BLOOD Formed Elements

§ A type of connective tissue that consists of a Production of Formed Elements

liquid matrix Hematopoiesis – process of blood cell production;
confined primarily to red bone marrow
I. Plasma
A. Plasma Proteins Stem cells / Hemocytoblasts – where all formed
1. Albumin elements of blood are derived from
2. Globulin
3. Fibrinogen I. Red Blood Cells / Erythrocytes
B. Serum § Disk-shaped x biconcave (increases the cell’s
surface area)
II. Formed Elements § Anucleate (without nucleus & organelles)
A. Platelts § Transports O2 form the lungs to the various
B. RBCs tissues of the body
C. WBCs § Helps transport CO2 from the tissues to the
1. Granular lungs
i. Neutrophils
ii. Basophils Hemoglobin – main component of RBCs;
iii. Eosinophils pigmented protein responsible for its red color
2. Agranular
i. Lymphocytes Oxygen transport – accomplished by the
ii. Monocytes hemoglobin

Functions Globin – each protein

1. Transport of gases, nutrients, & waste products.
2. Transport of processed molecules. Heme – red-pigmented molecules that
3. Transport of regulatory molecules. composes a globin
4. Regulation of pH and osmosis.
5. Maintenance of body temperature. Bright red hemoglobin – bound to O2
6. Protection against foreign substances.
7. Clot formation. Darker red hemoglobin – without bound to O2

Composition of Blood Iron – necessary for O2 transport

§ Plasma – liquid matrix
§ Formed elements – cells & cell fragments Carbonic anhydrase – an enzyme that catalyzes
§ 4 – 5 L in females; 5 – 6 L in males a reaction that converts CO2 and H2O into a
§ 8% of total body weight hydrogen ion and a bicarbonate ion

Plasma Proerythroblasts – give rise to the RBCs line

§ Pale yellow fluid
a. 91% water, 7% proteins, 2% ions/gases B vitamins folate & B12 – required for cell
division; necessary for the synthesis of DNA
Plasma Proteins
1. Albumin – water balance bet. the blood and Iron – required for the production of
tissues hemoglobin

2. Globulins – part of the immune system; RBC production – stimulated by low blood O2
function as transport molecules; a clotting factor level
v Alpha globulins – transport hormones,
prothrombin, high density lipoprotein Erythropoietin – glycoprotein released by the
(HDL/healthy cholesterol) kidneys; stimulates red bone marrow to produce
more RBC
v Beta globulins – transport vitamins,
minerals, and other lipoproteins
Iron recycling
(LDL/bad cholesterol)
§ When RBCs become old, abnormal and
v Gamma globulins – antibodies that
damaged, they are removed from the
provide imuunity
blood by macrophages.
3. Fibrinogen – a clotting factor § Within the macrophage, the globin is
broken down into amino acids that are
v Fibrin – threadlike protein that forms
reused to produce other proteins.
blood clots
§ Iron released from the heme is transported
Serum to the red bone marrow and used to
produce new hemoglobin.
§ Plasma without the clotting factors

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 § The heme molecules are converted into b. Monocyte
bilubrin. • Largest of the WBCs
§ Bilubrin – yellow pigment molecule; • Macrophages – enlarged
brown color monocytes; phagocytize bacteria,
§ If the liver is not functioning normally, or dead cells, cell fragments; can break
flow of bile is hindered = bilubrin builds down phagocytized foreign
up and produces jaundice substances
§ Jaundice – yellowish color to the skin
§ Converted bilubrin into other pigments = III. Platelets / Thrombocytes
brown color in feces + yellow color in § Produced in the red bone marrow from
urine megakaryocytes (large cells)
§ Play an important role in preventing blood loss
II. White Blood Cells / Leukocytes
§ Spherical cells that lack hemoglobin Preventing Blood Loss
§ Thin, white later of cells + has a nucleus A. Vascular Spasm
§ Protects the body against invading § An immediate but temporary constriction of
microorganisms blood vessels
§ Removes dead cells and debris form the tissues § Constriction can close small vessels completely
by phagocytes and stop the flow of blood through them
§ Thromboxanes – derived from certain
Ameboid movement – like an ameba; cell prostaglandins
projects a cystoplasmic extension that attaches to § Endothelin- endothelial cells lining blood
an object vessels

A. Granulocytes – large cytoplasmic granules B. Platelet Plug Formation

a. Neutrophil § An accumulation of platelets that can seal up a
• Most common type of WBCs small break in blood vessels
• Stains with both acidic & basic dyes § Maintains the integrity of the circulatory system
• Commonly lobed (2 – 4)
• Phagocytize microorganism and i. Platelet adhesion – platelets stick to the
other foreign substances collagen exposed by blood vessel
damage
• Pus – dead neutrophils, cell debris
v Von Willebrand factor – protein
and fluid that accumulates at sites
produced and secreted by blood vessel
of infections
endothelial cells; forms a bridge bet.
collagen and platelets by binding to
b. Basophil
platelet surface receptors and collagen
• Least common of all WBCs
• Stain blue/purple with basic dyes ii. Platelet release reaction – platelets
• Release histamine and other release chemicals (ADP and
chemicals that promote thromboxane) that activate other
inflammation platelets
• Release heparin which prevents the v Fibrinogen receptors – surface receptors
formation of clots that bind to fibrinogen

c. Eosinophil iii. Platelet aggregation – fibrinogen forms

• Stain bright red with an acidic stain bridges be. The fibrinogen receptors of
(eosin) numerous platelets
• Two lobed nucleus
C. Blood Clotting / Coagulation
• Involved in inflammatory responses
§ (A) Inactive clotting factors activate or (B)
associated with allergies and asthma
Thromboplastin causes activation.
• Involved in destroying certain § Series of activation of clotting factors
worm parasites occurs.
§ Prothrombinase / Prothrombin activator
B. Agranulocytes – very small granules
is formed.
a. Lymphocyte
§ Prothrombinase converts prothrombin
• Smallest of the WBCs (inactive CF) to thrombin (active CF).
• Play an important role in body’s § Thrombin converts fibrinogen (inactive
immune response CF) to fibrin (active CF).
• Production of anti-bodies and other § Each CF activates many additional CF
chemicals that destroy resulting in formation of a clot.
microorganisms

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 Clot – traps blood cells, platelets, and fluid
Fibrin – a network of threadlike protein fibers
Vitamin K & Ca – required for clot formation
Sources of vit. K – diet + bacteria within the
large intestine
Anticoagulants – prevent CF from forming clots
under normal conditions
Antithrombin & Heparin – inactivate thrombin
Clot retraction – a clot begins to condense into a
more compact structure
Fibrinolysis – process wherein clots
dissolved
Plasminogen – inactive plasma protein
Plasmin – active plasma protein
Tissue plasminogen activator (t-PA) – stimulate
the conversion of plasminogen to plasmin
Heart attack – results when a clot blocks blood
vessels that supply the heart
Aspirin & Anticoagulant therapies – prevent
heart attacks
Plasmin activators – quickly dissolve the clot
and restore blood flow to cardiac muscle
Streptokinase – a bacterial enzyme used to
dissolve clots
Blood Grouping
Transfusion – transfer of blood/blood components form
one individual to another
Infusion – introduction of fluids other than blood
(saline, glucose) into the blood
Transfusion reactions – clumping/rupture of blood
cells and clotting within blood vessels
Antigen – molecules on the surfaces of RBCs
Antibodies – proteins in plasma
Agglutination – clumping of cells
Hemolysis – rupture of blood cells; caused by the
combination of the antibodies with the antigens
ABO and Rh blood groups – most important in
transfusion reactions
A. ABO Blood Group
§ ABO antigens appear on the surface of the RBCs
§ Antigens on bacteria/food in the digestive tract
stimulate formation of antibodies against
antigens that are different from the body’s own
antigens
Blood Type Antigen Antibody
A A B
B B A
AB AB N/A
O N/A AB
Donor – person who gives blood
Recipient – person who receives blood
are Universal Donor = type O blood – misleading
§ Mismatching other blood groups can
cause transfusion reactions
§ Antibodies in the donor’s blood can react
with antigens on the recipient’s RBCs
B. Rh Blood Group
§ First studied in the rhesus monkey
§ Can occur through
v Transfusion
v Transfer of blood across the placenta to
a mother from her fetus
Rh-positive – have Rh antigens on the surface of
RBCs
Rh-negative – don’t have Rh antigens
Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn (HDN) /
Erythroblastosis fetalis
§ Mother produces anti-Rh antibodies that
cross the placenta and cause agglutination
and hemolysis of fetal RBCs
§ Doesn’t occur in first pregnancy
§ Arises in later pregnancies
Rho (D) immune globulin (RhoGAM) –
prevention of HDN that contains antibodies
against Rh antigens; inactivates the fetal Rh
antigens and prevents sensitization of the
mother
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Diagnostic Blood Tests
A. Type and Crossmatch
Blood typing – determines the ABO and Rh blood
groups of a blood sample
Crossmatch – donor’s blood cells are mixed with the
recipient’s serum + donor’s serum is moxed with the
recipient’s cells; safe = no agglutination occurs in both
A. Complete Blood Count (CBC)
§ Analysis of blood that provides useful info
§ Consists of RBC count, hemoglobin + hematocrit
measurements, WBC count
1. Red Blood Count
§ Male – 4.6-6.2 M RBCs/microliter of blood
§ Female – 4.2-5.4 M/microliter
§ Erythrocytosis – overabundance of RBCs
§ Erythrocytopenia – deficiency of RBCs
2. Prothrombin Time Measurement
§ How long it takes for the blood to start clotting
§ Normally is 9-12 s
§ Prothrombin time – determined by adding
thromboplastin to whole plasma
§ Thromboplastin – released from injured tissues
that starts the process of clotting
§ International Normalized Ratio (INR) –
standardizes time it takes to clot
D. Blood Chemistry
§ High blood glucose levels – pancreas is not
producing enough insulin
§ High blood urea nitrogen (BUN) – reduced
kidney function
§ Increased bilirubin – liver dysfunction
§ High cholesterol levels – risk of cardiovascular
disease

2. Hemoglobin Measurement
§ Male – 14-18 g/100 mL of blood
§ Female – 12-16 g/100 mL
§ Anemia – abnormally low hemoglobin
measurement
v Aplastic Anemia – inability of red bone
marrow to produce RBCs
v Iron-deficiency Anemia – deficiency
intake or excessive loss
v Folate deficiency – fewer cell division;
neural tube defects
v Pernicious Anemia – inadequate vit.
B12 or intrinsic function

3. Hematocrit Measurement
§ Hematocrit – total blood volume that is
composed of RBCs
§ Buffy coat – thin, whitish layer bet. the plasma
and RBCs
§ Hematocrit measurement – affected by no. and
size of RBCs

4. White Blood Count

§ 5000-9000 white cells per/microliter of blood
§ Leukopenia – lower than normal WBC
§ Leukocytosis – abnormally high WBC
§ Leukemia – cancer of the red marrow; abnormal
production of one/more WBC types

B. Differential Blood Count

§ Determines % of each of the 5 kinds of WBCs
§ 60-70% Neutrophils
§ 20-25% Lymphocytes
§ 3-8% Monocytes
§ 2-4% Eosinophils
§ 0.5-1% Basophils

C. Clotting
1. Platelet count
§ 250K – 400K platelets/microliter of blood
§ Thrombocytopenia – platelet count is freatly
reduced; caused by decreased platelet prod.

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HEART
§ A muscular organ that pumps blood through
the body
§ Pumps approx. 5L/min of blood
§ Approx. the size of a closed fist
Cardiovascular system – the heart + blood vessels +
blood
Pulmonary circulation – right side of the heart pumps
blood to the lungs; then back to the left side
Systemic circulation – left side of the heart pumps
blood to all other tissues of the body; then back to the
right side
Functions
1. Generating blood pressure.
2. Routing blood.
3. Ensuring one-way blood flow.
4. Regulating blood supply.
Size, Form, and Location of the Heart
Apex – blunt, rounded point of the heart
Base – larger, flat part at the opposite end of the heart
Mediastinum – midline partition
Pericardial cavity – surrounding cavity of the heart
Importance of location and shape of the Heart
§ To accurately place a stethoscope
§ To place chest leads for ECG
§ To administer CPR
Anatomy of the Heart
Pericardium
Pericardial cavity – where the heart lies
Pericardium/Pericardial sac – surrounds the heart and
anchors it within the mediastinum
Fibrous pericardium – tough, fibrous connective tissue
outer layer
Serous pericardium – thin layer of connective tissue
Parietal pericardium – serous pericardium ling the
fibrous pericardium
Visceral pericardium/Epicardium – portion covering
the heart surface
Pericardial fluid – produced by the SP; reduces friction
as the heart moves
External Anatomy
Atria – entrance chamber
Ventricles – cavities
Coronary sulcus – separates the atria from the ventricles
v Anterior interventricular sulcus
v Posterior interventricular sulcus
Superior & Inferior vena cava – carry blood to the RA
Pulmonary veins – carry blood form the lungs to the LA
Pulmonary trunk & aorta – exit the heart
Pulmonary arteries – carry blood to the lungs
Aorta – carries blood to the rest of the body
Heart Chambers and Internal Anatomy
A. Right and Left Atria
§ Receives blood from the veins
§ Function as reservoirs; where blood returning
from veins collects before it enter the ventricles
§ Interatrial septum – separator of the two atria
B. Right and Left Ventricle
§ Major pumping chambers
§ Ejects blood into the arteries and forces it to flow
through the CS
§ Interventricular septum – separator of the two
ventricles
Heart Valves
Atrioventricular valves
§ Allows blood to flow from the atria into the
ventricles;
§ Prevents it from flowing back into the atria
1. Tricuspid valve – bet. the RA and the RV
2. Bicuspid/Mital valve – bet. the LA and the LV
Papillary muscles – cone-shaped, muscular pillars;
prevents the valves from opening into the atria
Chordae tendineae – thin, strong, connective tissue
strings
Aortic & Pulmonary semilunar valves – blocks blood
from flowing back into the ventricles
Cardiac skeleton – a plate of connective tissue; electrical
insulation bet. the atria and the ventricles; provides rigid
attachment site for cardiac muscle
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Route of Blood Flow Through the Heart
1. Superior & Inferior vena cava
2. Right Atrium (RA)
3. Tricuspid Valve (TV)
4. Right Ventricle (RV)
5. Pulmonary semilunar valves
6. Pulmonary trunk
7. Pulmonary arteries
8. Lung tissue (Pulmonary circulation)
9. Pulmonary veins
10. Left Atrium (LA)
11. Biscupid Valve (BV)
12. Left Ventricle (LV)
13. Aortic semilunar valves
14. Aorta
15. Body tissues (Systemic Circulation)
Blood Supply to the Heart
Coronary arteries – supply blood to the wall of the heart
v Left coronary artery
v Anterior interventricular artery
v Circumflex artery
v Left marginal artery
v Right coronary artery
v Right marginal artery
Cardiac veins
v Cardiac veins
v Coronary sinus
Histology of the Heart
Heart Wall
1. Epicardium/Visceral pericardium
§ Thin, serous membrane forming the smooth
outer surface
§ Consists of simple squamous epithelium
overlaying a layer of loose connective tissue +
adipose tissue
2. Myocardium
§ Composed of cardiac muscles
§ Responsible for contraction of
chambers
3. Endocardium
§ Simple squamous epithelium over a layer of
connective tissue
§ Allows blood to move easily
§ Forms the heart valves
Trabeculae carneae – ridges and columns of cardiac
muscle
Cardiac Muscle
§ Relies on Ca2+ and ATP for contraction
Cardiac muscle cells
§ Elongated, branching cells
§ Two, centrally located nuclei
§ Contains actin and myosin myofilaments that
form sarcomeres
§ Rich in mitochondria (produce ATP at rapid
rate)
Actin & Myosin myofilaments – responsible for muscle
contraction
Organization of A&M myofilaments – gives the cardiac
muscle a striated (banded) appearance
Intercalated disks – specialized cell-to-cell contacts;
greatly increase contact in between; prevents cells form
pulling apart
Gap junctions – specialized cell membrane structures;
allow cytoplasm to flow freely bet. cells
Electrical Activity of the Heart
Action Potentials in Cardiac Muscle
1. Depolarization phase
2. Plateau phase – period of slow repolarization
3. Repolarization phase – achieves its maximum
degree of polarization; returns to the resting
membrane potential
Refractory period
§ Allows cardiac muscle to contract and relax
almost completely before another action
potential can be produced
§ Prevents tetanic contractions from occurring
Conduction System of the Heart
§ Specialized cardiac muscle cells in the heart wall
Sinoatrial node (SA) – heart’s pacemaker; initiates the
contraction of the heart
Atrioventricular node (AV) – spreads action potential
slowly
Atrioventricular bundle – a bundle of specialized
cardiac muscle
Left & Right bundle branches – two branches of
conducting tissue
the heart
Purkinje fibers – conduct action potentials more rapidly
than do other cardiac muscle fibers
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Ectopic beat – action potentials originate in an area of Regulation of Heart Function
the heart than the SA node Cardiac output (CO) – vol. of blood pumped; 5 L/min

Electrocardiogram (ECG) Stroke volume (SV) – vol. of blood pumped per

§ An extremely valuable tool for diagnosing a ventricle per contraction; 70 mL/beat
number of cardiac abnormalities
Heart rate (HR) – no. of times the heart contracts per
P wave – depolarization of the atrial myocardium minute; 72 beats/min

QRS complex – depolarization of the ventricles CO = SV x HR

T wave – repolarization of ventricles Intrinsic Regulation of the Heart

PQ interval – time bet. the beginning of the P wave and
the beginning of the QRS complex; atria contracts and
begins to relax
v PR interval – common name bcos the Q wave is
very small
§ Mechanisms contained within the heart itself
Venous return – amt. of blood that returns to the heart
Preload – degree to which the ventricular walls are
stretched at the end of diastole

QT interval – represents the time req. for ventricular Starling’s Law of the Heart – relationship bet. preload
depolarization and repolarization and stroke volume

Cardiac Cycle Afterload – pressure against which the ventricles must

§ Repetitive pumping process of cardiac muscle pump blood
contractions
Extrinsic Regulation of the Heart
Major events § Mechanisms external to the heart
1. Atrial systole
2. Ventricular contraction A. Nervous Regulation: Baroreceptor Reflex
3. Ejection § A mechanism of the nervous system in
4. Ventricular relaxation regulating heart function
5. Passive ventricular filling
Baroreceptors – stretch receptors that monitor
blood pressure
Atrium – primer pump; complete the filling of ventricles
with blood Cardioregulatory center – receives and
integrates action potentials form the
Ventricle – power pump; produce the major force that baroreceptors
causes blood to flow
B. Chemical Regulation: Chemoreceptor Reflex
Atrial systole – contraction of two atria Epinephrine & Norepinephrine – causes
increased HR and SV
Ventricular systole – contraction of two ventricles

Atrial diastole – relaxation of the two atria

Ventricular diastole – relaxation of the two ventricles

Systole & Diastole – ventricular contraction or

relaxation

Heart Sounds
Stethoscope – used to listen to the sounds of the lungs
and the heart

Lubb – closure of the AV valves

Dupp – closure of the semilunar valves

Murmurs – abnormal heart sounds; result of a faulty

valve

Stenosed – when opening of a valve is narrowed;

swishing sound precedes

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