CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY

Andrews Campus, Tuguegarao City

GRADUATE SCHOOL

SUBJECT: ADVANCE PHYSIOLOGY

NAME: ARVIN G. CONCHA
PROF.: MS.CELIAFLOR R. FERRER, Ph. D.

COMPREHENSIVE EXAMINATION IN ADVANCE PHYSIOLOGY

1. Neurotransmitter may be excitory, causing the postsynaptic neuron to become

active, or inhibitory, preventing the postsynaptic neuron from becoming active.
Compare and contrast between excitory and inhibitory mechanisms.

 Excitatory neurons are typically pyramidal in shape (or were early in their
development). There are many of them, and they look very similar. In
contrast, inhibitory neurons come in a variety of shapes and morphologies:
Cajal called them "mariposas del alma," the butterflies of the soul. These
different subtypes express different markers and often have different
patterns of firing.
 Excitatory neurons often form long-range connections. In contrast,
inhibitory neurons make local connections. Different subtypes of inhibitory
neurons will synapse on different parts of their targets. For example,
somatostatin-expressing inhibitory neurons synapse on more distal dendrites
of their targets, parvalbumin-expressing basket cells target the proximal
dendrites and cell bodies of their targets, and chandelier cells target the
axon initial segment.
 Excitatory and inhibitory cells have different embryonic origins. Excitatory
cells largely form from precursors that are next to the ventricles; as they are
born, they move upwards, towards the pial surface, and form the
developing cortex. Inhibitory cells, in contrast, are born in the MGE and LGE
(medial and lateral ganglionic eminences, respectively) and migrate into
great distances into cortex and hippocampus.

2. Give your comments/ reactions on the truth or falsify of the following statements
concerning brainwaves as recorded in an EEG

a. Brain waves are the collective expressions of millions of action potentials from
neurons of the cerebrum

At the root of all our thoughts, emotions and behaviors is the communication between
neurons within our brains. Brainwaves are produced by synchronized electrical
pulses from masses of neurons communicating with each other. Our brainwaves change
according to what we’re doing and feeling. When slower brainwaves are dominant we
can feel tired, slow, sluggish, or dreamy. The higher frequencies are dominant when we
feel wired, or hyper-alert

b. Brain waves are emitted from the developing brain as early as 8 weeks
following conception and they continue throughout a person’s life.

Our brainwave profile and our daily experience of the world are
inseparable. When our brainwaves are out of balance, there will be
corresponding problems in our emotional or neuro-physical health. Research has
identified brainwave patterns associated with all sorts of emotional and
neurological conditions.

c. Certain brain wave pattern signify healthy mental functions and deviations from
these patterns are clinically significance in diagnosing trauma, mental
depression, hematomas and various diseases such as tumors, infections and
epilepsy.

Over-arousal in certain brain areas is linked with anxiety disorders, sleep problems,
nightmares, hyper-vigilance, impulsive behaviour, anger/aggression, agitated
depression, chronic nerve pain and spasticity. Under-arousal in certain brain
areas leads to some types of depression, attention deficit, chronic pain and
insomnia. A combination of under-arousal and over-arousal is seen in cases of
anxiety, depression and ADHD

3. Why is it important to include cellulose in a healthy diet even though we cannot digest
it?

Bite into a juicy apple or a sweet pear and part of what you're eating is cellulose,
a component of plant foods that is indigestible by the human body. It might not
seem intuitive that something your body can't digest can benefit your health, but
it can. Cellulose is a type of fiber called insoluble fiber, and its benefits include
helping food move through your digestive system more quickly, thus preventing
constipation, and reducing the risk of developing a condition called diverticular
disease.

4. If you had a choice, would you prefer to have high blood levels of HDLs or LDLs?
Elaborate your answer.

I prefer to have high blood levels of HDLs. Elevated levels of LDL cholesterol are
associated with increased risk of heart disease, but high levels of HDL cholesterol
are associated with low risk. HDL particles seem to be involved in clearing and
removing cholesterol from arteries and atherosclerotic plaques while LDL particles
appear directly involved in the atherosclerotic process.

5. What physical requirements must be satisfied for the respiratory system to function
effectively?

To be affective the respiratory system must meet 5 physical requirements

a. The structures through which gas exchange occurs must be thin so the diffusion
can occur easily

b. This membrane must be kept moist. This allows O2 and CO2 to dissolve in water
to better facilitate diffusion

c. To ensure enough exchange there must be a rich blood supply present

d. The exchange surfaces should be located where incoming air can be warmed
(or cooled), moistened, and filtered. This will help prevent damage to the
delicate exchange surface
e. There must be a mechanism for exchange of air (ventilation)

6. Discuss thoroughly the physiology of why are nosebleeds common?

Nosebleeds are common. They may be scary, but they rarely indicate a serious
medical problem. The nose contains many blood vessels. These blood vessels are
located close to the surface in the front and back of the nose. They are very
fragile and bleed easily. Nosebleeds are common in adults and children between
the ages of 3 and 10.There are two kinds of nosebleeds. An anterior
nosebleed occurs when the blood vessels in the front of the nose break and
bleed. A posterior nosebleed occurs in the back or the deepest part of the nose.
In this case, blood flows down the back of the throat. Posterior nosebleeds can
be dangerous.

7. Describe the normal changes that occur in respiratory system functioning from
infancy to old age?

 In the fetus, the lungs are filled with fluid and all respiratory exchanges are
made by the placenta
 At birth, the fluid-filled pathway is drained, and the respiratory passageways fill
with air and the alveoli inflate and begin to function in gas exchange with lung
inflation completed by two weeks of age
o The presence of surfactant, a fatty molecule made by the cuboidal
alveolar cells that lowers the surface tension of the film of water lining
each alveolar sac so that the alveoli do not collapse between each
breath is only present in large enough amounts late in pregnancy –
between 28 and 30 weeks
 The respiratory rate is highest in newborns and it continues to drop throughout
life until old age when it can increase again
 The lungs continue to mature throughout childhood and more alveoli are
formed until young adulthood