships, as opposed to
reading note-by-note. A study by Goolsby examined the visual skills used during sight-
reading, in regards to “fixations,” or “brief snapshots the eye accomplishes to view
information.” 57 Goolsby found that “ . . . a large number of fixations [are] directed to areas
between the notes, where there is no available information. These findings may provide an
indication that when sight-reading, music readers strategically direct fixations to a position in
order to determine the interval as opposed to processing the staff position of one note and
then the following note.” 58 Similarly, Mcpherson and Parncutt found that “better sight
readers require shorter and fewer fixations to compare or encode material for execution
because they are able to grasp more information in one fixation. As a result, readers do not
fixate on all notes but also fixate on blank areas between two notes.” 59 Efficient sight-readers
can make quicker associations about spatial relationships as they translate from the written
page to the keyboard.
Professor of Mathematics, Ernest R. Ranucci, emphasizes the importance of spatial
perception in sight-reading. Having fifty years of choir singing experience, Ranucci observes
that the prime factor in determining how quickly one can sight-read relates to spatial
recognition: “Consider the five-line staff, on which geometric forms (notes) either straddle a
line or occupy a space. To a great extent, this ‘line-ness’ or ‘spaceness’ . . . governs the speed
of a person’s sight-reading.” 60 When teaching the skill of sight-reading, Ranucci stresses the
importance of helping the student read intervalically. Piano pedagogue Reid Alexander also
56
McPherson and Parncutt, 137
57
John A. Sloboda, The Musical Mind: The Cognitive Psychology of Music (Oxford: Clarendon Press,
1985), 69.
58
Thomas W. Goolsby, “Profiles of Processing: Eye Movements During Sight-Reading,” Music
Perception 12, no. 1 (Fall 1994): 106.
59
60
Ernest R. Ranucci, “A Geometer Looks at the Staff,” Music Educators Journal 62, no. 7 (March 1976):
64.
18
agrees in his article in Clavier Companion: “Though understanding pitches on the staff is
essential, pupils must perceive spatial, intervallic relationships between pairs of notes. Any
pianist who sight-reads is quickly assimilating spatial relationships on the page . . .” 61 These
teachers agree that in order to help students recognize intervallic relationships, they must be
trained to perceive distances on the staff.
Intervallic reading is not the only important skill involved in sight-reading. A study
done by Goolsby evaluated musicians of various instruments during the process of sight-
reading and found that sight-readers must read ahead. In Goolsby’s study, the results showed
that “. . . while novice sight-readers tend to read in a note-by-note fashion, skilled sight-
readers scan their eyes forward to take in details of the score ahead.” 62 Anticipating the next
note helps the pianist multi-task when sight-reading, allowing them to ultimately become
better collaborators: “The accompanist will find that it is actually easier to play
accompaniments if he can read the vocal or instrumental lines.” 63 Students who are trained to
read intervalically, and with an expectancy of the next note, achieve greater success in sight-
reading.
CHUNKING
Studies have shown that expert sight-readers group notes into recognizable patterns:
piano pedagogue Brenda Wristen identifies the skill of pattern-reading as “chunking.” 64 This
technique is valuable to students learning to sight-read because it allows them to “. . .
perceive multiple details of the musical score as a single piece of information . . . if readers
are perceiving ‘chunks’ of information, it follows logically that they would move the eye
over a block of notation (measures at a time) rather than sequentially looking at each bit of
notation (note by note).” 65 Sight-reading can be a more efficient process when the musician
groups notes into larger patterns.
61
Alexander, 29.
62
Wristen, 48.
63
Clark, 89.
64
Wristen, 49.
65
Ibid., 49–50.
19
Music teacher and lecturer Cathy Coppola similarly highlights the importance of
pattern reading: “Research shows that students who sight-read well tend to see groups of
notes rather than processing them individually . . . sight-reading is also enhanced when basic
note reading is taught through a pattern approach rather than strictly note to note.” 66 Teachers
can train their students to observe patterns when reading. Piano teacher Mary E. Colles
applies the technique of “chunking” into the teaching of chord reading. In her article “Sight-
reading at the Keyboard,” Colles shares her success in having students recognize the “shape”
of the chord, as opposed to each individual note. 67 Sight-reading requires that musicians
apply patterns on the page to notes on the keyboard.
Aural
Aural skills are an important factor to be addressed when learning how to sight-read.
The ability to predict audibly what is seen visually is a valuable component to successful
sight-reading, allowing one to self-correct by making the appropriate motor executions.
Wristen agrees: “ . . . the ability to form auditory representations of the notated score
(hearing in the mind’s ‘ear’) is probably an important factor in skilled sight-reading.” 68
Psychologist Andrew J. Waters likewise states that “ . . . the ability to form auditory
representations and make predictions about how the music should sound may be more
important than pattern recognition . . . “ 69 Teachers can improve their student’s sight-reading
ability by including activities that enhance their aural skills.
Banton compared the effects of auditory feedback during sight-reading. Results
showed that, although the lack of auditory feedback did not affect the accuracy of sight-
reading, the sight-readers used the feedback as a “means of monitoring performance.” 70
Teachers can aid the student in recognizing auditory patterns. Shockley comments on how
the importance of building a familiarity of musical patterns is useful in building an innate
musical intuition; “ . . . knowledge of patterns aids skillful readers not only in singing or
66
Cathy Coppola, “Taking Time Out for Sight-Reading,” Teaching Music 16, No. 1 (August 2008), 76.
67
Mary E. Colles, “Sight-Reading at the Keyboard,” The Musical Times 74, no. 1085 (July 1933): 614.
68
Ibid., 51.
69
Ibid., 52.
70
Wristen, 51–52.
20
playing the music correctly, but also in ‘hearing’ the music inside, so that they can anticipate
what comes next and detect errors in performance.” 71 Lehmann and McArthur agree, stating
that “ . . . perceptual performance is only in part dependent on the physical properties of the
printed stimulus but instead is heavily driven by expectations and prior knowledge of musical
form and of the purely musical properties of the (meaningful) stimulus.” 72 All of these
findings suggest that students should be given ample aural training in the beginning stages of
musical development.
The use of solfége, or solmization, has been shown to help develop a students aural
skills. Solfége–singing, is a common practice used by 20 percent of music departments in the
United States. 73 One advantage in implementing sight singing by way of solfége is that it
develops the sense of absolute pitch. 74
Dr. Yu-Jane Yang studied the effects of solmization on beginning piano students,
ages 6 – 9. The study compared the effectiveness of students who were trained in solfége-
singing, rhythmic movement, or the combination of both. Conclusions showed that “ . . .
students who received training in solmization or a combination of solmization and rhythmic
movement were significantly more accomplished than control-group participants, who
received no such instruction, in discriminating pitches and playing back melodies . . . “ 75
Commenting on the findings of this research, Wristen concludes that “ . . . this is yet another
indication that sight-singing may contribute to the ability to form aural representations of
music, which in turn influences sight-reading achievement.” 76 In order to help students sight-
reading more successfully, teachers can incorporate aural activities that incorporate solfége-
singing and pattern recognition.
71
Rebecca Payne Shockley, Mapping Music: For Faster Learning and Secure Memory (Madison: A-R
Editions, Inc., 1997), 3.
72
73
Ibid., 28.
74
Ibid.
75
Ibid., 52–53.
76
Ibid., 53.
21
Kinesthetic: Keyboard Geography

Before one reads notated music, a familiarity with their instrument must be
established: “A certain amount of technical mastery of an instrument must be attained in
order for instrumentalists to sight-read.” 77 Since advanced sight-readers spend less time
looking at their hands in relation to the keyboard, Gilman and Underwood conclude that “. . .
an important cognitive component of skilled music reading is an ability to form mental
spatial representations of the positions of the notes on the keyboard and/or an ability to
choose optimal finger positions which reduce the need to look at the keyboard in order to
find the next note(s).” 78 In Lehmann and McArthur’s research on visual feedback, they found
a comparison to the kinesthetic skill of typing: “Researchers in typing have shown that even
skilled typists’ performance deteriorates when visual feedback (opportunity to monitor hand
movements) is removed.” 79 The overall conclusion that this research leads to is that
“unnecessary glances at the keyboard will improve performance.” 80 Students who spend less
time looking at their hands and more time focused on the musical score will achieve greater
success when sight-reading.
A study was conducted by L. Banton (1995) that analyzed the importance of visual
feedback (keyboard geography) while sight-reading. The results of the study showed that “ . .
. poor sight-readers tend to be overly dependent on visual feedback in judging the accuracy
of their movements . . . ” 81 Since the study suggested that successful sight-readers have a
stronger familiarity with keyboard geography, students should be thoroughly drilled to
enhance their familiarity with the spacing of notes on the keyboard prior to sight-reading.
TEACHING STRATEGIES
The strategies one uses when sight-reading differ greatly from practicing a repertoire
piece, as each involve contrasting goals. Lehmann and McArthur compare these goals in
77
Wristen, 45.
78
Elizabeth Gilman and Geoffrey Underwood, “Restricting the Field of View to Investigate the Perceptual
Spans of Pianists,” Visual Cognition 10, no. 2 (2003): 229.
79
80
Ibid.
81
Wristen, 51.
22
their study of sight-reading. In practicing for a performance, one should correct their
mistakes; however, when sight-reading, the rhythm and meter must be maintained despite
how many mistakes are made. In practicing for a performance, one should keep their focus
on the hands: however, when sight-reading, one must keep the eyes focused on the page.
When practicing for a performance, one should focus on the details; however in sight-
reading, the larger picture is more important than details. When practicing for a performance,
one should be sure to use correct fingering, whereas in sight-reading, one should play as
many of the notes as possible with any fingering. Finally, when practicing for a performance,
one should “avoid errors and omissions,” whereas in sight-reading, inaccuracies are
permissible. 82 The goals of performance practice differ greatly from the goals of sight-
reading.
There are many universal principles that govern the pedagogical field of sight-
reading. The following discussion presents five general principles found throughout the
writings of musical pedagogues, performers, and researchers. These five principles include
visual, aural, kinesthetic, conceptual, and motivational strategies.
Visual: Scanning, Anticipating, Intervals, Eye

Contact, Chunking
The grand staff can be an overwhelming sight to a beginning piano student. There are
many unfamiliar symbols that can create a daunting sense of unfamiliarity, especially for a
younger student who is still elementary in the skill of reading and writing. Music teachers
across the country recognize the challenges in the teaching of music reading and have
addressed these challenges in articles, thesis, dissertations, and studies.
SCANNING
Professor of Music and Conductor of the Wind Symphony at The Catholic University
of America in Washington, D.C., Robert J. Garofalo highlights the importance of scanning
before playing. Garofalo’s first tip for teachers is to allow the students to silently review the
material to be sight-read before playing. He then suggests that the instructor “walk through”
the piece with the students to guide them into any potential technical challenges (i.e., “meter
82
Wristen, 145.
23
and tempo changes, key changes, climaxes, repeat signs…”). 83 Following a close analysis of
the piece, Garafalo insists that his students are to sight-read through the passage without
stopping to correct mistakes.
McLean points out that having students read and analyze the score in a group setting
before playing helps focus their attention on reading without the added pressure to play: “All
students can then concentrate on actual reading (as opposed to the technical aspects of their
instruments).” 84 Saxon similarly emphasizes the importance of “previewing” the music. He
suggests that the student “ . . . preview the music before beginning to play, paying particular
attention to meter, rhythmic information, key signature and repeat signs.” 85 There are many
aspects to the musical score, all of which can be analyzed prior to playing.
ANTICIPATING
The ability to read ahead, or “perceptual span,” 86 has been compared between skilled
sight-readers and less skilled sight-readers. Studies have shown that the “ . . . perceptual span
for single-line melodies encompasses about six or seven notes for good readers but only three
or four notes for less-skilled readers.” 87 The greater a student’s ability to scan ahead, the
greater the success will be in sight-reading. Piano pedagogue Katherine Clark has her
students constantly looking ahead during sight-reading: “The eyes should move ahead and
the student should read phrases, not notes.” 88 Piano pedagogue Rebecca Johnson highlights
the importance of reading ahead in her article in American Music Teacher: “ . . . expert
readers have been found to generally read up to seven notes ahead . . . “ 89 Many piano
teachers emphasize the importance of reading ahead and have created teaching strategies to
help students do so.
83
Wristen, 145
84
Ibid., 68.
85
Saxon, 24.
86
Ibid., 139.
87
Ibid.
88
Clark, 89.
89
Rebecca Grooms Johnson, “What’s New in Pedagogy Research?” American Music Teacher 57, no. 4
(February/March 2008): 74.
24
In order for students to become accustomed to reading ahead, McLean suggests that
students “read at least one measure in advanced. Count a complete measure before
beginning.” 90 Fellow music teacher, Cathy Coppola offers two more strategies for having
students read ahead in her article entitled “Taking Time Out for Sight-Reading.” She
suggested that, in order to force students to look ahead, the teacher should cover “ . . . each
note on the page as it is played, so that the students has no choice but to focus on the next
note before having to play it.” 91 When one anticipates the next note, they have the ability to
absorb smaller bits of information quickly. Research has shown that expert sight-readers
have the ability to “ . . . fixate their eyes on a specific location on the score for shorter
durations . . .” 92 This is a habit that must be formed in the early stages of sight-reading. To
promote effective fixations during a lesson, Shockley has specific reading exercises she calls
“snapshot memorization,” which she describes as “glancing at a phrase or a single measure,
then immediately playing it from memory.” 93 These strategies can be incorporated when
teaching sight-reading to students in a private or group lesson.
Piano teacher Rebecca Johnson mentions a technique she uses to help her students
read ahead. This involves helping students take advantage of notes with long rhythmic
durations to look ahead when sight-reading. 94 Teachers can begin to train their students to
use longer note values to look ahead in their music.
In order to promote the habit of looking ahead, Cathy Coppola describes a game she
calls the “lights-out technique.” 95 In this game, the teacher suddenly removes the sight-
reading passage to see how far the student can continue playing. This game promotes a light-
hearted and safe approach to challenging a student’s formation of good sight-reading habits.
Another technique, promoted by Lehmann and McArthur, is to have the student play “ . . .
only the notes that occur on designated beats, thus forcing the eyes to arrive on time at future
90
Johnson, 68.
91
Coppola, 76.
92
Wristen, 49.
93
Shockley, 97.
94
Ibid.
95
Coppola, 76.
25
beats . . .” 96 These teaching strategies can add variety to a sight-reading lesson, while also
reinforcing the necessary skills required to look ahead while reading.
INTERVALS
Alexander promotes the intervallic reading approach. He suggests that the student
learn select pitches on the staff as “landmark or anchor notes” and then reading in terms of
interval size and direction from those notes. 97 Saxon agrees that ability to read by intervals
surpasses the ability to read individual pitches. “There is evidence that the eyes do not look
directly at each note, but they, instead, look between notes to measure their intervals.” 98
When guiding the student in sight-reading activities, the teacher can encourage intervallic
reading by correcting the interval, rather than the individual pitches.
EYE CONTACT
Since keeping eye contact with the page is necessary in order to gather information
from the score, it is important for students to be trained to do so. In order to promote an
“eyes-on-the-page” approach to reading, Saxon suggests that the teacher ask questions such
as: “Which hand plays first, and what is the first pitch it plays?” 99 A significant goal for
teachers is to create an encounter for the student to first experience music with the eyes.
Saxon uses a progressive approach by setting small goals for the student. He has the students
start with reading two measures without looking down, followed by four measures, etc. 100
Additionally, Saxon points out the importance of encouraging students with small accolades:
“ . . . Reward students who continue playing with their eyes on the page despite making a
mistake.” 101 Saxon combines his “eyes-on-the-page” goal with the teaching of rhythmic
tracking. “A student that can count out loud will have no difficulty in keeping his eyes on the
96
97
Alexander, 29.
98
Saxon, 24.
99
Ibid., 23.
100
Ibid.
101
Ibid.
26
page.” 102 Teachers can incorporate game-like activities to encourage their students to
maintain eye contact with the page.
CHUNKING
The reading of harmonic elements, such as chords, can be used in order to help
students see larger patterns in music. Pedagogue Thomas Wolf breaks down the ways sight-
readers can practically demonstrate this chunking technique: “If [the sight-reader] sees a
chord made up of several Fs, As, Cs, and E-flats, he will automatically think ‘F7’ even
though the chord may be composed of six or eight notes. If he sees a sixteenth-note scale
passage, which extends from the first beat of the measure to the third, he can again process
eight notes as a chunk.” 103 Shockley agrees that “chunking” behavior is supremely effective
in for pattern recognition and memory. She proves her point with an analogy: “ . . . in
memorizing a long number, such as 7762422303, it is generally easier to chunk it into short
groups of digits, such as 776-242-2303.” 104 She compares this technique to musicians and
their ability to recognize individual pieces of information (notes) and categorize them into
larger units. “Chord symbols and other types of musical shorthand are tools for chunking
information.” 105 Therefore, it seems necessary that students receive this type of training in
the early stages of note reading.
Aural: Playing by Ear, Sight-Singing

Aural skills involve a variety of elements. For some teachers, such as June McLean,
the aural component may simply be chanting musical elements out loud. In her article
entitled “The Instrumentalist Speaks as well as Plays,” McClean suggest that students
deliberately “read aloud” the various details of the score (key signature, meter, clef), “count
102
Saxon, 23.
103
Thomas Wolf, “A Cognitive Model of Musical Sight-Reading,” Journal of Psycholinguistic Research
5, no. 2 (1976): 156.
104
Shockley, 5.
105
Ibid.
27
aloud” the beats, “read aloud” the note names, as well as the fingering, and finally to “read
aloud” the notes in the precise rhythm of the score. 106
However, there are many pedagogues who believe that aural training goes much
deeper. Developing in innate sense for music allows students to go beyond the written page
and hear music within themselves. This skill is fostered by two main activities: playing by
ear and sight singing.
PLAYING BY EAR
A student’s ability to “think in sound,” as stated by McPherson and Parncutt, forms
the very backbone of their innate musicianship. “When reading musical notation, ‘thinking in
sound’ involves an ability to inwardly hear and comprehend notation separately from the act
of performance.” 107 Playing by ear is one way that teachers encourage students to rely on
their aural skills. This process can start at a very young age: “In the beginning stages of
development, [linking sound with action] means encouraging students to reproduce simple
known tunes by ear, before they learn to read these songs from musical notation.” 108 In fact,
certain pedagogues believe that playing by ear should precede the introduction to the musical
staff: “ . . . musical sensitivity should be developed before the introduction of notation
because ‘without some musical knowledge a beginner has no expectancies which can be used
in reading.’” 109
Shockley emphasizes aural skills in her book Mapping Music: For Faster Learning
and Secure Memory. Shockley summarizes the importance of combining ear playing skills
with note-reading: “Although playing by ear and playing from memory are viewed by some
as detrimental to sight reading, both play a role in sight reading. Good sight readers
recognize familiar patterns quickly and execute them while their eyes are reading ahead.” 110
When students are not accustomed to recognizing patterns on the staff, their ability to carry
out these patterns on the keyboard is greatly inhibited, as Shockley points out: “Failure to
106
Shockley, 68.
107
108
Ibid.
109
Ibid.
110
Shockley, 3.
28
recognize patterns in a score or to ‘know’ these patterns by feel on the keyboard are common
causes of reading problems.” 111 Playing by ear is one way teachers help students develop the
ability to naturally feel patterns in music.
SIGHT-SINGING
The process of sight singing involves replicating aurally what one sees visually. This
technique has been referred to as “audiation.” 112 Cross and Hiatt cite Edwin Gordon’s
definition of audiation as follows: “the ability to hear and to comprehend music for which the
sound is not physically present (as in recall), is no longer physically present (as in listening),
or may never have been physically present (as in creativity and improvisation.” 113 Many
pedagogues view the process of sight-singing as the best way to foster the process of
audiation: “ . . . the use of the voice clearly is the best way to train the ear during the early
stages of musical development.” 114 Music theorist Robert Rawlins asserts that “ . . . singing
is the only true test to see if the instrumentalist actually can hear the music being played with
the mind’s ear, without an instrument.” 115 Teachers can use sight-singing to foster a student’s
ability to hear music before it is played.
Developing a student’s skill in sight-singing is dependent upon “ . . . reading a great
quantity of comparatively easy music.” 116 This may involve using only notes that are the
same and an interval of a second apart. Larger intervals can be incorporated in a progressive
manner once intervals of smaller distance are securely reinforced. Rawlins believes that
sight-singing skills can be nurtured slowly through “ . . . concentrated practice on a small
amount of challenging material.” 117 The gradual challenge of sight-singing, along with
playing by ear, will help to develop a student’s aural skills.
111
Shockley, 3.
112
Ibid.
113
Sam Cross and James S. Hiatt, “Teaching and Using Audiation in Classroom Instruction and Applied
Lessons with Advanced Students,” Music Educators Journal 92, no. 5 (May 2006): 46.
114
Robert Rawlins, “Sight Singing for Instrumentalists,” American Music Teacher 55, no. 3 (December
2005/January 2006): 27.
115
Ibid.
116
Ibid., 27.
117
Ibid., 28.
29
Kinesthetic: Keyboard Geography, Constant Pulse,

Rhythm
Sight-reading is grounded in kinesthetic elements. Three categories of kinesthetic
factors to be discussed are the following: an awareness of the keyboard geography, a feel for
constant pulse, and a sense for rhythm.
KEYBOARD GEOGRAPHY
Basic concepts such as keyboard geography, once fully grasped, provide the student
with a firm foundation in order to experience success in sight-reading at the beginning levels.
Brenda Wristen agrees: “In the first few years of study, sight-reading may consist only of
tapping rhythmic patterns or playing single-line melodies with either the right hand or the left
hand. Establishing basic motor patterns, such as finger control, and gaining familiarity with
the geography of the keyboard are thus prerequisites to sight-reading.” 118 Many teachers
believe that a feel for keyboard geography is an essential kinesthetic skill that must be
developed prior to note-reading. One such teacher is Reid Alexander, who lists keyboard
topography as one of his prerequisites for note-reading. 119
CONSTANT PULSE
Another essential skill necessary for successful sight-reading is the ability to maintain
a constant pulse. With regards to sight-reading proficiency, Clark insists that keeping a
constant pulse is of much higher importance than playing correct notes. “The important
thing, at first, is to keep going. Since rhythm is the framework of melody, it should never be
sacrificed for the correct reading of notes.” 120 Wristen likewise acknowledges this as a vital
technique in her pedagogical article, highlighting that the most crucial aspect of sight-reading
is “ . . . the ability to perform in ‘real time’ without stopping to decipher the written score or
correct mistakes. Maintaining a continuous rhythmic pulse is paramount.” 121 Wristen and
Clark are not the only teachers who agree that maintaining a constant pulse is a necessary
118
Wristen, 45.
119
Alexander, 29.
120
Clark, 89.
121
Wristen, 47.
30
element in sight-reading. Maurice E. Wright, former band director of the public schools of
Burlington, Iowa, emphasizes that the teacher help the student maintain the habit of playing
from the beginning to the end without stopping to acknowledge mistakes. 122
Piano performer and pedagogue Sheryl Lott Richardson makes the distinction
between the goals of sight-reading and the goals of performing in her article published in the
American Music Teacher. In regards to playing without stopping, Richardson states that “ . . .
playing through mistakes or stopping to correct and drill sections are two different means
toward two different but interrelated goals of convincing sight playing and cohesive
performance.” 123 In order for students to maintain a constant pulse, they must be trained to
play through their mistakes in the very beginning stages of sight-reading.
A “cohesive performance” is hindered by the habit of stopping and starting in a piece
while practicing, which professional bassist Mike Downes points out in his article in the
Canadian Musician: “If you are reading with other musicians, [stopping for a mistake] will
derail the music. If you keep time, and play whatever you can (mistakes included), you at
least keep the musical form intact.” 124
There are many techniques teachers use to train their students to keep a constant
pulse, without stopping to correct mistakes. To encourage his students from not stopping
while sight-reading, Saxon saves all corrections until the student has completed any song or
exercise: “ . . . I never correct mistakes in the middle of their performance. I correct all
mistakes when the piece is complete.” 125 Regardless of what the student is playing during a
lesson (performance piece or drill), Saxon has the student continue their habit of continuing
through mistakes. In this way, they are indirectly “ . . . practicing good sight-reading
technique and good musicianship.” 126 The habit of continuing through mistakes not only
helps the student, but as Shockley points out, guides the teacher in assessing the student’s
ability. By encouraging students to continue playing through mistakes, the teacher will “ . . .
122
Wright, 63.
123
Sheryl Lott Richardson, “Music as Language: Sight Playing through Access to a Complete Musical
Vocabulary,” American Music Teacher 53 (June 2004): 25.
124
Mike Downes, “Sight-Reading,” Canadian Musician 30, no. 2 (March/April 2008), 27.
125
Saxon, 24.
126
Ibid.
31
learn a lot about what they see in a score and how well they understand it.” 127 The habit of
maintaining a constant pulse not only aids the student in sight-reading, but also helps the
teacher in evaluating their student’s skill.
RHYTHM
There are many techniques that teachers use to reinforce rhythm. Second grade
teacher Jo Ann Wagstaff incorporates an elementary form of rhythmic dictation to her class.
In order to accomplish this, Wagstaff has her students echo-clap the rhythm of a piece. Once
the students experience the rhythm in the form of clapping, she has her students write the
symbols on the board that correspond to each note. In order to emphasize a thorough
repetition of the rhythm, Wagstaff erases specific parts of the notation little by little, until the
entire rhythm is memorized. Once this is accomplished, the students are given a piece of
paper to write the entire rhythm down. In the sixth step, Wagstaff finally introduces the “tone
syllables.” 128 Although her procedures are specifically for reading by sight, Wagstaff’s
teaching goal is directed for sight-singing, rather than sight-playing.
Pedagogue Reid Alexander similarly focuses on the rhythmic component when
introducing pieces to his students. His very first step is rhythm-based: “Tap the musical
example while counting aloud.” 129 The second step involves both rhythm and the
examination of the spatial distance between notes: “Point and say the intervals and/or note
names in rhythm, both forwards and backwards.” 130 The third step involves the keyboard in
relation to the staff: “Find the starting pitch for each hand (correct register and correct
finger).” 131 Once the student has established the appropriate hand position, they are to play
the example through twice, once for rhythmic counting, and then for the identification of
pitch names: “Play the example while counting aloud. Then play and say the note names
127
Shockley, 97.
128
Ibid.
129
Alexander, 29.
130
Ibid.
131
Ibid.
32
aloud.” 132 As shown, Alexander has the students counting rhythm throughout the entire
process.
Another factor encouraging success in rhythm reading is maintaining a slow tempo.
In her article, Brenda Wristen comments that using a slow tempo allows students “ . . . more
time both for cognitive processing and to enact the appropriate motor sequences without
unduly taxing the body.” 133 Rhythmic clapping and dictation, as well as maintaining a slow
tempo when playing, are techniques teachers use to reinforce rhythmic accuracy.
Conceptual: Transposition, Improvisation, Harmony

From the very beginning stages of note-reading development, many teachers
incorporate supplemental activities that enrich the student’s application of sight-reading
principles. These activities provide a deeply rooted theoretical foundation for which to build
their note-reading skills. The following section presents a discussion of techniques of
transposition, improvisation and the understanding of keyboard harmony.
TRANSPOSITION
Reid Alexander is among many teachers who highlight the use of transposition to
enhance the student’s reading ability. While reading intervals on the staff develops the
recognition of exact pitches, Alexander explains that transposition is an advanced step in
developing reading skills. “[Transposition] explores different registers of the keyboard and
draws upon the pupil’s intervallic reading and aural listening skills.” 134 Sue Haug agrees in
her article in the American Music Teacher: “ Use transposition as a way to focus attention to
patterns. This requires students to notice pitch patterns such as the contour of the melody or a
harmonic progression.” 135 In her guide to teachers, Shockley also places much value on the
effectiveness of transposition as a means of improving intervallic reading. “Transposition is
one of the most effective ways to improve reading skills because it develops intervallic
132
Alexander, 29.
133
Wristen, 48.
134
Alexander, 29.
135
Sue Haug, “Sight Playing and Visual Perception: The Eyes Have it,” American Music Teacher 40, no. 3
(December/January 1990–91): 71.
33
reading and awareness of basic shapes and patterns, such as chords and scales in all keys.” 136
Having students transpose simple melodies can be used to reinforce intervallic reading.
IMPROVISATION
Reid Alexander points out that the skill of improvising reinforces reading in a
creative way. “Elements of a composition already learned can be used as a springboard for
further creativity including improvisation.” 137 Brenda Wristen also recommends the
technique of improvisation in order to achieve a sense for harmonic context: “Students can
apply theoretical principles through improvising a melody over a provided chord progression
. . .” 138
Another technique to build a student’s fluency in improvisation is the drilling of
scales and arpeggios: “Scales and arpeggios [serve] as a means of learning the common
vocabulary of musical language, and when passages [are] practiced in isolation from the
music it [is] for the purpose of developing a range of musical skills, such as sight-reading,
improvisation, and composition.” 139 Once scales and arpeggios become second nature,
students can improvise with more freedom and ease.
Since the success of sight-reading is largely based on the ability to read in patterns,
Wristen points out that improvisation can help to nurture this ability: “Guided improvisation
drill has also been postulated as a means of increasing pattern recognition.” 140 Shockley
agrees in her guide to teachers: “ . . . knowledge of basic chord progressions and the ability to
harmonize melodies and improvise on a harmonic progression give the keyboard player a
tremendous advantage in learning.” 141 Shockley later adds that the skill of improvising, once
mastered, lessens the hesitation students feel when sight-reading. “As they practice the skill
and begin to acquire a vocabulary of basic patterns, their improvisations will become more
fluent and more sophisticated. This, in turn, will give them more confidence in sight-reading .
136
Shockley, 3.
137
Alexander, 29.
138
Wristen, 51.
139
140
Wristen, 51.
141
Shockley, 3.
34
. .” 142 Teachers can ultimately use improvisation as a fun way to build a student’s confidence
in sight-reading.
HARMONY
Music teacher Mary E. Colles shows how harmony plays an important role in
improvising, which can result in improved sight-reading. In order to achieve pattern and
chord recognition while sight-reading, Colles has the student identify “the melodic outline
contained in the chord, and the hand position which is best suited to it.” 143 Colles has been
successful in creating sight-reading exercises customized to the harmonies in the student’s
repertoire. “The actual exercise of selecting a group of chords from a piece and making little
tunes from the harmonies has been found most helpful . . . ” 144
Aside from sight-reading harmonies, Colles adds that the playing of chord
progressions in multiple keys is essential in developing the student’s natural sense for
harmony and it’s relation to the staff: “The early playing of cadences, keeping to a definite
fingering, is another important habit for children to form with relation to sight-reading. The
feeling for expected terminations, and the instinct as to the position of the hand, all tend to
make the performance intelligible.” 145 Brenda Wristen also emphasizes the importance of a
student’s ability to recognize harmonic framework: “ . . . musicians need to be familiar with
the deep background knowledge that governs musical context, including an understanding of
harmonic and tonal function . . .” 146 Understanding the fundamental concepts of harmony
serves as a foundation for successful sight-reading.
In Shockley’s guide to teachers, she places a strong emphasis on the student’s
knowledge of harmony and chord “shapes” not only on the staff, but also on the keyboard.
When a familiarity with chord structure is not attained, sight-reading ability is affected.
“Because [students] do not notice shape or direction in a score, their ‘feel’ for chord shapes
and other patterns at the keyboard is poorly developed, and their fingers often move in a
142
Shockley, 97.
143
Colles, 614.
144
Ibid.
145
Ibid., 615.
146
Wristen, 51.
35
disorganized fashion when they are sight-reading.” 147 Shockley strongly suggests that
teachers introduce students to basic chord progressions they are already accustomed to
hearing and playing by pointing them out in their repertoire pieces. “Students who have
learned to recognize familiar chord progressions in a piece have developed a ‘feel’ for chords
in various keys and will sight-read more fluently . . .” 148
Sight-reading can also be used when introducing a new repertoire piece to a student,
at any level or age. In preparing a student for a new piece, Shockley suggests that the teacher
anticipate the reading challenges by providing a related exercise that emphasize keyboard
geography and harmonic context. “A good way to prepare students for sight-reading a pieces
is to give them drills based on patterns found in the pieces, such as scales or chords.” 149
Many teachers can use these drills as a catalyst for sight-reading proficiency.
Motivating Factors: Collaboration and Challenge

Sight-reading does not have to be an independent endeavor, as students are motivated
by the incorporation of auxiliary factors. Two of these outside elements are collaborative
activities and the intrigue of a progressive challenge.
COLLABORATION
To engage a child in the discipline of sight-reading, Alexander recognizes the
inclusion of accompanying CD or MIDI accompaniments. Likewise, a study done by
Lehmann and Ericsson concluded that “ . . . pianists with more collaborative experience are
better sight-readers.” 150 Since most simple reading melodies lack an aesthetic value,
Alexander points out that the recorded accompaniments “provide a wonderful musical
environment during practice.” 151 Playing with recorded accompaniments can be a motivating
activity for students.
147
Shockley, 3.
148
Ibid., 4.
149
Ibid., 101.
150
Alexander, 53.
151
Ibid., 29.
36
Piano teacher Wikeley has found that piano duets can be a rewarding experience for
students at even the beginning stages of development. “Piano duets are a great start for
beginners as the simplest scalic passage can sound inspiring with a suitably imaginative
accompaniment.” 152 Pianist and conductor John Kember also emphasizes the importance of
duets as they relate to sight-reading in his article “Sight For Sore Eyes.” Kember
acknowledges that when students engage in sight-reading activities in the form of duets or
ensemble work, they are “ . . . encouraged not only to keep going rather than to hesitate or
correct their mistakes, but also to hold their line while something else is going on
musically.” 153 Kember points out that when students play with a teacher accompaniment,
they are given “ . . . a tone quality to emulate, ” 154 as opposed to practicing at home without
the comparison of a superior performance. Duets can be used by teachers to motivate
students and provide them with a fun challenge.
CHALLENGE
Not only do accompaniments offer pleasing harmonies, but they can also motivate the
children to keep a steady tempo, which serves as an enticing challenge or game. “The
determination seen in a pupil’s eyes when trying to keep up with the recorded
accompaniment is quite different than when reading music with the teacher.” 155 Students can
be motivated by a challenge to keep up with a recorded accompaniment.
Likewise, Wristen agrees that students’ progress is aided by the continual
involvement of challenge: “ . . . the best way to improve sight-reading ability is to sight-read
progressively more difficult music . . .” 156 The teacher is constantly responsible for assessing
the student’s progress and adjusting sight-reading accordingly to maintain an aspect of
challenge and intrigue.
152
Wikeley, 10.
153
John Kember, “Sight for Sore Eyes,” The Strad 118, no. 1409 (December 2009): 63.
154
Ibid.
155
Ibid., 29.
156
Wristen, 54.
37
McPherson and Parncutt similarly advocate the necessity of a continual increase in

difficulty: “We can observe that when someone sight-reads extensively but only at a
particular, unchanging level of difficulty, then this person will not improve despite the
accumulation of experience . . . However, when this experience is combined with deliberate
training efforts, be it through the choice of increasingly difficult reading material or through
the strategic building up of a suitable accompanying repertoire, then the correlation between
experience and level of sight-reading can be expected to increase.” 157 Sight-reading can be
improved with the intrigue of a gradual challenge.
SUMMARY
The sight-reading process requires the simultaneous coordination between
physiological and conceptual elements. Although various pedagogues focus on one specific
element in their writings, there is a collective agreement that there are four key components
to successful sight-reading − visual, aural, kinesthetic, and conceptual.
In order for students to successfully visualize the score, teachers agree that students
should scan, or preview their music prior to playing. While sight-reading, teachers agree that
there are four visual strategies: looking ahead to anticipate the next note, reading
intervallically, maintaining eye contact with the page, and chunking groups of notes together.
Most teachers agree that playing by ear and sight singing are two main activities that will
ultimately develop a student’s aural skills. Teachers also agree that three kinesthetic
components are involved in the sight-reading process: a familiarity with the feel for the keys
(keyboard geography), an internalized feel for constant pulse, and a strong rhythmic sense.
The three conceptual activities that teachers use to reinforce successful sight-reading
are as follows: transposition, improvisation, and keyboard harmony. In developing these
skills, there was not a common agreement among teachers regarding the sequential order.
Saxon insists that the teacher not combine all into one session, rather they are to train their
students in a progressive manner. “Don’t proceed beyond ‘eyes-on-the-page’ and ‘count-out-
157
38
loud’ until a student can demonstrate their capability and willingness to read while counting
out loud with his eyes on the page.” 158
Piano teacher Jonathan Wikeley also promotes the progressive development of sight-
reading at an early age, just as one develops technique. 159 Wikely points out in his article
“Sightreading: No Longer a Dirty Word,” that if the student has grown accustomed to sight-
reading regularly from the very beginning stages, the task will not seem as daunting in later
stages of musical development. Once standard classical repertoire is introduced, the student
will be ready to sight-read pieces that enrich the study of each time period. “This is all about
developing your knowledge of the piano repertoire, of finding out what other works were
written at the same time as that Beethoven sonata you’re learning…” 160 Sight-reading can be
used to build a student’s appreciation for musical history.
158
Saxon, 23.
159
Wikeley, 10.
160
Ibid.
39
CHAPTER 3
ANALYSIS: SIGHT-READING CURRICULA AND

YAMAHA’S YOUNG MUSICIAN’S COURSE
This chapter includes an analysis of two categories of piano curricula used in the field
of piano pedagogy. The first category examined includes progressive sight-reading books
used in the United States. The second category focuses upon an analysis of Yamaha’s Young
Musician’s Course, a Japanese method designed for teaching group piano to young children.
Both of these curricula were examined for historical background, stated teaching
philosophies, and musical concepts.
ANALYSIS OF THREE SIGHT-READING CURRICULA IN

THE UNITED STATES
In the United States, many beginning piano methods do not include sight-reading
activities beyond the learning of new pieces. For this reason, teachers often supplement piano
methods with additional sight-reading exercises to develop a student’s confidence in reading
music. The three sight-reading curricula examined in this study are the Four Star Sight
Reading and Ear Tests series by Boris Berlin and Andrew Markow (edited by Scott McBride
Smith), Sight-Reading by Ling Ling, and Improve Your Sight-Reading! by Paul Harris. Each
of these sight-reading curricula is explored for the following elements: organizational
framework, fingering, hand coordination, rhythm, key signatures, harmony, and aural
development. The first category, organizational framework, refers to the overall organization
of each sight-reading series including the number of levels and the ways in which each level
is subdivided into smaller categories. The rhythmic category reviews the specific rhythmic
values that are presented in each level, encompassing any supplemental activities that are
included for further reinforcement. Following the review of rhythmic elements, each series is
examined for the presentation and variety of key signatures. The next category, harmony,
discusses the combination of tones in the two hands to create harmonic progressions of triads
or harmonic intervals. Finally, the three sight-reading series are assessed for their
incorporation of ear-training activities to promote aural development.
40
Four-Star Sight-Reading and Ear Tests, Boris Berlin

and Andrew Markow (2002)
The Four Star Sight-Reading and Ear Tests was created by Boris Berlin and Andrew
Markow. The series was published by Frederick Harris Music in 2002. The editor for this
series is Scott McBride Smith. This endeavor was not Berlin’s first successful book for
teaching, because as he also authored the beginning piano method The ABC of Piano
Playing, 161 a beginning piano method. Before Berlin died in 2001, he was one of Canada’s
most admired music educators and composers, serving as faculty member for the University
of Toronto and the Royal Conservatory of Music, Toronto. 162 Similarly, Andrew Markow
currently serves as an adjunct professor at the Faculty of Music, University of Toronto,
where he also studied piano performance and piano pedagogy. He currently performs,
coaches, and teaches master classes throughout North America. 163
The Four Star Sight-Reading and Ear Tests series encompasses eleven graded books,
from beginning to advanced. The sight-reading materials from the Introductory book through
Level 4 consist of originally composed exercises, while levels 5 through 10 feature sight-
reading exercises made of portions of standard repertoire. The series is designed to prepare
students for numerous examinations including the following: Royal Conservatory of Music
Examinations, National Music Certificate Program, Certificate of Merit (MTAC), National
Guild of Piano Teachers, and the curricula of most Music Teacher’s National Association
affiliates. 164 Berlin and Markow state their teaching philosophy in the preface of their series:
The goal of the Four Star series is to develop [visual learning skills, tactile sense,
aural ability, and analytical skills] in equal measure. In the process of completing
the Four Star series, students will improve not only their sight-reading skills but
also their proficiency in learning and memorizing music. They will also expand
161
Boris Berlin and Andrew Markow, Four Star Sight Reading and Ear Tests, Level 1 (Mississauga,
Canada: Frederick Harris Music Co., 2002), back cover.
162
Frederick Harris Music, “Our Authors and Composers,” Frederick Harris Muisc Comoany,
http://www.frederickharrismusic. com/FHMCsite/capricorn?para=showPage&docId=authors&section=**
(accessed November 15, 2011).
163
Berlin and Markow, back cover.
164
Frederick Harris Music, “Four Star Sight Reading and Ear Tests, Product Detail,” Frederick Harris
Music Company Ltd., http://www.frederickharrismusic.com/ FHMCsite/capricorn?para=show
Page&docId=catShowProd &section=**&prodCode=4S1&fromCatCode=&actionType =show&tree
Path=&categoryDesc=&fromTree=Y&pageNum=&level=&code= (accessed November 15, 2011).
41
their coordination of eyes, ears, and hands, and their powers of concentration and
observation. As a result, Four Star students will develop confidence in themselves
and in their musical abilities and performance. 165
The Four Star series includes daily activities for the student to not only practice sight-
reading, but also to clap rhythmic patterns, memorize short melodic passages, and eventually
play two-measure melodies by ear. These skills are assessed with a “Final Four Start Test” at
the conclusion of each book.
ORGANIZATIONAL FRAMEWORK
Each book in the Four Star series consists of sight-reading and ear-training examples
for the student to complete. There are five sight-reading exercises per week. A short
preparatory drill incorporates the most challenging aspect of each example. The ear-training
exercises consist of rhythmic clapping as well as short melodic sight-reading passages to be
sight-read twice before being executed by memory. Each week of sight-reading and ear-
training has a coordinating test for the teacher to complete with the student during the lesson.
All weekly tests as well as a final comprehensive test are included in the concluding portion
of each book.
FINGERING
In the Introductory Level, students are given a two to three-measure melody written
in either the treble or the bass clef; a finger number is given for the first note. Prior to playing
each two-measure example, students are given preparatory drills such as a single whole note
in each clef to name and play with a specific finger. Once the grand staff is introduced in
(week seven), the sight-reading examples are expanded to four measures. The starting finger
is always given for each hand.
In Level 1, the hands remain in a stationary five-finger position, and the student is
given a starting finger number for each hand. Prior to each sight-reading example, students
are given a short preparatory drill for practicing the challenges of each sight-reading passage.
The early preliminary drills include finger techniques, such as substitutions on the same note.
In an attempt to provide the student with adequate finger reinforcement, various drills include
165
Berlin and Markow, back cover.
42
fingering prompts within the same hand five-finger position. These drills reflect the same
finger movement found in the subsequent sight-reading example. The hand positions in Level
2 similarly remain in a stationary five-finger position, and progress to more advanced
techniques such as finger and hand position changes. Level 3 advances to simultaneous
changes of fingers in both hands. The finger numbers are always given to indicate a change
of hand position.
HAND COORDINATION
In the Introductory Level, the sight-reading exercises are designed for one hand only.
Each of these examples remains in a five-finger position. The students play with alternating
hands once the grand staff is introduced (two measures per hand). The hand coordination in
the first level begins with one hand at a time (either bass or treble clef). The coordination
progresses to alternating between treble and bass clefs several times within the example.
Later in Level 1, the hands play together with single whole notes or dotted half notes in the
bass clef with shorter rhythmic durations in the treble clef; this type of coordination only
occurs three times in the first level. To prepare for hands-together playing, preparatory drills
are included that isolate harmonies made by single notes in each hand. Other preliminary
steps to sight-reading each example include playing similar melodic passages at slower
rhythmic durations. The accurate execution of articulations such as slurs and staccatos is
expected at these beginning stages of reading. Level 2 reinforces minimal hands-together
playing; the left hand sustains longer rhythmic values while the right hand performs the
melodic line in quarter notes, half notes, or combinations. Sight-reading examples in Level 3
begin with hands-together playing with half notes in the left hand and quarter notes in the
right hand. The coordination progresses to shorter durations in the bass clef such as quarter
notes and eighth notes, while the right hand also plays quarter notes and eighth notes.
RHYTHM
For isolated rhythmic reinforcement, the Four Star Sight-Reading and Ear Tests
series provides students with daily clapping exercises. These drills are three to four measures
in length and consist of rhythms both on and off the staff. In the Introductory Level, students
are required to clap rhythmic examples made up of quarter notes, quarter rests, half notes,
and dotted-half notes. The time signatures used are 4/4, 2/4, and 3/4.
43
In Level 1, these clapping patterns are presented both on the first space of the treble
clef or off of the staff. Rhythmic patterns in Level 1 encompass quarter notes, quarter rests,
half notes, eighth notes, and dotted half notes. Within the “Daily Ear Training Exercises,”
students are required to clap melodic passages on the staff, and then by memory. These
examples are up to four measures in length. Whereas the rhythmic reading passages do not
include eighth notes until much later in Level 1, eighth notes are introduced early in these
ear-training activities. Although the rhythmic clapping advances rapidly to dotted quarter
notes and eighth notes, these specific rhythmic values are not included in the sight-reading
examples.
Sight-reading passages in Levels 2 and 3 use eighth notes more frequently, as well as
combinations of quarter notes and half notes. Throughout Levels 1, 2, and 3, time signatures
for sight-reading and rhythmic clapping include 4/4, 3/4, and 2/4. In general, the daily
rhythmic drills in the Four Star Sight-Reading and Ear Tests series use more advanced
rhythms than that of the sight-reading exercises.
KEY SIGNATURES
In the Introductory Level, the sight-reading passages are written exclusively in the
key of C major. Level 1 advances to the keys of C, G, and F major, as well as A and D
minor. When a new key signature is being introduced, accidentals are given in the
preparatory drills as well as the first sight-reading examples. For instance, in the Level 1
“Daily Sight-Reading Exercises No. 4,” the first three daily sight-reading exercises in G
major include a marked F-sharp. 166 As a preparatory aid, the sharp symbols are included in
parentheses before the student is completely reliant on the key signature. Similarly, the
accidental of B-flat is given as a preparation for the key of F Major in Level 1. In Level 2,
students continue to play in the keys used in Level 1 and are also introduced to F minor.
Finally, students begin to play in D Major and G minor in Level 3. While new key signatures
in Level 1 were introduced with accidentals, the keys of D major and G minor are not given
any preparatory aid.
166
Berlin and Markow, 16–17.
44
MELODIC INTERVALS
The most preliminary sight-reading examples in the Introductory Level use only
melodic seconds. Thirds first appear in the sight-reading for “Daily Sight-Reading Exercises
No. 3.” Fifths and sixths are introduced in “Daily Sight-Reading Exercises No. 4,” before the
melodic fourth is included in “Daily Sight-Reading Exercises No. 5.” From this point
forward, the remaining sight-reading passages continue to combine intervals ranging from
seconds to sixths.
Although sixths were incorporated in the Introductory Level, they do not reappear in
Level 1; students are expected to play melodic seconds, thirds, fourths, and fifths. The
preparatory exercises allow the students to practice the necessary finger movements prior to
each sight-reading example. Although students are not playing intervals larger than fifths in
the first level, they see sixths in some of the rhythmic reading drills on the staff. Larger
intervals of sixths and sevenths appear in Level 2. These intervals are reinforced in Level 3.
HARMONY
In the preparatory drills, chordal harmony is first introduced when the student reads a
series of melodic thirds, ultimately spelling a major chord. Level 1 introduces C, G, and F
Major triads. To further encourage students to recognize the outline of harmony, the
preparatory drills conclude with the harmonic interval of the highest and lowest notes of the
sight-reading drill. Activities for harmonic recognition of major or minor chords are also
included in the ear training exercises. For instance, before playing a two-measure passage,
students are instructed to determine the key and play the tonic chord. This is followed by a
short melodic phrase in that position. Level 1 introduces passages in C, G and F Major.
Level 2 reinforces these key signatures and additionally A and E major triads. Students are
also exposed to minor tonality (D and F minor triads). Finally, in Level 3, students play
minor triads of A, D, B, and E as well as D and E-flat Major. These chords are often notated
in first or second inversion.
AURAL DEVELOPMENT
The daily ear-training exercises include a rhythm activity and a melody playback
exercise. In the rhythmic category, students are given the option to sing, clap, or tap the
rhythms of short melodies. In melody playbacks, students are instructed to play short two-
45
measure melodies first by sight (after playing the tonic chord) and then from memory. Level
1 includes melodies in C, F, G and D Major.
In addition to the rhythmic exercises and melodic playbacks, Level 2 introduces aural
exploration of intervals. In this section, the student is given a melodic interval and instructed
to play the first note and hum or sing the second note. Students identify the name of the
interval after this process is complete. Level 2 includes major thirds and perfect fifths. The
ear-training activities reinforce C, F, G, and D major. Level 3 adds incorporates the singing
of minor thirds and octaves.
Each level includes ear tests in the final pages of book. These test instruct the teacher
to play a short melody twice, before the student sings, claps, or taps the rhythm from
memory. In addition, students are tested on their ability to play short melodic passages by
ear. For instance, after naming the key and playing the tonic chord, the teacher plays a short
melody twice before the student plays the melody by ear.
Sight Reading Lin Ling Ling (2005)

Sight Reading by Lin Ling Ling was composed in 2005. This series encompasses
eleven levels from preparatory to advanced. Each level includes up to 152 sight-reading
passages ranging from four to eight measures in length. The first page of each book offers the
student instructions for sight-reading, divided into two categories: “How to sight read” and
“After you sight read.” The first category of “How to sight read” gives five instructions
which include scanning through the piece prior to playing for specific elements (key/time
signatures, dynamics, articulation, and rhythm), identifying the first note and starting finger
for each hand, observing the indicated tempo, maintaining eye contact with page, and
continuing to play through mistakes. The next category of “After you sight read” gives two
instructions. The first is to assess your accuracy of rhythm, note-reading, inclusion of
expressive elements, and constant beat. The second instruction is to play the music once
more, correcting any mistakes you may have evaluated.
Each level includes an average of forty pages of sight-reading examples. Each
passage is sequentially numbered and progresses in difficulty from the one previous. There
are 152 four-measure passages in the Preparatory Level to Level 2, and seventy-six eight-
46
measure passages in Level 3. Each passage is given tempo marking such as “Slowly,” or
“Andante.”
FINGERING
The starting finger for each hand is provided in every sight-reading passage. In the
Preparatory Level, all 152 examples remain in a stationary five-finger hand position, while in
Level 1, only the first fifty-eight sight-reading passages maintain a stationary five-finger
hand position. The remaining sight-reading examples in Level 1 (Examples 59 – 66)
incorporate left-hand finger changes; appropriate fingering is provided. After Example 67,
both hands are required to shift away from the initial five-finger position. When these
changes occur, the first finger number is provided for the student.
HAND COORDINATION
The sight-reading passages in the Preparatory Level start with two measures of each
hand at a time; Exercises 62 - 130 use more frequent hand changes. Students are required to
play both hands simultaneously in Exercise 131 of the Preparatory Level, which does not
occur again until Level 1. The sight-reading examples in Level 1 begin with one hand at a
time. The first nine sight-reading passages alternate between two measures of right-hand
playing and two measures of left-hand playing. The level progresses to only one measure of
each hand before alternating, including a whole note sustaining underneath the closing right-
hand melody. The hands-together coordination is introduced with longer rhythmic values in
the left hand while the right hand plays shorter rhythmic values such as quarter notes and
eighth notes. At the end of Level 1, the shorter rhythmic values are incorporated in the left
hand.
Exercises 1–58 in Level 2 continue to reinforce similar hand coordination to Level 1.
Left-hand accompaniment begins to incorporate harmonic thirds, fourths, fifths, and sixths as
well as primary chords. A slow alberti bass is introduced in Exercise 102 with quarter notes
in the left hand. A more advanced alberti bass, using eighth notes, is first introduced in
Exercise 116. Broken primary chords are also incorporated in the later portion of Level 2.
Level 2 concludes with the introduction of left-hand melody accompanied by right-hand
blocked chords. Level 3 continues to use similar coordinating hand movements from Levels
1 and 2, while also incorporating tied left-hand notes and chords.
47
RHYTHM
The first two sight-reading exercises in the Preparatory Level limit the rhythm to
quarter notes, whole notes, and whole rests. Half notes are introduced in Exercise 3, and
quarter rests are first used in Exercise 39. The first time the dotted half note appears is in
Exercise 53. Half rests are included in Exercise 73 and beyond. The last new rhythmic value
in the Preparatory Level is the eighth note, introduced in Exercise 81 and used through the
remaining seventy-one passages. The beginning portion of Level 1 reinforces the rhythmic
values introduced in the Preparatory Level. The first new rhythmic element is the eighth rest,
first appearing in Exercise 62. Shortly after, dotted-quarter notes are first used (Exercise 64).
The remaining sight-reading exercises, including the rest of Level 1 to 3, continue to use the
same rhythmic values previously introduced,
KEY SIGNATURES
Each new key signature is presented without explanation or special preparation,
indicating that students are expected to already understand how to apply key signatures to
each exercises. The progression of key signatures in Level 1 are as follows: C major, G
major, F major, D major, G minor, D minor, A minor, and E minor. Level 2 continues to
reinforce the key signatures from the first level. Level 3 introduces B-flat major, C minor, E-
flat major, and A major.
MELODIC INTERVALS
The first four exercises in the Preparatory Level are limited to using melodic seconds.
Melodic thirds are first used in Exercise 5, and Melodic fourths start appearing after Exercise
7. After melodic fifths are introduced in Exercise 10, the remaining examples continue to use
seconds, thirds, fourths, and fifths; students are required to continue sight-reading these
intervals in Level 1. The octave appears in Level 2 (Exercise 59) and later, in Exercise 77,
the melodic sixth appears in the treble clef. The melodic seventh is first used in Exercise 102
in the bass clef. Level 3 continues to integrate the melodic intervals used in the previous
books.
48
HARMONY
In the Preparatory Level, harmonic elements are minimal. The first time students
experience a harmonic component is when the right hand plays a melody while the left hand
holds a whole note (Exercise 118). Harmonic fifths are used once in the Preparatory Level,
which serve to accompany the melody in the right hand (Exercise 131). The next harmonic
element, used in Level 1, is also in the form of accompanying left-hand fifths in Exercise 32.
Later in Level 1, students are required to play a harmonic third in their right hand (Exercise
118). Similarly, the right hand carries a simple accompaniment with harmonic thirds in
Exercise 124. Lastly, Exercise 136 includes a harmonic third in the left hand, creating the
tonality of a G major chord.
In Level 2, students continue playing harmonic thirds and fifths in the various keys
introduced. Triads first appear in Exercise 59 (C major and G7 chords). Harmonic sixths are
first used in Exercise 62 of Level 2. The first progression incorporating the subdominant
chord is in Exercise 69 in the key of F major. Later, in Exercise 72, students play a tonic
chord in the right hand for the first time. This level continues to incorporate the tonic,
subdominant and dominant chords (F major, C major, E minor, and D minor). Two passages
require students to accompany their left hand with full triads in the right hand (Exercise 140
and 152). Sight-reading passages in Level 3 are harmonized by similar progressions as those
used in Level 2.
AURAL DEVELOPMENT
While there are no ear-training devices in this sight-reading series, Lin Ling Ling
offers separate “Ear Training” books for that purpose.
Improve Your Sight-Reading! Paul Harris (2008)

Improve Your Sight-Reading! is just one of Paul Harris’ publications, as he has
produced over six hundred pedagogical books. 167 He began his musical studies at the Royal
Academy of Music, where he focused his attention on clarinet performance. He continued his
education at the University of London, studying music education. Harris currently dedicates
167
Faber Music, “Paul Harris,” Faber Music Limited, http://www.fabermusic.com/Composers-
Biography.a spx?ComposerId=292 (accessed November 16, 2011).
49
much of his time to adjudicating internationally as well as leading workshops and

seminars. 168 Originally composed for distribution in the United Kingdom, this new edition
of Improve Your Sight-reading! was published by Faber Music Ltd in 2008 specifically for
the United States.
The Improve Your Sight-Reading! series includes eight levels. Harris disperses each
musical concept progressively into nine increments or “stages” within each book. These
stages are structured into rhythmic exercises, melodic exercises, prepared pieces, and finally
a short culmination of each called “Going solo!”
The rhythmic exercises include up to eight short rhythmic drills appearing off of the
musical staff. These passages are between four to eight measures in length. For each of these
drills, Harris instructs students to count two bars before executing each exercise (one
measure out loud and the next measure silently). Harris offers four activities to be done with
each rhythmic exercise: tapping the pulse with one foot while clapping the rhythm, tapping
the steady pulse with one hand while the other taps the rhythm, playing the rhythm on a
single note while the foot taps the steady pulse and, finally, improvising a tune using the
given rhythm while tapping the steady pulse with the foot. The various combinations of
rhythms are designed to prepare the student for the following melodic exercises.
Each of the melodic exercises include up to nine, four to eight measure-long excerpts.
These exercises incorporate the notes and rhythms that are learned in each specific stage. In
order to prepare students for each exercise, Harris offers tips and leading questions to guide
the student. This includes rhythmic preparation (clapping through the exercise prior to
playing), observing the highest and lowest note of the passage to determine finger
positioning, and finally trying to “hear the piece through in your head.” 169 Harris
recommends that the student play the first note before carrying out this technique.
The category of prepared pieces is comprised of two short passages to be sight-read
after careful examination. Preceding each of the prepared pieces are six leading questions to
168
Ibid.
169
Paul Harris, Improve Your Sight-Reading! Level 3 (London: Faber Music Ltd., 2008), 3.
50
guide the student in the preparation leading up to their performance. Questions include
prompts such as “What notes are affected by the key signature?” 170 and “How will you finger
the last four bars of the right hand? Why?” 171
The last category of each stage is “Going solo!” This is the final level of each stage,
where all concepts (notes, rhythms, expressions, etc.) culminate into four to eight measures
of sight-reading. Although specific leading questions are not provided for the “Going solo!”
passages, students are encouraged to apply the preparation methods from the previous three
categories.
FINGERING
In Level 1, the hands remain in stationary five-finger positions; the student is given a
starting finger number for each hand. Reading passages in Level 2 reinforce these positions,
while incorporating finger techniques such as crossing finger two (Stage 7). Finger numbers
are occasionally provided as a prompt during longer exercises. Students move outside of the
five-finger positions starting in Level 3. Finger changes are frequent in Level 3, and multiple
indications are provided throughout each passage.
HAND COORDINATION
Although sight-reading examples are presented on the grand staff from Level 1, each
passage is limited to notes on either the treble clef or the bass clef exclusively. This continues
until Stage 4 of Level 1, where sight-reading passages alternate between reading two
measures of each clef at a time. Stage 6 gradually progresses to alternating after only one
measure of bass or treble clef reading. The remaining stages of Level 1 continue with this
degree of interchange.
The sight-reading passages begin to incorporate simultaneous treble and bass clef
reading in Level 2. Throughout Stage 1 of Level 2, melodic passages are first accompanied
by whole notes and dotted half notes, later progressing to a more frequent repetition of half
notes. Stage 2 of Level 2 introduces simultaneous quarter notes in each hand, moving in
170
Harris, Level 1, 10.
171
Ibid.
51
contrary and oblique motion. The stepwise movement of accompanying notes becomes more
recurrent throughout Stage 2, while also maintaining rhythmic variety (dotted half notes, half
notes, quarter notes, and eighth notes). Similar hand coordination continues throughout
Stages 2 to 6 of Level 2, with the addition of tied notes between bar lines. Stage 7 to 9
incorporate sight-reading passages involving shorter durations of stepwise movement
between hands (moving quarter and eighth notes). Level 3 offers the addition of
accompanying harmonic intervals.
RHYTHM
The first stage of Level 1 uses rhythmic values of quarter notes and quarter rests.
Stage 2 progresses to half notes, while dotted half notes are introduced in Stage 3. These
rhythmic values are maintained until Stages 6 to 9 of Level 1, where eighth notes are first
presented. Sight-reading examples in Level 2 (Stages 1 to 3) continue to reinforce similar
rhythmic patterns while also incorporating whole notes. Dotted-quarter notes and eighth-note
patterns are first presented in Stage 4 of Level 2. Students are given opportunities to prepare
for these new rhythms during the rhythmic exercises by clapping quarter notes tied to eighth
notes. From Stage 4 to 9, sight-reading passages incorporate dotted-quarter and eighth note
patterns. While rhythms from the previous books are re-emphasized in Level 3 (Stages 1 to
5), new patterns of dotted-eighth notes and sixteenth notes are introduced in Stage 6 of Level
3. Longer sixteenth note exercises are reserved until Stage 8 and are reinforced in Stage 9.
Throughout the first three levels of this series, time signatures are introduced in the following
order: 4/4, 3/4, 2/4, and 3/8.
KEY SIGNATURES
Students are expected to understand the various components of each key prior to
sight-reading. Harris does give specific instructions prior to certain exercises such as “play
the scale and arpeggio of D major before you begin these exercises.” 172 Key signatures
introduced in Level 1 are as follows: C major (Stage 1), G major (Stage 3), F major (Stage
4), A minor (Stage 6), and D minor (Stage 8). Key signatures introduced in Level 2 are as
172
Harris, Level 2, 12.
52
follows: D major (Stage 3), E minor (Stage 6), and G minor (Stage 7). During Stage 8 of
Level 2, accidentals are introduced, a concept Harris refers to in the table of contents as a
“revision of keys.” 173 Key signatures introduced in Level 3 are as follows: A minor (Stage 3),
B minor (Stage 4), B-flat major and G minor (Stage 5).
MELODIC INTERVALS
By the end of Level 1, students are expected to read and play melodic seconds, thirds,
fourths, and fifths. Melodic seconds are introduced in the first stage of Level 1 while melodic
thirds and fourths are included in Stage 2. Intervals ranging from seconds to fourths are
reinforced until Stage 5, where students are first introduced to melodic fifths. The remaining
four Stages continue to use melodic intervals within a five-finger pattern (no larger than a
fifth). The intervals incorporated into Level 2 remain similar to the ones in Level 1. The
initial exercises in Stage 1 integrate repeated notes in one hand while the other hand plays
melodic intervals within a five-finger hand position. Harmonic intervals are first introduced
in Level 3, Stage 2. Harmonic thirds are first used in the treble clef against a moving melodic
line in the bass clef. Harmonic seconds are introduced next, followed by fourths and fifths.
These harmonic intervals are reinforced throughout Stages 2 to 5 of Level 3, until Stage 6
where harmonic sixths first appear.
HARMONY
Since sight-reading exercises in Level 1 are limited to one hand at a time, the
harmonic component is not incorporated until Level 2. The first experience students have
with harmony is when the tonic note is sustained in one hand while the other plays a melody
(Level 2, Stage 1). Later in Stage 1 of the Level 2, students are accompanying a melody with
the first, second, fourth, and fifth scale degrees within the given key. For the remainder of
Level 2, sight-reading exercises start to quickly incorporate melodic lines in both treble and
bass clef, creating two-part counterpoint. This style of sight-reading is continued into the first
stage of Level 3, until harmonic intervals are first introduced (Level 3, Stage 2). The first
harmonic intervals in Level 3 are thirds in C major (Exercise 1, Stage 2), followed by a
173
Harris, level 2, front page.
53
combination of seconds and thirds in G major (Exercise 2, Stage 2), succeeded by the
incorporation of fourths and fifths in D major (Exercise 3, Stage 2). From this point forward,
harmonies are created using harmonic intervals ranging from seconds to fifths, in each
respective key. Stage 5, Level 3, adds the harmonic sixth in B-flat major (Exercise 8, Stage
5). The remaining sight-reading exercises for Level 3 primarily use two-part counterpoint
style.
AURAL DEVELOPMENT
While there are no formal ear-training activities in the Improve Your Sight-Reading!
series, Paul Harris offers a separate series called Improve Your Aural! Harris incorporates
many activities in this course including “ . . . singing, clapping, playing your instrument,
writing music down, improvising and composing.” 174 This comprehensive series can be
applied to various instruments in different levels of development.
SUMMARY
The three sight-reading series, Four Star Sight Reading and Ear Tests (Boris Berlin
and Andrew Markow), Sight-Reading (Ling Ling), and Improve Your Sight-Reading! (Paul
Harris), were analyzed according to organizational framework, fingering, hand coordination,
rhythm, key signatures, harmony, and aural development. When comparing the three
curricula, certain elements remain consistent. The sight-reading passages are short, ranging
from four to eight measures in length. Each curriculum presents sight-reading exercises in a
progressive manner, giving students a gradual challenge. Each sight-reading passage includes
fingering for the first note of each hand, as well as finger changes, such crossing finger 2.
The most elementary sight-reading exercises in each series begin with one hand playing at a
time, followed by alternating hands back and forth. Intervallically, the first sight-reading
passages of each series only use melodic seconds. Although Sight-Reading by Ling Ling
does not include preparatory drills, both Improve Your Sight-Reading and Four Star Sight
Reading and Ear Tests include preparative drills involving rhythm.
174
Paul Harris Music, “Biography of Paul Harris,” Faber Music Ltd., http://paulharrismusic.com/
serverside/publications/Details.asp?ID=057152 4567&Cat=GENERAL (accessed November 4, 2011).
54
YAMAHA
The term “Yamaha” has become internationally known as branding a variety of
products and services across the world. These products are primarily in the form of electronic
devices, sports equipment, motorcycles, and musical instruments. The Yamaha brand has its
roots in Tokyo, Japan where it was first conceived in 1887 by founder Torakusu Yamaha. 175
Torakusu’s first encounter with the engineering of musical instruments was when he was
asked to repair a reed organ for a hospital in Hamamatsu. 176 Not only did Torakusu
successfully complete the repair, but he also managed to study the mechanics of the
instrument well enough to create his own blueprint for building organs. Although he was
initially criticized for the organ’s poor tuning, he began to commit himself to the study of
music theory and the art of tuning to improve the quality of his product. This was just the
beginning of his blossoming business of creating products with supreme design and quality,
all marked with the logo of three interlocking tuning forks. 177
The Yamaha brand not only symbolizes a vast array of products, but also an entire
educational philosophy. The following section will explore many facets of this learning
system as well as the historical development of this widespread trademark name, “Yamaha.”
Yamaha Corporation of America (YCA)

Established in 1960, the Yamaha Corporation of America (YCA) offers products and
services exclusively to America. The YCA is a subsidiary of the original Japanese-based
corporation (Yamaha Corporation of Japan, or YCJ). 178 There are many subdivisions within
the YCA including the Yamaha Electronics Corporation (YEC), which provides audio and
video products for household use. 179 Another branch of the YCA, the Music Marketing
Group (MMG), deals specifically with the production and distribution instrumental and
175
Yamaha, “A Chronological Table of Yamaha History,” Yamaha Corporation, http://www.yama
ha.com/about_yamaha/corporate/history/index.html (accessed November 5, 2011).
176
Ibid.
177
Ibid.
178
Yamaha Music Education System (YMES), personal communication.
179
Yamaha, “Corporate Information,” Yamaha Corporation, http://usa.yamaha.com/about_yamaha/
corporate_information/ (accessed November 16, 2011).
55
consumer products. 180 Each branch of the YCA strives to follow one corporate objective: “. .
. to enrich the quality of lives through music and sound products.” 181
Yamaha Music Foundation (YMF)

Established in 1966 182 by Gen’ichi Kawakami (former president of YCJ), the Yamaha
Music Foundation (YMF) was designed as a non-profit organization committed to promoting
music education. 183 As stated in the Foundation’s Endowment Act, the YMF “ . . . shall be
widely involved in music education and popularization in the public interest from an
enduring perspective.” 184 The main goal for the YMF is “to explore fundamental issues of
educational activities pertaining to music that serve as a basis to cultivate a rich sense of
humanity in toddlers, young children, youths and adults, to pursue the popularization of
music and contribute widely to the promotion of social education, and endeavor to improve
musical culture in Japan and other countries.” 185 In order to achieve their stated goal of
quality education, the YMF devotes itself to studying “child development, musical
communication between parent and child, piano technique, music and memory, vocal range
development and more,” 186 through their Music Research Laboratory. “Yamaha Music
Foundation strives to convey the joy of music across cultural and national boundaries, and to
enhance the sensibility that allows people the freedom of expression through music,” 187 says
YMF president Shuji Ito. This philosophy has been incorporated into the Yamaha Music
Education System, which continues to be used in multiple countries throughout the world.
180
Ibid.
181
YMES, personal communication.
182
Yamaha Music Foundation, “Purpose of Establishment,” Yamaha Music Foundation,
http://www.yamaha-mf.or.jp/english/about/establishment.html (accessed November 16, 2011).
183
184
Yamaha Music Foundation,“Purpose of Establishment.”
185
Ibid.
186
187
Yamaha Music Foundation,“Purpose of Establishment.”
56
Yamaha Music Education System (YMES)

Developed by the YMF as a means of promoting music education, the Yamaha Music
Education System (YMES) is used in 41 countries to teach music to children in a creative
and comprehensive way. 188 The program began in Tokyo in 1954 as a “Music Class for Pre-
school Children.” 189 The Yamaha Music Education System was later named “Yamaha Music
School” in 1959. 190 The Yamaha Music School was officially introduced in the United States
in 1965. 191 Today, the Yamaha Music School accounts for 5, 650 locations throughout the
world, encompassing 19,500 instructors, as well as over 690, 000 students and 5 million
graduates. 192
The YMES teaching philosophy involves three prime approaches: timely education,
group lessons, and an emphasis on creativity. 193 For each of these categories, the primary
tool is aural-based; children are first exposed to music by the experience of hearing and
singing, before playing and reading.
The YMES offers six courses for children, each designed for particular ages and
levels: Music Wonderland (children 3 years old), Junior Music Course (children 4 – 5 years
old), Young Musician’s Course (children 6 – 8 years old), Junior Extension Course (children
6 – 7 years old), Junior Special Advanced Course (children 6 – 7 years old), and Junior
Advanced Course (8 – 9 years old). This study specifically examines the Young Musician’s
Course, levels 1 – 3.
Yamaha’s Young Musician’s Course (YMC)

The Young Musician’s Course (YMC) is a two-year program designed for beginning
piano students who are 6 – 8 years old. The YMC curriculum, similar to all other Yamaha
188
Yamaha, “Background,” Yamaha Corporation, http://usa.yamaha.com/music
_education/yms/background/ (accessed November 16, 2011).
189
Yamaha Music Foundation, “Features of Yamaha.”
190
Yamaha Music Foundation, “History,” Yamaha Music Foundation, http://www.yamaha-
mf.or.jp/english/about/history.html (accessed November 16, 2011).
191
Ibid.
192
Yamaha Music Foundation, “Features of Yamaha.”
193
Ibid.
57
courses, is designed for lessons taught in a group setting. YMC courses offer the following
activities during class time: “singing, ear training, repertoire (keyboard pieces), ensemble
playing (group performance), keyboard harmony, arranging, keyboard technique, sight
singing, sight playing, and theory.” 194 As stated in the YMC course description, “children
participate in activities that teach basic musical skills and encourage independence,
creativity, and self-expression.” 195
There are six books in the YMC program, three of which are discussed in the
following chapter. The scope and sequence of the musical concepts introduced in Levels 1 –
3 are displayed in Table 2.
In the Young Musician’s Course, the first level incorporates rhythms in simple meter
in C major and A minor. Simple articulations are used, such as legato and staccato. Tonic,
dominant, and subdominant chords are eventually used to harmonize right-hand melodies in
the latter portion of the first level. The pieces taught in the second level of the Young
Musician’s Course continue to use simple meter, while also incorporating more subdivided
rhythmic values, such as sixteenth notes. In the second level, the primary chords are used in
one additional key, G major. The third level of Young Musician’s Course increases in
difficulty with the inclusion of pieces in 6/8 meter and two additional keys, F major and D
minor.
194
Yamaha, “Young Musicians Course,” Yamaha Corporation, http://usa.yamaha.com/music _education/
yms/courses/young_musicians_course/ (accessed November 16, 2011).
195
Ibid.
58
Table 2. Scope and Sequence: Young Musician’s Course 1 – 3

Musical
YMC 1 YMC 2 YMC 3
Concept
Rhythm - Quarter note - Eighth rest
- Quarter rest - Dotted eighth
- Half rest note
- Half note - Sixteenth note
- Eighth note - Dotted Quarter
- Whole note note
- Whole rest - Triplet
- Dotted half note
Time - 4/4 - 6/8
Signatures - 3/4
- 2/4
Key - C major - G major - F major
Signatures - A minor - D minor
Dynamics - Forte - Crescendo - Fortissimo
- Mezzo forte - Decrescendo
- Mezzo piano
- Piano
Harmony - Perfect fifths - Primary chords - Major third
- Major sixths (I, IV, and V7) - D minor triad
- Primary chords in G major - D suspended
(I, IV, and V7) - Primary chords triad
in C major (I and V7) in A - Primary
minor chords (I, IV,
and V7) in F
major
- G suspended
chord
- Major second
- Minor second
59
CHAPTER 4
YAMAHA’S YOUNG MUSICIAN’S COURSE:

SIGHT READING PROCEDURES
The following chapter presents sight-reading examples and procedures to supplement

five pieces selected from each of the first three books of Yamaha’s Young Musician’s Course
(YMC). Preceding each set of sight-reading examples and procedures is an analysis of the
significant concepts within each piece selected from the Young Musician’s Course. These
concepts are incorporated into the original sight-reading exercises. The purpose of this
chapter is to provide teachers with a collection of customized sight-reading materials to
coordinate with selected repertoire pieces that are taught in YMC, levels 1 – 3.
Throughout the previous two chapters, concepts such as rhythmic and intervallic
reading have been highlighted as important aspects in sight-reading. Therefore, the sequence
of procedures for each sight-reading exercise focuses on the acquisition of these skills prior
to playing. Three to four sight-reading exercises were designed for each YMC piece. The
sight-reading exercises incorporate the major concepts presented in the YMC piece for which
it was designed. The first exercise is the least challenging, combining one to two rhythmic
values with notes that repeat or move in intervals of seconds. The next exercise increases in
difficulty by incorporating larger intervals and more rhythmic patterns or subdivisions. The
last exercise is the most challenging, designed with a larger variety of the intervals that
appear in the original piece. In general, the sight-reading exercises increase in challenge as
they decrease in predictability.
The order of procedural steps for each sight-reading exercise are as follows: rhythm,
direction and interval, pitch, and placement of the correct hand position. In the first category,
rhythm, students clap each rhythm in unison. In order to reinforce accurate rhythm, the
teacher uses certain rhythmic syllables when leading the class in rhythmic clapping. The
following table presents a list of rhythmic values with their respective notation and rhythmic
syllable. In Table 3, these values placed in the order in which they are presented in YMC.
60
Table 3. Rhythmic Chanting

Rhythmic Value Notation Key Word
Quarter note “tahn”
Quarter rest “rest”

Half note “tah-an”
Eighth note “tee”
Dotted half note “tah-ah-an”

Eighth rest “ee”
Dotted eighth/sixteenth note “Tum-tee”
Dotted quarter note “tah-ee”
Triplet “tri-puh-let”
Half rest “reh-est”

Eighth note tied to half note “Tee-ah-ah”
Students tap their hands to correspond with the left and right-hand rhythms (only for
grand staff sight-reading exercises). The goal in rhythmic procedures is for students to gain
security with the pulse and rhythm of each exercise prior to incorporating solfége, or pitch.
The second category, direction and intervals, pertains to the intervallic component of
sight-reading. Students first recognize the intervals that are going up, down, or staying the
same for the treble and bass clefs individually. Students participating in this course are
expected to know and read melodic seconds, thirds, fourths, and fifths on the keyboard and
the musical staff. The goal of direction and intervals is to familiarize the students with the
contour of a melody before the pitch is incorporated.
In the third procedural step, pitch, the student sings the treble-clef melody with
solfége syllables as well as the bass-clef harmonies or intervallic patterns. Students in this
course recognize triads by singing the individual pitches (example: C major triad is
recognized by singing “do, mi, sol”). The goal of the pitch category is to build an aural
expectancy to aid students in the final process of playing.
61
In the final procedure, playing, the students play the left hand while singing the
treble-clef melody (only applicable to pieces with grand-staff reading). This step allows the
students to experience harmonization while also practicing the coordination of one hand.
Finally, the students play the entire exercise with both hands, while continuing to sing.
During each sight-reading procedure, parental involvement is of utmost importance. Parents
point to the clef with the most rhythmic subdivisions in order to maintain the rhythmic
momentum. This parental aid also helps to train the students to keep their eyes on the musical
score.
The YMC classroom includes at least one large dry-erase board, an acoustic piano to
accompany group singing activities, and electronic keyboards; each student has a keyboard
for playing. Parents may remain in the classroom; therefore, sight-reading procedures involve
the parents. The role of the parent is limited to pointing to each note of the sight-reading
example during specific activities within the sight-reading procedures. The following sight-
reading examples and procedures are directed to the teacher who will be teaching YMC
levels 1 – 3.
YOUNG MUSICIAN’S COURSE, BOOK 1: LET’S GO TO THE

ZOO
Let’s Go To The Zoo is the first book of the “Young Musician’s Course” (YMC). The
book contains eleven pieces for solo performance as well as one ensemble piece. The student
is provided with a compact disc containing orchestral accompaniments for each keyboard
piece. Five keyboard pieces “A Peacock Welcomes Me,” “Giraffes,” “Tumbling Pandas,”
“An Elephant’s Amazing Trunk,” and “Lions” introduce major concepts and are used as the
basis for the sight-reading exercises and procedures in group lessons.
“A Peacock Welcomes Me”

“A Peacock Welcomes Me” is the first piece of Let’s Go To The Zoo. The original
sight-reading exercises correspond to the image shown in Figure 1.
SIGNIFICANT CONCEPTS
In “A Peacock Welcomes Me,” students are learning quarter notes, quarter rests, and
half rests. Keyboard playing is limited to the pitch “middle do” (middle C) and students are
62
Figure 1. “A Peacock Welcomes Me,” pages 8 –9. Source:

“A Peacock Welcomes Me,” Young Musician’s Course,
Book 1, copyright [2007], Yamaha Music Foundation.
Reprinted by Permission. All rights reserved.
International Copyright Secured. Unauthorized
duplication or use without the express written consent of
Yamaha Music Foundation is strictly prohibited.
able to recognize this pitch on the grand staff. The original sight-reading exercises include
“middle do,” quarter notes, and quarter rests. The sight-reading hand position reflects the
fingering of the original piece; students play the piece in “middle do” position (five-finger
Middle C position) with their right-hand finger one on “middle do.” The time signature is
4/4, therefore, the sight-reading exercises are also in 4/4.
SIGHT-READING PROCEDURES FOR

There are four original sight-reading exercises to coordinate with the concepts in “A
Peacock Welcomes Me.” The first exercise is shown in Figure 2. The following sight-reading
procedures apply to all four exercises (see Appendix A for exercises 1 – 4).
Figure 2. Sight-reading: ‘A Peacock Welcomes Me,’ exercise 1.
To sight-read Exercise 1 (Figure 2), the teacher has the students follow the procedures
shown in Table 4.
63
Table 4. Sight-Reading Procedures: ‘A Peacock Welcomes Me’

Procedural Category Activity
Rhythm 1. Clap and say “tahn” or “rest.”

Direction and 2. Count how many quarter notes there are.
Interval 3. Count how many quarter rests there are.
4. Identify the starting pitch, then point and sing the
Pitch pitch “do” and say “rest.” For Exercise 1, the student
sings/says: “do, rest, do, rest, do, do, do, rest.”
5. Identify the starting finger number, before placing the

Play
right hand on the correct position.
6. Sing the solfége while playing. Parents point to each
consecutive note or rest.
“Giraffes”
“Giraffes” is the second keyboard piece in Let’s Go To The Zoo. The sight-reading
exercises are designed to coordinate with the piece shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3. “Giraffes,” pages 10 – 11. Source:

“Giraffes,” Young Musician’s Course, Book 1,
copyright [2007], Yamaha Music Foundation.
Reprinted by Permission. All rights reserved.
International Copyright Secured. Unauthorized
duplication or use without the express written
consent of Yamaha Music Foundation is strictly
prohibited.
In this piece, students are learning quarter notes, half notes, and half rests. On the
keyboard, students are playing playing “do,” “re,” and “mi.” These pitches are represented on
the treble staff in their music books. Sight-reading exercises include “do,” “re,” and “mi,”
using quarter notes, quarter rests, and half notes. The sight-reading hand position reflects the
position and fingering of the original piece; students play the piece in “middle do” position
with their right-hand finger one starting on “middle do.” Since the time signature of
“Giraffes” is 4/4, the sight-reading exercises also use 4/4.
64

There are a total of four sight-reading exercises to coordinate with the concepts in
“Giraffes.” Figure 4 displays only the first exercise, however, the following sight-reading
procedures will apply to all four exercises (see Appendix A for Exercises 1 – 4).
Figure 4. Sight-reading: ‘Giraffes,’ exercise 1.
In preparing to read Figure 4, Exercise 1 of the correlated sight-reading, the teacher

follows the steps in Table 5. The succeeding illustration (Figure 5) demonstrates how the
teacher will lead the students in rhythmic chanting.
Table 5. Sight-Reading Procedures: ‘Giraffes’
Rhythm 1. Clap and say “tahn,” “tah-an,” or “rest.”
Direction and Interval 2. Point to the notes and say “up a 2nd,” “down a
second,” or “same” (first pitch will be “start”).
During this step, the teacher maintains the rhythm
established in the previous step by chanting in the
rhythm shown in Figure 5.
Pitch 3. Identify the starting pitch, then point and sing the
pitch names and say “rest.”
4. Place the right-hand finger one on “middle do.”

Play
5. Play Exercise 1 while singing the solfége. During
this step, the parents point to each consecutive
note or rest.
65
Figure 5. “Rhythmic Pointing.”
“Tumbling Pandas”
“Tumbling Pandas” is the third piece of Let’s Go To The Zoo. The original sight-
reading exercises correspond to the portion of “Tumbling Pandas” shown in Figure 6.
Figure 6. “Tumbling Pandas,” pages 12 – 13, measures 1 – 2. Source: “Tumbling

Pandas,” Young Musician’s Course, Book 1, copyright [2007], Yamaha Music
Foundation. Reprinted by Permission. All rights reserved. International Copyright
Secured. Unauthorized duplication or use without the express written consent of
In “Tumbling Pandas,” the students are introduced to eighth notes. The students are
playing “middle do,” “re,” “mi,” “fa,” and “sol”; these pitches are symbolized on the treble
clef staff. The sight-reading examples include the pitches “do,” “re,” “mi,” “fa,” and “sol”
beginning from “middle do” position and use quarter notes, quarter rests, and eighth notes.
The hand position used in the sight-reading exercises reflects the fingering of the original
piece; students play the piece in “Middle Do” position with their right-hand finger one on
“middle Do.” Because “Tumbling Pandas” uses the meter of 4/4, the sight-reading exercises
also use 4/4.

There are four original sight-reading exercises to coordinate with the concepts in
“Tumbling Pandas.” The first exercise is displayed in Figure 7. The sight-reading procedures
to follow will apply to all four exercises (see Appendix A for Exercises 1 –4).
66
Figure 7. Sight-reading: ‘Tumbling Pandas,’ exercise 1.
To sight-read Exercise 1, Figure 7, the teacher follows the procedures found in Table
6.
Table 6. Sight-Reading Procedures: ‘Tumbling Pandas’
1. Clap and say “tahn,” “tee” or “rest.”

Rhythm
2. Point and say “up a second,” “down a second,”

Direction and Interval
or “same” (first pitch will be “start”).
3. Identify the starting pitch, then point and sing

Pitch
the solfége or say “rest.”
4. Place the right-hand finger one on “middle

Play
do.”
5. Play Exercise 1 while singing the solfége.
During this step, the parents point to each
consecutive note or rest.
“An Elephant’s Amazing Trunk”

Students are introduced to bass clef in the fourth keyboard piece, “An Elephant’s
Amazing Trunk.” This is the last piece presented before students proceed to reading the
grand staff. The sight-reading exercises are designed to correspond with the portion of this
piece, shown in Figure 8.
In this piece, students are learning to play with the left hand using quarter notes,
quarter rests, and half notes. This is also the first piece where students are exposed to
67
Figure 8. “An Elephant’s Amazing Trunk,” pages 14 – 15, measures 1 –

4. Source: “An Elephant’s Amazing Trunk,” Young Musician’s Course,
Book 1, copyright [2007], Yamaha Music Foundation. Reprinted by
Permission. All rights reserved. International Copyright Secured.
Unauthorized duplication or use without the express written consent of
dynamics (Forte), therefore, the sight-reading exercises incorporate congruent markings. The
notes range from bass “do” – “sol,” and each pitch is notated in the bass clef. Sight-reading
examples are written with the same pitches in the bass clef and use quarter notes, quarter
rests, and half notes. The hand position reflects the position and fingering of the original
piece; students play the piece with their left-hand finger five starting on low “do.” Since the
time signature of “An Elephant’s Amazing Trunk” is 3/4, the sight-reading examples are also
use 3/4.

“An Elephant’s Amazing Trunk” has four congruent sight-reading exercises, each
reflecting the new dynamic symbol, Forte. The first exercise is displayed in Figure 9, and the
sight-reading procedures will apply to all four exercises (see Appendix A for Exercises 1– 4).
Figure 9. Sight-reading: ‘An Elephant’s Amazing Trunk,’ exercise 1.
To sight-read Exercise 1, Figure 9, the teacher follows the same procedures for
rhythm, direction and interval, pitch, and play that were used in the previous sight-reading
exercises. When singing the solfége, the students now sing according to the new dynamic,
forte.
68
“Lions”
The final piece in Let’s Go To The Zoo, “Lions,” is the first piece with a melody
accompanied by all three primary chords. The sight-reading exercises for “Lions” include all
concepts displayed in Figure 10.
Figure 10. “Lions,” pages 28–29, measures 1 – 4.Source: “Lions,” Young

Musician’s Course, Book 1, copyright [2007], Yamaha Music Foundation.
Reprinted by Permission. All rights reserved. International Copyright
Secured. Unauthorized duplication or use without the express written
consent of Yamaha Music Foundation is strictly prohibited.
In the piece “Lions,” students play a right-hand melody accompanied by left-hand
primary chords in C major. Melodic passages in the right hand are limited to “Middle do”
position, using quarter notes and dotted half notes. The left-hand accompaniment is limited to
the chords of C Major (“do mi sol”), F Major (“do fa la”) and G dominant-seven (“ti fa sol”)
using quarter notes; the sight-reading exercises reflect these limitations. Since “Lions” is
marked Forte with 4/4 time, the sight-reading exercises reflect similar markings. This is the
first grand staff sight-reading piece, therefore, the preliminary sight-reading procedures now
require students to tap their left and right hands in accordance with the bass and treble clef.
At this stage in the YMC course, students identify each primary chord in C major by singing
the solfége (i.e. the C major chord is identified by singing “do mi sol,” etc.).

Due to the additional procedural steps that accompany sight-reading on the grand
staff, the amount of exercises per piece is now limited to three. The following procedures for
sight-reading apply to all three exercises. The first exercise is displayed in Figure 11 (see
Appendix A for Exercises 1–3).
69
Figure 11. Sight-reading: ‘Lions,’ exercise 1.
To introduce grand-staff sight-reading, the teacher guides the students in the steps
found in Table 7.
YOUNG MUSICIAN’S COURSE, BOOK 2: DELICIOUS

DREAMS
Delicious Dreams, the second book of the “Young Musician’s Course” (YMC),
introduces students to the keys of G major and A minor. Students are also expected to play
more challenging rhythmic patterns while incorporating left-hand accompaniment patterns.
The book contains seven pieces for solo performance as well as three ensemble pieces. The
following five keyboard pieces introduce major concepts and are used as the basis for the
sight-reading exercises and procedures for group teaching: “Crunchy Rice-Crackers,”
“Chinese Buns,” “I Love Treats,” “My Cream Puffs Didn’t Puff,” and “Oops, I Swallowed a
Candy.”
“Crunchy Rice-Crackers”
“Crunchy Rice-Crackers” is the first piece of Delicious Dreams. The sight-reading
exercises correspond to the concepts shown in Figure 12.
“Crunchy Rice-Crackers” is the first piece where the students play a right-hand
melody with their finger one starting on “sol.” Melodic passages in the right hand are limited
to “sol” – “re” using quarter notes and eighth notes. “Crunchy Rice-Crackers” is in the key of
C Major and the left-hand accompaniment is limited to the primary chords of C Major (“do
mi sol”), F Major (“do fa la”) and G dominant-seven (“ti fa sol”) using quarter notes. The
70
Table 7. Sight-Reading Procedures: ‘Lions’

Rhythm 1. Clap and say “rest,” “reh-est” and “tah-ah-an” for the
treble clef and bass clef rhythm of Exercise 1
individually.
2. Draw vertical lines in the sight-reading sheet to
connect treble and bass clef notes that are played
simultaneously. The teacher will proceed to ask the
students to count the amount of times their hands will
play together.
3. Tap both hands on the surface of keyboard saying
“left” for bass notes, “right” for treble notes, and
“both” when hands play together (students are to
withhold from tapping when both hands rest).
Direction and Interval 4. Point to treble clef notes and identify the direction
and interval size (refer to previous exercises)
5. Point to bass clef chords and say “same” or “change”
for each chord (first chord will be “start”). (Please
note that the word “same” is only used for
consecutive repeated chords, while the word
“change” is only used the first time a chord is varied
from the one previous).
6. Point and identify each chord that differs from the
Pitch one previous by singing the solfége for the respective
chord (i.e. C major is “do mi sol,” etc.… )
7. Tap the left hand to correspond with the rhythm of
the bass clef chords while singing the solfége of the
treble clef. During this step, parents are to help
maintain steady pulse by pointing to the clef with
most rhythmic subdivisions (bass clef).
8. Identify the dynamic marking, then repeat the
previous step using proper voice control.
Play 9. Place their left-hand finger five on low “do.” While
parent continue to point to bass clef, have students
play the chords (with rhythmic consistency) while
singing the solfége for the treble clef.
10. Place both hands in position, bringing their right
hand finger one on “middle do.” Now, have students
play hands together while singing the solfége for
treble clef.
71
Figure 12. “Crunchy Rice-Crackers,” pages 8 – 9, measures 1 – 4. Source:

“Crunchy Rice-Crackers,” Young Musician’s Course, Book 2, copyright
[2007], Yamaha Music Foundation. Reprinted by Permission. All rights
reserved. International Copyright Secured. Unauthorized duplication or
use without the express written consent of Yamaha Music Foundation is
strictly prohibited.
sight-reading exercises designed for “Crunchy Rice-Crackers” focus on the primary rhythmic
motive found in the first two measures of the original piece (Figure 12). The hand position
used in the sight-reading exercises reflects the fingering of the original piece, while also
maintaining the dynamic, mezzo forte. Since “Crunchy Rice-Crackers” is in 4/4 time, the
sight-reading exercises are also in 4/4.

The first of three sight-reading exercises to coordinate with the concepts in “Crunchy
Rice-Crackers” are displayed in Figure 13 (See Appendix B for Exercises 1 - 3).
Figure 13. Sight-reading: ‘Crunchy Rice-Crackers,’ exercise 1.
To sight-read Exercise 1, Figure 13, the teacher continues to use the same procedures
for rhythm, direction and interval, pitch, and play that were used for “Lions,” as each share
similar conceptual elements. The teacher adjusts the dynamic element and hand position
accordingly.
72
“Chinese Buns”
In the third piece of Delicious Dreams, “Chinese Buns,” a new rhythmic pattern is
introduced. The first four measures of the piece, shown in Figure 14, encompass the concepts
that are used in the sight-reading exercises.
Figure 14. “Chinese Buns,” pages 12 – 13, measures 1 – 4. Source:

“Chinese Buns,” Young Musician’s Course, Book 2, copyright [2007],
Yamaha Music Foundation. Reprinted by Permission. All rights reserved.
International Copyright Secured. Unauthorized duplication or use
without the express written consent of Yamaha Music Foundation is
The new rhythmic pattern used in “Chinese Buns” includes dotted eighth notes and
sixteenth notes in the right hand. The sight-reading exercises are designed to incorporate this
rhythmic motive in C major, found in the first two measures of the piece. Melodic passages
within each exercise will maintain the right-hand “middle do” position, accompanied by left-
hand primary chords using quarter notes. The original piece is in 4/4 and marked mezzo forte,
therefore, sight-reading exercises incorporate congruent markings.

The first sight-reading exercise for “Chinese Buns” is displayed in Figure 15
(See Appendix B for Exercises 1–3).
Similar procedures for rhythm, direction and interval, pitch, and play that were used
in the previous two pieces also apply to Exercise 1, Figure 16, for “Chinese Buns.” During
the rhythmic procedures, the teacher now applies the word “tum-ti” for dotted
eighth/sixteenth note patterns.
73
Figure 15. Sight-reading: “Chinese Buns,” exercise 1.
Figure 16. “I Love Treats,” pages 14 – 15, measures 1 – 4. Source: “I Love

Treats,” Young Musician’s Course, Book 2, copyright [2007], Yamaha
Music Foundation. Reprinted by Permission. All rights reserved.
International Copyright Secured. Unauthorized duplication or use without
the express written consent of Yamaha Music Foundation is strictly
prohibited.
“I Love Treats”
In “I Love Treats,” the fourth piece of the Delicious Dreams, students are required to
play a waltz bass in the left hand. The first four measures of “I Love Treats” are shown in
Figure 16.
“I Love Treats” is in G major and students are accompanying their melodic passages
with primary chords in this key. Students identify the chords in G major by singing “sol ti
re,” (G major), “sol do mi,” (C major) and “fa-sharp, do re” (D dominant-seven). The waltz
bass appears in the bass clef with quarter notes. The right-hand melodic passages in “I Love
Treats” incorporate “sol” – “re” using quarter notes, half notes, dotted half notes, eighth
notes, and eighth rests. In YMC, students recognize waltz patterns by the phrase “oom pah
pah,” therefore, sight-reading procedures also use this phrase. The primary concept in the
sight-reading exercises is the waltz bass. The right-hand melodic passages are presented in a
74
progressive manner using dotted-half notes, half notes, eighth notes, and eighth rests. The
original piece “I Love Treats” is in 3/4 time, marked mezzo forte, and sight-reading exercises
similarly display these markings.

There are three sight-reading exercises designed for “I Love Treats” and
Figure 17 shows Exercise 1 (See Appendix B for Exercises 1-3).
Figure 17. Sight-reading: ‘I Love Treats,’ exercise 1.
To sight-read Exercise 1, the teacher employs same procedures for rhythm that were
used in the previous pieces. The first time the students are expected to follow procedures for
reading a waltz pattern for the left hand appears in the category of “direction and intervals.”
To establish the new waltz bass, the teacher has the students follow the steps in Table 8.
Once the previous procedures for rhythm, direction and interval, and pitch are
complete, the teacher has the student progress to playing the sight-reading exercise, using
similar procedures from the previous sight-reading passages.
“My Cream Puffs Didn’t Puff”

“My Cream Puffs Didn’t Puff” is the sixth piece in Delicious Dreams, as well as the
first piece that is written in a minor key. The first four measures of “My Cream Puffs Didn’t
Puff” are shown in Figure 18.
75
Table 8. Sight-Reading Procedures: ‘I Love Treats’

Rhythm 1. Use same steps for rhythm as used in Table 5.
Direction and 2. Point to treble clef notes and say “up a second or
Interval third,,” “down a second or third,” or “same” (first
pitch will be “start”).
3. Identify the ending bass clef chord (they will sing
the pitches of this chord in the following step).
4. Recognize the change in each waltz pattern by
pointing and saying “change pah pah,” or “same
pah pah” for each chord (first chord will be “start
pah pah”). (Please note that the phrase “same pah
pah” is only used for consecutive repeated waltz
patterns, while the phrase “change pah pah” is
only used the first time a waltz accompaniment is
varied from the one previous). At the end of the
exercise, have students sing the chord pitches they
identified in the previous step (step 3).
Pitch 5. Point and identify every waltz pattern that
changes by singing the pitches for the respective
chord (i.e. G major is “sol, ti re, ti re,” etc. )
6. Tap their left hand to correspond with the rhythm
of the bass clef chords, while singing the pitches
of treble clef. During this step, parents are to help
maintain steady pulse by pointing to the clef with
most rhythmic subdivisions (bass clef).
7. Have students identify the dynamic element, and
repeat the previous step with proper voice control.
Play 8. Use same steps for playing, as used in Table 5.
“My Cream Puffs Didn’t Puff” is in the key of A minor and students are introduced to
a new style of left-hand accompaniment (ostinato bass). The sight-reading exercises reflect
the concepts displayed in Figure 18. Melodic passages in the right hand use “la,” “ti,” “do,”
“re,” and “mi” using quarter notes, half notes, dotted half notes, eighth notes, and eighth
rests. Sight-reading exercises focus primarily on the right-hand rhythmic pattern found in the
first measure. The left-hand portion of the sight-reading exercises increase in difficulty,
76
Figure 18. “My Cream Puffs Didn’t Puff,” pages 18 – 19, measures 1 – 4.
Source: “My Cream Puffs Didn’t Puff,” Young Musician’s Course, Book
2, copyright [2007], Yamaha Music Foundation. Reprinted by
Permission. All rights reserved. International Copyright Secured.
Unauthorized duplication or use without the express written consent of
starting with only single repeated notes using dotted-half notes (Exercise 1), then alternating
between tonic and dominant pitches using dotted-half notes (Exercise 2), and finally tonic
and dominant pitches using quarter notes (Exercise 3). The hand position used in the sight-
reading exercises reflects the fingering of the original piece; students place their right-hand
finger one on “la” and their left-hand finger five on “la.” Dynamics, articulation, and time
signature remain consistent between the original piece and the coordinating sight-reading
exercises.

The first sight-reading exercise to coordinate with the concepts in “My Cream
Puffs Didn’t Puff” is shown in Figure 19 (See Appendix B for Exercises 1 - 3).
Figure 19. Sight-reading: ‘My Cream Puffs Didn’t Puff,’ exercise 1.
To sight-read Exercise 1, Figure 19, the teacher continues to use the same rhythmic
procedures implemented in the previous sight-reading exercises. Students are now chanting
77
“tah-ee” for the dotted quarter notes. In the procedural category of “direction and interval,”
the teacher follows the same routine for treble clef pointing and chanting. In Exercise 1,
students point to bass clef notes and sing “la” while maintaining the rhythmic pulse
established in the previous steps. As the ostinato pattern is introduced in following sight-
reading Exercises 2 and 3, the teacher has the students point to the bass clef pattern and say
“bottom,” “top,” or “same” for each note (tonic = “bottom” and dominant = “top”). When the
note remains the same between measures, the students say “same.”
“Oops, I Swallowed a Candy”

“Oops, I Swallowed a Candy” is the seventh piece of Delicious Dreams. The sight-
reading exercises will correspond with the concepts in the first four measures of the piece,
shown in Figure 20.
Figure 20. “Oops, I Swallowed a Candy,” pages 20 – 21, measures 1 – 4.

Source: “Oops, I Swallowed a Candy,” Young Musician’s Course, Book 2,
copyright [2007], Yamaha Music Foundation. Reprinted by Permission.
All rights reserved. International Copyright Secured. Unauthorized
duplication or use without the express written consent of Yamaha Music
Foundation is strictly prohibited.
“Oops, I Swallowed a Candy” introduces students to two major concepts: triplet
rhythms and reading left-chords in the treble clef. Another new element in this piece is the
hand position of the right hand; students are required to begin with finger four on high “sol.”
The sight-reading exercises utilize concepts from the first four measures of “Oops, I
Swallowed a Candy” (Figure 20). The treble clef notes range from “re” – “la” using triplets,
quarter notes, and quarter rests. The left-hand accompaniment incorporates alternating tonic
and dominant chords in the key of C major. The bass clef sight-reading becomes
progressively more challenging, starting with only one chord per measure (Exercise 1), then
repeating two chords in each measure (Exercises 2 and 3). “Oops, I Swallowed a Candy” is
78
in 2/4 time, which is similarly reflected in the coordinating sight-reading exercises.

Congruent expressive elements are also presented in the sight-reading exercises such as
articulation and dynamics, mezzo forte.

There are three coordinating sight-reading exercises for “Oops, I Swallowed a
Candy.” The first exercise is displayed in Figure 21 (see Appendix B for Exercises 1 – 3).
Figure 21. Sight-reading: ‘Oops, I Swallowed a Candy,’ exercise 1.
Sight-reading procedures for “Oops, I Swallowed a Candy” remain consistent from

the previous sight-reading exercises. In the procedural category of rhythm, the teacher now
uses the term “trip-uh-let” to indicate triplets when leading the students in rhythmic clapping
and chanting. Once the students complete the steps for both the direction and interval and
pitch procedures, they may proceed to playing.
YOUNG MUSICIAN’S COURSE, BOOK 3: LET’S HAVE FUN

TOGETHER
Let’s Have Fun Together is the third book of the “Young Musician’s Course” (YMC).
The book contains twelve keyboard pieces, as well as three ensemble pieces. Original sight-
reading exercises are designed for concepts presented in five of the keyboard pieces
including “Computer Games,” “Fireworks,” “Playing Tag,” “Japanese Carnival,” and
“Soccer/Football.”
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“Computer Games”
Measures one through two of “Computer Games,” the first piece from Let’s Have Fun
Together, are displayed in Figure 22. Sight-reading exercises are designed to coordinate with
the concepts presented in this selected portion of “Computer Games.”
Figure 22. “Computer Games,” pages 8 – 9, measures 1 – 2. Source: “Computer

Games,” Young Musician’s Course, Book 3, copyright [2007], Yamaha Music
Foundation. Reprinted by Permission. All rights reserved. International Copyright
Secured. Unauthorized duplication or use without the express written consent of
In “Computer Games,” students play a right-hand melody in A minor, accompanied
by occasional single notes and thirds of the left hand. The rhythm of the melodic passages in
the right hand are limited to eighth notes, eighth rests, quarter notes, and quarter rests. The
left hand plays quarter notes on “la,” “fa,” and major and minor thirds. The sight-reading
exercises incorporate the primary rhythmic motive shared by the two hands, as displayed in
the first two measures of the piece (Figure 22). Sight-reading exercises incorporate the
original time signature (4/4) as well as the dynamic making (mezzo forte).

As demonstrated in sight-reading Exercise 1 for “Computer Games” (Figure 23), the
rhythmic element from the original first two measures is reinforced. The following sight-
reading procedures apply to all exercises for “Computer Games” (see Appendix C for
Exercises 1 – 3).
To sight-read Exercise 1 for “Computer Games,” the teacher follows the previous
procedural steps for rhythm. The students now say “ee” for eighth rests during the rhythmic
clapping and chanting. Since the bass clef notes remain stationary throughout all three sight-
reading exercises, the pointing procedures are reduced to singing the respective note with
rhythmic accuracy. For Exercise 1, students chant “la.” Once the procedures for rhythm,
80
Figure 23. Sight-reading: ‘Computer Games,’ exercise 1.
direction and interval, and pitch are complete, the students proceed to sight-reading, as
directed by the teacher.
“Fireworks”
The first experience students have playing with F major is “Fireworks,” the second
piece of Let’s Have Fun Together. The significant concepts to correspond with the original
sight-reading exercises are found in the first four measures of “Fireworks,” shown in Figure
24.
Figure 24. “Fireworks,” pages 10 – 11, measures 1 – 4. Source:

“Fireworks,” Young Musician’s Course, Book 3, copyright [2007],
In “Fireworks,” students play a right-hand melody in F major, accompanied by
primary chords in an arpeggiated style. The melody in the right hand includes quarter notes,
dotted quarter notes, eighth notes, half notes, and dotted half notes. The left-hand
accompaniment is written with quarter notes, half notes, and dotted-half notes. Sight-reading
exercises for the left hand is limited to arpeggiated primary chords as well as melodic fifths
81
and sixths. The melodies of the sight-reading examples are progressive, beginning with
single dotted-half notes (Exercise 1), followed by half notes and quarter notes (Exercise 2),
and finally consecutive quarter notes (Example 3). The hand position used in the sight-
reading exercises reflects that of the original piece. Students play the piece with the right-
hand finger two starting on high “fa” and the left-hand finger five on low “fa.” The original
piece is marked mezzo forte, therefore, sight-reading exercises reflect the same dynamic
indication. The time signature for the sight-reading exercises reinforces the 3/4 time used in
“Fireworks.”

There are three original sight-reading exercises to correspond with
“Fireworks.” The first exercise is displayed in Figure 25 (for Exercises 1 – 3, see
Appendix C).
Figure 25. Sight-reading: ‘Fireworks,’ exercise 1.
The teacher follows the same procedural categories of rhythm, direction and interval,
pitch, and play from the previous exercises. To sight-read the left-hand accompaniment
pattern in Exercise 1, the teacher has the students identify and sing the final pitch in measure
4 (“fa”). Since the accompaniment in Exercise 1 uses a waltz bass similar to the previous
piece “I Love Treats” in book 2, the students follow similar procedures when sight-reading
exercises for “I Love Treats.” Students point and say “start pah pah” for the first measure
then “change pah pah,” or “same pah pah.” At the end of the exercise, the teacher has the
students sing the pitches for the final chord, “fa la do.”
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“Playing Tag”
Another song in F major is “Playing Tag,” the third piece in Let’s Have Fun
Together. The piece features a staccato pattern shown in Figure 26.
Figure 26. “Playing Tag,” pages 12 – 13, measures 1 – 4. Source: “Playing

Tag,” Young Musician’s Course, Book 3, copyright [2007], Yamaha Music
Foundation. Reprinted by Permission. All rights reserved. International
Copyright Secured. Unauthorized duplication or use without the express
written consent of Yamaha Music Foundation is strictly prohibited.
In “Playing Tag,” students play a right-hand melody in F major, accompanied by a
left-hand pattern composed of melodic seconds, fourths, and fifths. The rhythmic values of
the melody in the right hand use quarter notes, quarter rests, and eighth notes. The left-hand
accompaniment is limited to using quarter notes, quarter rests, and eighth notes. Sight-
reading exercises for “Playing Tag” are designed to coincide with the hand coordination
found in the first four measures of the original piece (see Figure 26). To guide the students in
a gradual challenge, the sight-reading exercises are progressive. Exercise 1 uses a simple
melodic passage in the right hand, accompanied by a single repeated note in the left hand.
Exercise 2 uses repeated single notes in the right hand while the left hand carries a melodic
passage using intervals of seconds. Finally, Exercise 3 incorporates a right-hand melody
using seconds and thirds, while the left hand repeats different notes in each measure.
Important aspects of the original piece are maintained in the sight-reading exercises, such as
hand position, dynamics (mezzo piano), and time signature (4/4).

The three sight-reading exercises designed for “Playing Tag” maintain the hand
coordination found in the first four measures of the original piece. The first exercise is
displayed in Figure 27 (see Appendix C for Exercises 1 – 3).
83
Figure 27. Sight-reading: ‘Playing Tag,’ exercise 1.
To sight-read the exercises designed for “Playing Tag,” the teacher follows the
previously outlined steps categorized by rhythm, direction and interval, pitch, and play. Since
the bass clef pitch remains consistent throughout Exercise 1, the students chant “fa” while
pointing in the procedural steps for pitch.
“Japanese Carnival”
“Japanese Carnival,” the fourth piece of Let’s Have Fun Together, is the first piece
written in the key of D minor. The sight-reading exercises are designed to coordinate with
measures 13 – 16 of the original piece (see Figure 28).
Figure 28. “Japanese Carnival,” pages 14 – 15, measures 13 – 16. Source:

“Japanese Carnival,” Young Musician’s Course, Book 3, copyright [2007],
“Japanese Carnival” is the first piece requiring students to play in the key of D-minor.
The most common progression of alternating left-hand chords is found in measures 13 – 16
(see Figure 28). The students identify the two chords (Tonic and suspended-Tonic) by
singing “re fa la” (Tonic) and “re sol la” (suspended-Tonic). These chords appear with
84
quarter notes and eighth notes. The right-hand melody in “Japanese Carnival” uses quarter
notes, eighth notes, dotted eighth notes, and sixteenth notes. The sight-reading exercises
designed for “Japanese Carnival” incorporate similar rhythmic limitations. In the treble clef,
students sight-read melodies made of seconds and thirds accompanied by alternating chord
patterns in the left hand. While the bass clef remains consistent throughout all sight-reading
exercises, the treble clef sight-reading is progressive. In Exercise 1, the treble-clef melodies
are limited to “la,” “ti,” and “do” using only half notes. In Exercise 2, students play
additional notes (“re” and “mi”) using quarter notes. In Exercise 3, a variety of seconds and
thirds are incorporated using the same rhythmic and pitch limitations of Exercise 2. The
sight-reading exercises reflect important elements of the original piece such as hand position,
dynamics (forte), and time signature (4/4).

The first exercise designed for the concepts in “Japanese Carnival” is displayed in
Figure 29 (see Appendix C for Exercises 1 – 3).
Figure 29. Sight-reading: ‘Japanese Carnival,’ exercise 1.
The procedures for sight-reading Exercise 1 remain consistent from the previous
exercises. For the left-hand chords, the teacher has the students point and say “same” or
“change” for each chord (students say “start” for the first chord). Similar to previous
exercises, the word “same” is only used for consecutive repeated chords, while the word
“change” is only used the first time a chord is varied from the one previous. For every chord
that changes, have students point and identify by singing the solfége for the respective chord
(i.e. D minor is “re fa la,” etc.…).
85
“Soccer/Football”
Syncopation is the primary concept in “Soccer/Football” (the fifth keyboard piece in
Let’s Have Fun Together) for which the sight-reading exercises and procedures are designed.
The first two measures of “Soccer/Football” are shown in Figure 30.
Figure 30. “Soccer/Football,” pages 16 – 17, measures 1 – 2. Source:

“Soccer/Football,” Young Musician’s Course, Book 3, copyright [2007], Yamaha
Music Foundation. Reprinted by Permission. All rights reserved. International
Copyright Secured. Unauthorized duplication or use without the express written
consent of Yamaha Music Foundation is strictly prohibited.
In “Soccer/Football,” students play a right-hand, syncopated melody accompanied by
harmonic fifths. The right hand is limited to pitches “sol” – “re” using quarter notes, eighth
notes, and quarter rests. The left-hand accompaniment is limited to harmonic fifths using
dotted-quarter notes and eighth notes tied to half notes. Sight-reading exercises use similar
limitations, incorporating the rhythm and syncopated hand coordination found in measures 1
– 2 (see Figure 30). Various elements remain consistent throughout each sight-reading
exercise such as hand position, dynamics (forte), and time signature (4/4).

The first sight-reading exercise designed to coordinate with the concepts in
“Soccer/Football” is shown in Figure 31 (see Appendix C for Exercises 1 – 3).
Figure 31. Sight-reading: ‘Soccer/Football,’ exercise 1.

86
To sight-read Exercise 1, the teacher follows the four procedural categories used for
the previous exercises. In order to sight-read the syncopated rhythm in the treble clef of
Exercise 1 for “Soccer/Football,” the teacher has the students clap and chant “tahn, tee tee-
ahn tahn” for every measure. To sight-read the syncopated rhythm in the bass clef of
Exercise 1, the teacher has the students clap and chant “tah-ee tee-ah-ahn” for every measure.
To help the students distinguish between the shifting harmonic fifths in the bass clef, the
teacher has the students point and say “up,” “down,” or “same” (students say “start” for the
first harmonic fifth).
SUMMARY
These sight-reading exercises and procedures have been presented with sequential
strategies that highlight the importance of rhythm, direction and interval, pitch, and keyboard
playing. During each preparatory step of sight-reading procedures, the teacher observes
specific aspects of classroom participation. The teacher monitors the students’ success in
their ability to accomplish the following: keep a steady beat, maintain eye contact with the
page, sing according to the specified dynamic and articulation, refrain from stopping to
correct mistakes, maintain rhythmic accuracy throughout all procedural steps, use correct
fingering, and clap and play in unison. The teacher also watches for students who are playing
with a slow or rushed tempo. If any of the above elements appear unsuccessful, the teacher
has the students repeat the correlating procedure.
Although this study is limited to sight-reading procedures for Young Musician’s
Course 1 – 3, similar exercises can be created for levels 4 – 6. When introducing sight-
reading material for pieces that are not included in this study, the teacher uses similar
sequential procedures of rhythm, direction and interval, and pitch before the student is to play
the exercise on their keyboard or piano. This study emphasizes the importance of sequential
strategies when sight-reading, offering guidance to the teacher in group teaching.
87
CHAPTER 5
SUMMARY
Sight-reading not only benefits the beginning piano student but also has long-term
advantages. With a firm grasp of sight-reading, students can, as a result, learn more
repertoire in less time. This ultimately allows students to be exposed to a larger amount of
repertoire. Research has shown that better sight-readers tend to be better performers. Since
sight-reading is often a required skill in band and orchestra auditions, students with a
stronger familiarity with sight-reading will have better chances in their collaborative
endeavors. In the professional world, sight-reading proficiency is an invaluable skill in order
to be hired as a church musician, instrumental/vocal accompanist, or music teacher. Sight-
reading is an important skill with many advantages and long-term significance.
Sight-reading involves four primary physiological elements: visual, aural, kinesthetic,
and conceptual. The visual element encompasses “intervallic reading” (one’s ability to
“fixate” their glance on the space between notes) and “chunking” (recognizing chords and
patterns rather than individual notes). The aural element involves the ability to make auditory
predictions of a piece of music in order to self-correct while sight-reading. The kinesthetic
element of sight-reading includes one’s familiarity with the keyboard geography; successful
sight-readers can form mental spatial representations without looking at the keys. Successful
sight-readers are proficient in visual, aural, and kinesthetic skills.
PEDAGOGY: TEACHING STRATEGIES AND CURRICULA

Pedagogues in the field of music teaching have developed various teaching strategies
in order to develop a student’s visual, aural, and kinesthetic proficiency. For visual aptitude,
teachers recommend encouraging the student to engage in five activities: scanning the music
prior to playing, anticipating the next note (looking ahead), reading intervallically as opposed
to note-by-note, maintaining eye contact with the page, and finally to read by “chunking” in
order to see musical patterns and harmonic structures. To develop a student’s aural skills,
teachers recommend engaging the student in two activities: playing by ear and sight-singing.
88
In order to develop a student’s kinesthetic sense, teachers recommend activities that engage
the student in three elements: familiarity with the keyboard geography, constant pulse, and
rhythm. In order to reinforce the above skills, teachers recommend activities that enhance the
student’s conceptual understanding such as transposition, improvisation, and harmonic
analysis. In conclusion, many music educators have found that students can be motivated
with collaborative activities (ensemble, duets, and playing along with recorded
accompaniments) as well as progressive challenges. Through the collective teaching
experience of piano pedagogues and music teachers, various teaching strategies can be
acquired and incorporated into a group or private teaching environment.
In the United States, there are many sight-reading curricula that teachers use to
supplement reading activities in private and group piano lessons. Three of these include
Four-Star Sight-Reading and Ear Tests by Boris Berlin, Sight Reading by Lin Ling Ling, and
Improve Your Sight-reading! By Paul Harris. Each of these methods present sight-reading
exercises that are four to eight measures long, and progress gradually in challenge. Each
sight-reading curricula incorporates sight-reading exercises that include fingering for the first
note of each hand, as well as finger changes. The first sight-reading passages of each series
use only one hand at a time, using only intervals of seconds.
The corporation of Yamaha encompasses many branches including the Yamaha
Corporation of America (YCA), the Yamaha Music Foundation (YMF), the Yamaha Music
Education System (YMES), and more specifically, has developed the Young Musician’s
Course (YMC).
DESIGNING SIGHT-READING MATERIAL

Sight-reading material was designed to coincide with select piano repertoire from
Yamaha’s Young Musician’s Course, levels 1 – 3. Each of these sight-reading examples
included four categories of procedures for the teacher to follow when teaching sight-reading
to a group of students. The four categories are “rhythm,” “direction and interval,” “pitch,”
and “play.”
Similar to the three sight-reading curricula used in the United States, the sight-reading
material designed for the Young Musician’s Course are short in length (four measures), focus
89
on repeating single concept, emphasize the rhythmic component, and are progressive in
difficulty.
CONCLUSIONS
The purpose of this study is to identify the sequential strategies used for sight-reading
in the United States, to apply these reading strategies to an aural solfége-based curriculum
through the development of original sight-reading exercises and procedures, and to provide
teachers with a collection of customized sight-reading materials. When customizing sight-
reading exercises for a student’s repertoire piece, the teacher should use simplified versions
of the most challenging aspect of the chosen repertoire piece. The author of this study
composed sight-reading exercises that combined one intervallic concept and one rhythmic
concept from the repertoire piece in multiple patterns.
After examining the three curricula, there was one main aspect that remained
constant: each level contained many short exercises. An important aspect of sight-reading is
the sequence of procedures used when presenting each exercise such as rhythmic clapping
and the examination of intervals. During the author’s informal observations while utilizing
these sight-reading exercises for YMC level 1 when compared to previous YMC classes,
Level 1 that did not complete any sight-reading activities, she found that the students who
had the opportunity to sight-read had a greater awareness of unfamiliar notation in new
pieces, an ability to identify rhythmic and intervallic patterns in repertoire pieces more easily,
and a greater independence when learning. The author found that by incorporating the
activity of sight-reading, a broader range of student learning styles (aural and visual) were
addressed.
SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY

Since this study was limited to the first three levels of the Young Musician’s Course,
further studies can be done that include all six levels. Although this study involved informal
observations, additional studies could be conducted that officially evaluate the success of
students who participate in the sight-reading exercises designed for the Young Musician’s
Course, Levels 1 – 3. These evaluations could involve creating assessments, such as sight-
reading tests, once the student has completed each level. Finally, since this study was limited
90
to a children’s curriculum, future studies could apply sight-reading repertoire to adult

programs.
91
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WORKS CONSULTED
Deutsch, Leonhard. Piano, Guided Sight-Reading: A New Approach to Piano Study. 2nd ed.
Chicago: Nelson-Hall, 1977.
Duckworth, Guy. “Piano Education.” Music Educators Journal 51, no. 3 (January 1965): 40-
43.
Hesse, Maria Elizabetha. “Association and Co-ordination of Notation with Piano Keys in the
Development of Sight-Reading for the Piano Beginner.” Master’s thesis, University
of South Africa, 2006.
Kliewer, Vernon L. Music Reading: A Comprehensive Approach. Engelwood Cliffs:
Prentice-Hall, 1973.
Krongard, Hyman I. “Rapid Reading at the Piano.” Music Educators Journal 36, no. 4
(February-March 1950): 54-55.
Lawrence, Sidney J. Challenges in Piano Teaching. New York: Quick-Set Press, 1978.
Lehmann, A. and V. McArthur. The Science & Psychology of Music Performance: Creative
Strategies for Teaching and Learning. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002.
Lemay, Catherine. “Sight-reading for Piano Students; Comparing Three Methods of
Assessment.” Master’s thesis, University of Ottawa, 2008.
Leonhard, Charles. A Song Approach to Music Reading. New York: Silver Burdett Co.,
1953.
Smith, Melville. “Solfége: An Essential in Musicianship.” Music Supervisors’ Journal 20,
no. 5 (May 1934): 1661.
Thomson, William. Introduction to Music Reading: Concepts & Applications. Belmont:
Wadsworth Pub. Co., 1966.
Yamaha. “The Origins of the Yamaha Brand.” Yamaha Corporation. http://www.yama
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95
APPENDIX A
SIGHT-READING EXERCISES: YOUNG

MUSICIAN’S COURSE, BOOK 1: LET’S GO TO
THE ZOO
96
97
98
99
100
101
APPENDIX B

MUSICIAN’S COURSE, BOOK 2: DELICIOUS
DREAMS
102
103
104
105
106
107
APPENDIX C

MUSICIAN’S COURSE, BOOK 3: LET’S HAVE
FUN TOGETHER
108
109
110
111
112

The Development of Sight-Reading Exercises

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The Development of Sight-Reading Exercises

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THE DEVELOPMENT OF SIGHT-READING EXERCISES AND

PROCEDURES FOR A SOLFÉGE-BASED PIANO CURRICULUM FOR

San Diego State University

of the Requirements for the Degree

Elyse Nicole Reed

ABSTRACT OF THE THESIS

The Development of Sight-Reading Exercises and Procedures for a

“An Elephant’s Amazing Trunk”.....................................................................66

“Japanese Carnival” .........................................................................................83

Table 1. Selected Pieces ...........................................................................................................10

Figure 1. “A Peacock Welcomes Me,” pages 8 –9. .................................................................62

Figure 28. “Japanese Carnival,” pages 14 – 15, measures 13 – 16..........................................83

Table 1. Selected Pieces

GENERAL PRINCIPLES FOR SIGHT-READING:

article “Keyboard Sight Reading: Observations of a Teacher,” Katherine P. Clark compares

Visual: Physical Properties, Intervallic Reading,

Kinesthetic: Keyboard Geography

Visual: Scanning, Anticipating, Intervals, Eye

Aural: Playing by Ear, Sight-Singing

Kinesthetic: Keyboard Geography, Constant Pulse,

Conceptual: Transposition, Improvisation, Harmony

Motivating Factors: Collaboration and Challenge

McPherson and Parncutt similarly advocate the necessity of a continual increase in

ANALYSIS: SIGHT-READING CURRICULA AND

ANALYSIS OF THREE SIGHT-READING CURRICULA IN

Four-Star Sight-Reading and Ear Tests, Boris Berlin

Sight Reading Lin Ling Ling (2005)

Improve Your Sight-Reading! Paul Harris (2008)

much of his time to adjudicating internationally as well as leading workshops and

Yamaha Corporation of America (YCA)

Yamaha Music Foundation (YMF)

Yamaha Music Education System (YMES)

Yamaha’s Young Musician’s Course (YMC)

Table 2. Scope and Sequence: Young Musician’s Course 1 – 3

YAMAHA’S YOUNG MUSICIAN’S COURSE:

The following chapter presents sight-reading examples and procedures to supplement

Table 3. Rhythmic Chanting

Quarter rest “rest”

Eighth note “tee”

Dotted half note “tah-ah-an”

Half rest “reh-est”

YOUNG MUSICIAN’S COURSE, BOOK 1: LET’S GO TO THE

“A Peacock Welcomes Me”

Figure 1. “A Peacock Welcomes Me,” pages 8 –9. Source:

SIGHT-READING PROCEDURES FOR

Figure 2. Sight-reading: ‘A Peacock Welcomes Me,’ exercise 1.

Table 4. Sight-Reading Procedures: ‘A Peacock Welcomes Me’

Rhythm 1. Clap and say “tahn” or “rest.”

5. Identify the starting finger number, before placing the

Figure 3. “Giraffes,” pages 10 – 11. Source:

SIGHT-READING PROCEDURES FOR

Figure 4. Sight-reading: ‘Giraffes,’ exercise 1.

In preparing to read Figure 4, Exercise 1 of the correlated sight-reading, the teacher

Table 5. Sight-Reading Procedures: ‘Giraffes’

Procedural Category Activity

Rhythm 1. Clap and say “tahn,” “tah-an,” or “rest.”

4. Place the right-hand finger one on “middle do.”

Figure 5. “Rhythmic Pointing.”

Figure 6. “Tumbling Pandas,” pages 12 – 13, measures 1 – 2. Source: “Tumbling

SIGHT-READING PROCEDURES FOR

Figure 7. Sight-reading: ‘Tumbling Pandas,’ exercise 1.

Table 6. Sight-Reading Procedures: ‘Tumbling Pandas’

Procedural Category Activity