ABRASIVE JET MACHINING

METHODOLOGY

Our project work, Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM) presents the working of abrasive
jet machining and removing materials from the brittle and heat sensitive materials by the
application of high speed stream of abrasive particles carried by a gas medium through
the nozzle. In particular drilling of holes of minimum diameter and maximum depth is
also possible in AJM with greater accuracy and surface finish. Since no heat is induced
while machining the surface, the workplace is not subjected to thermalshocks.

Abrasive jet machining apparatus can be used for determining the material removal
rate (MRR) for materials like glass, ceramics and aluminium sheet by varying the
parameters like pressure, nozzle tip distance (NTD) and size of abrasive flow rate. In this
project we have designed and fabricated the Abrasive jet machining apparatus for drilling
holes and cutting glass, ceramic plates and aluminium sheet.

INTRODUCTION

Rapid technology development in the field of new materials and alloys with
increasing strength, hardness, toughness, heat resistance and wear resistance have
imposed many problems and difficulties during the machining by conventional means.

Machining intricate and complicated shapes of this and fragile components and
accurate and economical forming of very hard, high strength materials which are being
extensively used in Aeroplane and nuclear industries have forced the scientist, engineers
and technologists to search for new techniques of machining which can readily provide
an effective solution to these problems.
 As a research and development for the last forty years several new methods of
machining have emerged. Among the new methods we are going to deal with the
Abrasive Jet Machining. The conventional techniques like turning, drilling, milling etc.,
are well known and involves the use of mechanical power between the workpiece and the
tool whereas in this method need not be the case with unconventional on advanced
machining techniques.

WORKING PRINCIPLE

Abrasive jet machining (AJM) removes material through the action of a focussed
stream of abrasive-ladden gas. Micro-abrasive particles are propelled by inert gas at
velocities of upto 300 m/sec. When directed at a workpiecs, the result in erosion can be
used for cutting, etching, cleaning, deburring, polishing, and drilling.

Material removal occurs through a chipping action, which is especially effective

on hard, brittle materials such as glass, silicon, tungsten, and ceramics. Soft, resilient
materials, such as rubber and some plastics resist the chipping action and thus are not
effectively processed by AJM.

No work piece chatter or vibration occurs with this process because the large
enables AJM to produce fine, intricate detail extremely brittle objects. The AJM
processed eggshell provides a graphic example of the delicate nature of the process. In
addition because heat carried away by the abrasive propellant gas, workpieces experience
no thermal damage.
APPLICATIONS

The manufacturer prepares a reusable rubber stencil for each model panel. The
rubber stencil is then placed on the surface of the panel and the abrasive jet is used to etch
the exposed areas providing permanent marking. In this particular use, the Abrasive Jet
Machining (AJM) costs only 1/3 of cost required for label method of production.

1. Variety of diverse jobs has been successfully performed by AJM. These

include cutting threads into glass rods, deflashing small castings, die and mound touch
up, cutting titanium fink and drilling glass wafers.
2. The AJM has been successfully employed to manufacture small electronic
devices consisting of a 0.38 tungsten disk. After the two materials were were brazed
together. The silicon wafer must be trimmed and beveled without harming the tungsten
disk. To accomplish the task an AJM nozzle is mounted at the desired angle and directed
at slowly rotating part with this technique the unwanted silicon is trimmed off each part
in less than one minute.
3. An example of debburing plastic parts with AJM is cited by Lacourte
(1979) in an application involving the manufacture of small biomedical analysis
packages. Small plastic cubes are cross drilled with two 0.34mm diameter holes. Tiny
burrs are created internally at the intersection of the two holes must be removed without
providing scratches. It is not only able to meet this difficult quality requirement, but it
also was able to reduce deburring time by 80% when compared with the old method of
deburring.
 ADVANTAGES

1. AJM provides cool cutting action, no heat damage occurs to the delicate work
materials.
2. Cutting action is shockless.
3. Ability to cut fragile and heat sensitive materials without damage.
4. Ability to cut intricate hole shapes in materials of any hardness and brittleness.
5. No variation due to surface irregularities and tool wear as in conventional
machining.
6. Low capital cost.
7. AJM units are easy to operate and maintain.

DISADVANTAGES

1. Stray cutting is unavoidable if not properly controlled.

2. AJM yields low material removal rates.
3. Nozzle life is limited.
4. Replacement of rubber hoses which carry abrasives may be necessary.
5. A suitable dust collection system is required to prevent pollution.
6. Embedding of the abrasive in the workpiece surface may occur while machining
softer materials.
 LITERATURE SURVEY

MANUFACTUING PROCESS

The human race has distinguished itself from all other forms of life by using tools

and intelligence to create items that serve to make life easier and more enjoyable.

Through the centuries, both the tools and the energy sources t power these tool have

evolved to meet the increasing sophistication and complexity of mankind’s ideas.

In their earliest forms, tools primarily consisted of stone instruments considering

the relative simplicity of the items being made and the materials that were being made

and the materials that were being shaped stone was adequate. When iron tools were

invented, durable metals and more sophisticated articles could be produced. The

twentieth century has been the creations of products made from the most durable and

consequently, the most unmachinable materials in history. In an effort to meet the

manufacturing challenges created by these materials, tools have now evolved to include

materials such as alloy steels, carbide, diamond, and ceramics.

Every time new tools, tools materials, and power sources are utilized, the

efficiency and capabilities of manufactures are greatly enhanced. However as old

problems are solved, new problems and challengers arise so that the manufactures of
today are faced with tough questions such as the following hoe do you drill a 2-mm

(0.079-inch) diameter hole 610-mm (24-inches) deep without experiencing taper or

runout? Is there a way to efficiency deburring passageways made complex castings and

guarantee 100% that no burrs were missed? To be able to complete with the cheap labor

of my foreign completion I would need to cut shapes in my product at 250m/min (10,000

ipm). Is it possible? Is there a welding process that can eliminate the thermal damage now

occurring to my product?

Since the 1940’s, a revolution in manufacturing has been taking place that once

again allower’s manufactures to meet the demands imposed by increasingly sophisticated

designs and durable, but in many cases nearly unmachinable, materials. This

manufacturing revolution is now, assist has been in the past, centered on the use of new

forms of energy. The results has been the introduction of new manufacturing processes

used for material removal, forming, and joining, known today as nontraditional

manufacturing processes.

NTM has its own characteristic attributes and limitations. For example

nontraditional process are sometimes applied to increase productivity either by reducing

the number of overall manufacturing operations required to produce a product or by

performing operations faster than the previously used method.

 In other cases, nontraditional processes are used to reduced the number of rejects

experienced by the old manufacturing method by increasing repeatability, reducing in

process breakage of fragile work pieces or by minimizing detrimental effects on work

piece properties.

Quiet often, nontraditional processes are able to provide a capability that simply

cannot be met with conventional techniques, drilling small holes with aspect ratios of

150:1, forming titanium sheet metal without experiencing spring back or metallurgical

joining two materials without the use of heat in just a few example.

Because of the aforementioned attributes, nontraditional manufacturing processes

have experienced steady growth since their introduction. An increasing growth rate for

these processes in the future is assured for the reasons:

Currently, nontraditional processes possess virtually unlimited capabilities when

compared with conventional processes, expect for volumetric material removal rates.

Great advances have been made in the past few years in increasing the removal rates of

some of these processes, and there is no reason to believe that this trend will not continue

into the future. As removal rates increase, the cost effectiveness of operation such as bulk

material removal will also increase, stimulating even greater usage of nontraditional

processes.
 Most nontraditional processes are capable of being adaptively controlled through

the use of vision systems, laser gages, and other in-processes inspection techniques. If,

for example, the in-processes inspection system determines that the size of holes being

produce in a product are becoming smaller, the size can be modified without changing

hard tools, such as drills. Most nontraditional processes used for generating holes or

cavities are capable of automatically changing sizes by changing the radius-offset value

in the machine’s computer program. This ability assures the increased use of

nontraditional processes as unmanned machining modules and automated factories

become more common.

The implementation of nontraditional manufacturing processes will continue to

increase as manufacturing engineers, product designers, and metallurgical engineers

become increasingly aware of the unique capabilities and benefits that nontraditional

manufacturing processes provide.

EQUIPMENT OF AJM

A system consists of four major sub-systems.

# Gas propulsion system.

# Metering system.

# Delivery system and

# Abrasive collecting system.

 The gas propulsion system provides the steady supply of clean dry gas used to
propel the abrasive particles. Depending upon the demands of the installation, either an
air compressor or bottled gas may be used. If an air compressor is used, proper line filters
must be installed to avoid water or oil contamination of the abrasive powders. The least
expensive, and thus the most common gasses to use, are nitrogen and carbon-di-oxide.
Oxygen should never be used as it presents a fire hazard.

The metering system must inject a uniform, adjustable flow of abrasive particles
into the gas stream. Generally, a powder hopper that feeds into a vibrating chamber,
which in turn causes the powder to be metered uniformly into the jet stream, accomplices
this. The powder, flow rate is directly adjustable by varying the amplitude of the
vibration.

A dust collection system is incorporated into AJM systems when found necessary
to maintain the operator’s exposure to dusts with in permissible limits. Special
considerations must be given to the dust collection system if toxic materials such as
beryllium are being abraded.

NOZZLE

The AJM nozzles are typically made of either tungsten carbide or sapphire.
Tungsten carbide nozzles with either round or rectangular holes are available and lost for
an average of 300 hr but are 3 to 8 times more expensive. Round nozzles are available
with diameters ranging from 0.12 to 1.25 mm (0.005 to 0.05 in) with 0.05-mm (0.018) in
mm being the most common. Rectangular nozzles range from 0.07 x 0.5mm to 0.17 x
3.8.mm (0.003 x 0.02 in. to 0.007 x 0.15 in.)
The life of a nozzle must be partly defined by its application. Exacting operations,
such as cutting, required that nozzles be changed more often than when is in etching or
cleaning. As nozzles wear, the jet stream tends to diffuse faster resulting in material
damage outside the intended line of cut. This is known as stray cutting or overspreads.
Rectangular nozzles create less overspread when compared with round ones.

MASKS

Masks are used to control overspread or to produce large holes and intricate details
without having a move the nozzles and trace the shape. First the mask is produced with
open areas where the material removal is desired, and then it is moved on the AJM stream
is passed over the exposed areas, cutting or etching takes place on a selective basis. This
is how the egg was cut and hoe intricate patterns can be permanently etched into a work
piece.

Masks can be fabricated from rubber or metal, having it’s advantage and
disadvantage. While the rubber masks are easy to fabricate, they give poor edge
definition. The metal masks give much better definition but erode faster

ABRASIVES
The various abrasives used in AJM are selected in application. Aluminum oxide,
one of the most commonly used materials, is used to clean, cut and deburr. Silicon
carbide, a harder abrasive, is effective for the same applications as aluminum oxide is
usually applied only when the work piece material is very hard. Polishing surfaces to a
Matt finish or penning surfaces is accomplished with glass beads and can therefore be
used for heavier cleaning and penning operations.

The lightest duty applications, such as the clearing, cutting and deburring of soft
materials are performed with sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) which is a soft powder
and can leave surfaces free of scratches. It is important to note that sodium bicarbonate is
hygroscope and will absorb moisture if heated above 49 C (120 F), thus rendering it
useless if allowed to become moist and therefore must be completely dry at all the times.
Because the abrasive particle size is important, abrasive are available in many
sizes ranging from 10u to 50u. The similar sizes are most useful for polishing and
cleaning, while the larger sizes are best for cutting and peening.

Abrasives are not reused because “ chips” from the workpiece material clog nozzle
and also the cutting action of used particles is degraded. In addition, very little savings
would result from reusing powders because of low price per kg and the consumption rate
is typically only 300g/hr.

DESIGN OF AJM’S PARTS

NOZZLE

a. Area velocity relationship for compressible flow

The continuity equation is given by

Pav = C……………………(1)

From the above eqn it is clear that with change of area both density and velocity
gets affected.
Therefore to find relation between area and velocity on differentiating the equation
(1) we get,

Pd (AV) + Avdp. = 0
P (AdV + pVdp =0
Dividing by pAV, we get

Dv da dp

…………..+…………..+……….. = 0…………..(2)

v A p

The Ruler’s equation for compressible fluid is given by

Dp
……… + VdV + GDZ =0
p

Neglecting the z term the above equation is written as

Dp
… + VDV 0
P
i.e.,

dp dp
…………. X ………. + V (vdv) = 0
dp p

But,
dp
…… = C2
dp
Therefore
dp
C2 ……. +V (dv) =0
P
dp
C2 ……… = - V(dv)

Dp -V (Dv)
…….. = …………
p c2

Substituting this value in (2)

 Dv da V(Dv)
…….. + ……… - ………. = 0

V A C2

Da V(DV) dv
………..=……….. - ………
A C2 V

A = Dv { ( v2 / c2 )-1}

Da dv
……… = ……… (M2 – 1) Since M = V/C
A V

In our experiment, the air travels at a maximum velocity of (at the exit of nozzle)
V = {2K/ (K-1) {P1/p1} {1- (P2/P1) Power (k-1)}}
Where K= 1.4; p1 = 1.157
Velocity of sound in the medium at room temperature of 32 C (305 K)
Therefore C= KRT
Where R = 287 j/kg K gas constant
K = 1.4 = Cp/CV
C=
V = Velocity of compressed air at exit of nozzle (10 bar pressure) = 6.00 m/sec.
Therefore M = V/C = 600/350 = 0.0171< 1
Therefore the flow is “ SUBSONIC”.
When the value of V reaches 350m / sec., then the flow said to be “ SONIC’.

More than 350-m/ sec. will makes the flow as “SUPER SONIC” flow.
Therefore the substitution of the M value in equation we get a relation with
Similarly,

The mass rate of flow of air can also be determined by using the formula.
Where,

K = 1.4

N=

P2 = Exit pressure of nozzle i.e., Atmospheric pressure

P1 = Air pressure in pipeline.

b. For maximum mass flow rates of air.

c. Value of V for maximum rate of flow of air.

Since n = (2/K+1) power (k/k-1)

We can directly desire an equation,
Therefore,

d. For maximum rate of flow of the air through nozzle.

We know,

Substituting the value of n in equation we get

DESIGN OF MIXING CHAMBER.

For thin pressure vessels the conditions is that the thickness of plate must be equal
to or less than 10% of the diameter of vessel.

In our case the diameter of vessel (or) chamber = 13.6 cm = 136mm.

 The thickness must be equal to 136mm or less than 136mm (according to the
conditions given). But our chamber has got thickness of 22 gauge so, one condition for a
pressure vessel is fulfilled.
When a thin pressure cylinder of internal diameter D and thickness ‘ t’ is subjected
to an internal pressure ‘p’ the two types of tensile stresses set up.

a. Longitudinal stress St = Pd/ 4tn

In our case --- Efficiency of the joint be 80% (considered).

Let m = 0.3; E = 200x10 ; D = 17 t (for thin cylinder)

Let working pressure is 10Kgf/cm.

The maximum pressure that the cylinder withstands = 60N/mm = Fs.

CHAPTER 13

THEORY AND FABRICATION WORK

(EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP)

The fabricated abrasive jet machining consists of the following parts and
components

1. MIXING CHAMBER (VIBRATOR)

2. WORKING CHAMBER

DESCRIPTION:

The air enters through the control valve from air compressor where the flow of air
is corrected and required amount of air is opened out. There is a pressure-measuring
instrument fitted with the air compressor, which guides us to know the flow pressure of
air. In case of any mixture control in the compressed air there should be air filter. In our
project air filter is used to filter the water and oil content.
 The air from compressor next passes through the flexible tube to mixing chamber
or vibrator. The vibrator is the main part of the fabrication work and it is fitted on the
horizontal bed. There is one opening on either side of the mixing chamber.

The inlet opening is for the compressed air at a regulated pressure. The abrasive
and dry air is made to mix in the mixing chamber and then is made to flow out to the
working chamber through the outlet opening of the vibrator. Besides there are two
openings on top and bottom of the mixing chamber to take abrasives.

The air-abrasive mixture from the vibrator is made to flow through the flexible
tube to reduced copper tube of 8mm diameter. The nozzle is directly fitted to copper tube,
which is kept vertically inside the working chamber. The nozzle is fitted to a threaded nut
coupling so that it can be made to adjust the height of the nozzle tip distance from the
machined table. The machining table is made to remove in both cross wise and horizontal
direction. The workpiece is placed on the wise. There is an arrangement like hopper kept
below the table which is for collecting the abrasive particle.

FUNCTION:

First of all the power supply is switched on to energize the motor. Then the air is
allowed to pass through the mixing chamber. Due to vibrating motion the abrasive
particles get momentum and then air-abrasive mixture is made to flow to the working
chamber. At the nozzle it produces a high velocity flowing fluid mixture and exactly just
below the nozzle, it produces the work piece normally glass is kept with all clamping
arrangements to clamp it.

The air- abrasive mixture which impinges with great velocity has erosive power
that removes the materials from the surface of work material glass, etc.,
 After drilling operation is over the abrasive particles are collected on the tray
below the table. The work piece is weighed before and after the process. The time taken
to drill the hole is noted, with this above value the material removal rate (MRR) is
calculated.

SPECIFICATION OF THE PARTS IN THE SETUP:

AIR COMPRESSOR:

Type: Two stage twin cylinder with swinging field dynamometer

LP HP
Bore 100mm 60mm
Stroke 85mm 85mm

Displacement Volume = 15.5 CPM

Working pressure = 10kg/cm2

Speed = 700rpm
MOTOR:

Type : INDUCTION MOTER, CAPACITOR START TYPE.

Power : 0.25 H.P

Speed : 1440 rpm

Efficiency : 59%

CAM:

Stroke length = 10mm

BEARINGS:

Material : Bearing steel

Type : Single row deep groove ball bearing (skf6202)

Inner diameter : 15mm

Outer diameter : 35mm

WORKING CHAMBER:

Working chamber is a cubical metal casing in which till the machining operation
will be formed. In order to prevent the splashing of abrasive particles and scrap particles
to the surrounding, the chamber is enclosed in three sides. To the bottom of the cubical
structure a square funnel is welded to collect the used abrasives and chips. The working
chamber consists of a machine vice which is screwed with a lead screw. The lead screw is
mounted in the base of cubical structure.

The cross feed movement of vise is enable the cutting operation. To vary the
nozzle distance a flange and threaded pipefitting is fitted on the top of working chamber.
Working chamber is constructed with mild steel sheets of 22 gauge thickness and “ L”
angles, the funnel is fitted at the base of structure is made of mild steel sheet of 22 gauge
thickness.

SPECIFICATIONS

Height of the working chamber from floor = 9.3mm

Size = 480x480x480mm cubic structure machine vise

Horizontal movement = 350 mm

Cross wise movement = 160 mm

Dust collector funnel flow angle = 35”

Materials used GI Metal sheets 12 gauge

MS L- Angles of 3mm thick

HORIZONTAL FEED SCREW:

Horizontal feed screw’s main function is to provide the movement of move on the
guide ways in order to have adjustment in the horizontal direction.
Material : MS.rod of diameter 22mm

Thread : RH thread 5/8 of inch – BSW

VERTIAL EED SCREW:

Vertical feed screw’s main function is to provide the movement for the nozzle in
order to alter the Nozzle Tip Distance (NTD) that means the distance between nozzle and
work surface.

NOZZLE:

The nozzle is a tapering mouthpiece, which is fitted to the outlet of a pipe and is
generally to have a high velocity of fluid as it converts pressure head into kinetic head as
its outlet. The high-pressure air coming from the compressor after passing through
various devices particularly mixing chamber, at last reaches the nozzle inlet. Due to the
gradual reducing cross sectional are of nozzle the high pressure abrasive mixture slowly
gets momentum in terms of kinetic energy and at the exit it comes out at great velocity
which is directly used for drilling the required workpiece of different thickness.

Copper and stainless steel are used as nozzle. Stainless steel nozzle is having more
machine hour than copper nozzle.
Specifications:

Type of material copper stainless steel EN-31 (tempered)

Nozzle inlet diameter 4.0mm 4.0mm 4.0mm

Nozzle outlet diameter 0.6mm 1.0mm 1.5mm

Angle of taper 2 2 2

Length of nozzle 60mm 65mm 38mm

AIR FILTER UNIT:

Air filter unit is fitted in between compressor and mixing chamber or at the air let
system in order to the water and oil content from the air. This is so because Aluminum
abrasives have the property to absorb the water and oil content.
ABRASIVES:

Sand and Aluminum oxide are used as abrasives. Abrasives have small particle
size are used for polishing and cleaning, while the larger sizes are best for cutting and
peening.

Sand 150microns

Purpose, cutting, drilling Purpose, finishing, cleaning Purpose, cutting