INTRO TO FOOD PROCESSING What does Processing do to Food?

Food Processing ● Leaches valuable vitamins and minerals

- the set of methods, techniques and process of ● Destroys fiber
transforming raw agricultural products, like ● Causes allergies, asthma, and cancer
grains, vegetables, meat, or milk, into end ● Adds calories
products to be sold to customers. ● Increases sugar and fat consumption

Raw Products Examples of Food Processing

Straight from the Farm
● Tomato
● Wheat
● Pork
● Milk
● Carrots
End Products
Ready to be purchased by consumer
● Salsa
● Flour
● Bacon
● Cheese
● Baby carrots

Reasons for Processing Foods

● Convenience
● Create a variety of food products
● Develop healthier food options
● Increase shelf-life
● Allow for fortification
● Prevent, reduce, eliminate infestation of food
with microbes, insects, or other vermin
● Prevent microbial growth or toxin production by
microbes, or reduce these risks to acceptable
levels
● Stop or slow deteriorative chemical or
biochemical reactions
● Maintain and/or improve nutritional properties of
food
● Make food more palatable and attractive
● Make foods for special group of people
 ● Low in fibre.
● High in salt, sugar & fat.
● Inferior taste, colour & texture.

Classification of Examples of each class

Convenience Foods

Frozen Meat, fish, vegetables,

fruits, complete meals,
desserts

Dried Milk, soups, sauces,

fruit, cakes/bread
mixes, TVP
Types of Processing
Canned/bottled Fish, vegetables, soup,
Primary Processing fruit, jam, pickles,
- Conversion of raw materials to food chutney, sauces.

commodities. Cook-chill (refrigerated) Cartons/tubs soup,

- E.g. milling wheat, pasteurizing milk, making sauces, quiche, lasagne,
sausage rolls
vegetable oil from seeds & nuts.
Secondary Processing Take-away food Chips, burgers, pizza,
breakfast rolls etc
- conversion of ingredients into edible products -
this involves combining foods in a particular way
Functional Foods
to change properties.
● Foods with health promoting properties.
- Takes a basic processed food and uses it to
● Plant sterols - reduce cholesterol e.g. “Benecol”,
produce a food product.
“Flora Pro-Active”.
- E.g. making margarine from vegetable oil,
● Probiotics - improve the working of the digestive
making bread, cakes, biscuits from flour, making
system e.g. Bio yoghurts - “Activia”, “Vitallity”.
dairy products from milk, convenience meals.
● Omega3 fatty acids - reduce heart disease and
cancer - milk, yoghurt.
Convenience Foods
● Any fortified food
- Foods partly or totally prepared so it is easier for
consumers to use.
Levels of Food Processing
Advantages
Minimally Processed
● Save time, labour & fuel.
- Foods that are washed, peeled, sliced, juiced,
● Little cooking skill needed.
frozen, dried, or pasteurized.
● Less waste.
Moderately Processed
● Often fortified.
- In addition to being washed, peeled, sliced, etc.
● Easily stored.
these foods may also be cooked, ingredients
● Wide variety.
mixed, and some preservatives added.
Disadvantages
Highly Processed
● More expensive.
- Many ingredients are added to enhance flavor,
● Contain additives.
add vitamins and minerals, and extend shelf life.
 These foods are mostly or fully prepared for Responsibilities:
eating. ● Process design
Food Preservation ● Bench-top process development
- The process of treating and handling food in ● Testing
such a way as to stop or greatly slow down ● Plant scale-up
spoilage to prevent foodborne illness and extend ● Commercialization
its shelf-life. ● Troubleshooting
Food processing methods that are used to preserve Careers in Product Development
foods include: Job Titles:
● Refrigeration and freezing ● Product Development Scientist
● Canning ● Scientist
● Irradiation Employers:
● Dehydration ● Food processors
● Freeze-drying ● Ingredient manufacturers/suppliers
● Pickling ● Academia (Higher Education)
● Pasteurizing ● Contract research laboratories/development
● Fermentation firms
How a food is processed can affect its appearance, ● Self-employed/Consultant
odor, flavor, and texture. Responsibilities:
Over the years many food preservation methods have ● Bench-top development
been improved to increase the shelf-life of foods while ● Testing
minimizing changes to the quality and nutritional content. ● Plant scale-up
So, how does food preservation work? ● Commercialization
All of the food preservation processes work by slowing ● Troubleshooting
down the activity and growth of disease causing
bacteria, or by killing the bacteria altogether. They also TYPES OF MEAT
slow down or stop the action of enzymes which can Pork
degrade the quality of the food. - Classified as ​red meat because it contains a
large amount of ​myoglobin​.
Careers in Food Processing Different Cuts of Pork:
Job Titles​: ● Bacon
● Process Engineer ● Ham
● Engineer ● Hot dogs
Employers: ● Jamon
● Food processors ● Prosciutto
● Ingredient manufacturers/suppliers ● Salami
● Academia (Higher Education) ● Sausages
● Contract research laboratories/development Benefits:
firms 1. Significant source of thiamin (vitamin B1)
● Self-employed/Consultant
 2. Pork contains decent amounts of selenium and ● good source of vitamins and minerals
zinc particularly selenium, potassium, phosphorus
Concerns and B vitamins
Pork is more susceptible to bacterial contamination and ● contains excessive amount of omega 6
food-borne illnesses than other meat; ensuring pork is ● E.coli and salmonella is too common in chicken
thoroughly cooked is essential
Turkey Meat
Beef - Turkey meat, commonly referred to as just
Benefits turkey, is the meat from turkeys.
Despite fearmongering over the fat content of beef, the - It is a poultry product.
main fatty acid​ in beef is none other than ​oleic acid Health Benefits
Beef contains a wide variety of beneficial compounds ● Turkey is a rich source of protein, iron, zinc,
that include creatine, conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), and potassium and phosphorus
glutathione ● It is also a source of Vitamin B6 and Niacin,
Concerns which are both essential for the body’s energy
1. Excessive beef consumption can increase production
circulating iron to unhealthy levels in ​some ● Turkey contains the amino acid Tryptophan,
individuals. which produces serotonin and plays an
2. Overcooking beef (burning) can lead to the important role in strengthening the immune
formation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons system
(PAHs) and heterocyclic amines (HCAs). ● It is also a source of Selenium, which is
essential for Thyroid hormone metabolism. It
Lamb and Mutton also boosts immunity and acts as an antioxidant
● Lamb: less than a year old, mutton: meat of an
adult sheep Venison Meat
● most popular are lamb chops - Venison is derived from the Medieval French
● very healthy word ​Venesoun,​ which originally described the
● omega 6 to3 ratio is very low meat of any large animal, not just deer.
● rich in zinc, selenium and B vitamins - Venison can be used to refer to any part of the
● very expensive deer, so long as it can be consumed, including
the flesh and internal organs.
Chicken Health Benefits:
● “white meat” ● Preventing kidney disease
● very cheap and affordable ● Preventing high-level Homoestein
● less fat/calories compared to other meats but ● Maintaining the bone health
same protein content ● Preventing anemia
● stock/broth offers significant amount of gelatin ● Adding muscle mass
and collagen (since their bones are less dense) ● Curing up lung disease
● Preventing heart attack
Duck Meat
- One of the less popular types of meat
- Like chicken and turkey, duck is also considered
as a kind of white meat.
Benefits
Duck provides a significant amount of selenium,
phosphorus, and B vitamins. These vitamins are all
important for optimal energy production and
well-functioning immune system
Concerns
Making duck at home—or having a roast duck—is
perfectly healthy. However, be aware that in Chinese
cuisine, duck often comes in sauces made from a variety
of additives including sugars, oils, and monosodium
glutamate (MSG).
Wild Boar
- Wild boar is a non-domesticated pig that lives in
the wild
- This type of meat contains a higher proportion of
protein and a smaller amount of fat than regular
pork.
Benefits
● As it lives and feeds in its natural environment,
wild boar contains a higher proportion of
omega-3 fatty acids.
● Wild boar contains an array of health-protective
nutrients, in particularly B vitamins, selenium,
and zinc.
Concerns
● Despite containing a higher amount of omega-3,
the omega-6 to omega-3 ratio is still very high.
● Trichinella spiralis, a parasite sometimes found
in pigs, occasionally contaminates wild boar
meat. There have been several outbreaks of this
in recent years, but it is very rare
PRESERVATION TECHNIQUES 1
Chilling
● To prevent or even to reduce the deterioration
process, particularly microorganism
development, but also reduces weight loss and
discoloration of the surface owing to hemoglobin
oxidation.
● Preservation method in which raw or processed
food is cooled to a temperature between zero
a degree and five degree Celsius (0°C-5°C).
● Chilling retards spoilage and prevents food
poisoning by slowing the growth of microbes
(present in all food) during storage.
2 classifications:
1. Primary chilling - Completed when the warmest
point of the carcass has reached a temperature
of about 7°C (3°C for edible offal).
2. Quick chilling - Can used in small chambers or
in cooling tunnels
2 types:
1. Air chilling – carcasses with water in a room with
chilled air.
2. Immersion chilling – the product is immersed
with chilled (0 to 4C) water.
Freezing
● method of preserving food by lowering the
temperature to inhibit microorganism growth.
● delays spoilage and keeps foods safe by
preventing microorganisms from growing and by
slowing down the enzyme activity that causes
food to spoil.
 ● There are almost no vitamin and mineral loses 4. Draining should be done by placing the strips
from frozen meats, fish and poultry because into a plastic sieve in order to allow the brine to
protein, vitamins A and D and minerals are not drop off for collection and re-use
affected by freezing. 5. After that drying (by uniform circulation of air)
● Foods can be safely kept in the home freezer for and then meat storage is done.
3 to 12 months without loss of quality. Brining
Freezer Tips: 1. Put the meat into jars after cutting
● Freezers should be kept at or below -18°C 2. Add about a pound of salt and half a cup of
● In contrast to refrigerators, deep freezers should sugar to three quarters of water, Add other
be packed tightly as this allows the freezer to ingredients such as herbs and spices
function better. 3. Repeat this process until you have enough
● Make sure that frozen food is completely thawed water for all of the jars. Fill each one up.
before cooking. Food that has been frozen and 4. After four weeks of repeating this process, your
thawed should never be refrozen. meat is ready.
● Avoid placing hot foods straight into the freezer
as this will raise the freezer temperature and PRESERVATION TECHNIQUES 2
may adversely affect other foods. Stuffing/Filling into Casings or other containers
CASING
Salting or Curing - Soft cylindrical containers used to contain
● Salt inhibits the growth of microorganisms by sausage mixes
drawing water out of microbial cells through Two types of Casing
osmosis due to the high concentration of salt 1. Natural
outside the cell. - Small and large intestines of sheep goat
● Smoking, often used in the process of curing pigs
meat, adds chemicals to the surface of meat that WHY INTESTINES?
reduce the concentration of salt required. - Strong enough to resist
● It was discovered in the 19th century that salt pressure
mixed with nitrites (saltpeter) would color meats - Permeable to water vapor and
red, rather than grey, and consumers at that preservation
time then strongly preferred the red-colored - Absorb smoke for additional
meat. flavor and preservation
Methods of Salting: - Expand or shrink
Dry Salting - Can be closed at the end of
1. Prepare the salt solution tying
2. Obtain the recommended salt concentration of - Submucose -> edible casing
about 14 percent PROCESSING STEPS FOR SMALL
3. The meat strips are dipped into the solution INTESTINES
soaked for about five minutes and then 1. Separation of the small
drained. 2. Stripping out intestinal
content
 3. Loosening of tissue layers
using a small-scale manual
casing cleaning machine
4. Removal of remaining parts of
the serose membrane
5. Removing of slime by using
spoon
6. Flushing of clean casings
7. Salting of clean “edible”
casings for storage
2. Artificial
- Made of collagen (often derived from
cattle skin), cellulose or plastic
- Collagen Casing
> mainly produced from collagen free
beef or pig hides, and the bones and
tendons
- Cellulose Casing
> from cotton linters or wood pulp
> peeled off after cooking, resulting in
skinless franks
- Plastic Casing
> ​smoke and water cannot pass through
DRYING
- Drying may be done for the single purpose of
dehydrating fresh meat for extension of storage
- Drying and fermentation must go hand in hand
to achieve desired flavor and shelf life
- Temperature: 70-80 centrigrade
Two types of Drying
1. Sun Drying
- Characterized by direct solar radiation
and natural air circulation on the product
- They are then suspended in the open air
or spread on drying trays
- For the suspension method, the meat is
sometimes ​dipped in salt solution,
14% common salt
Disadvantages
- Exposure to contamination
- Quality deficiencies
- Heavy microbial contamination
2. Solar Drying
- For larger scale or commercial meat drying
operations in rural settings
- Uses indirect solar radiation
- Collect solar energy by heating-up the air
volume in solar collectors and conduct the hot
air from the collector to the meat drying chamber
Advantages
- Allows a higher load capacity in the
drying chamber
- Less labor intensive than drying by
suspending
- Total drying time: 48 hours
QUALITY CRITERIA OF FINISHED PRODUCT
Appearance Uniform
Color Uniform and dark red
Texture Hard, similar to frozen
meat
Taste and Flavor Mild salty taste
Off odor must occur
HEAT TREATMENT
- Reduced growth of, or inactivate,
microorganisms by thermal process
- Preservation effects for an ​extended
shelf life (storability) ​of the products
- Food safety effects ​by eliminating
potential food poisoning agents
- Enhanced desirable texture, flavor and color, in
order to make meat products more palatable
and appetizing for consumption
RECOMMENDED MINIMUM SAFE INTERNAL TEMP.
2. Hot Smoking
Poultry (dark meat) 80 centigrade
- Hot smokes preserves in three ways:
Poultry (light meat) 71 centirgrade
1. Heat kills microbes
Ground poultry 74-80 centigrade 2. Chemicals found in smokes

Ground beef and all types 71 centrigrade 3. Food dries out so there is
of pork less moist area for bacterial

Beaf/veal/ lamb steaks 63 centigrade to grow

and chops (medium rare) QUALITY SELECTION
Quality Grade
SMOKING - a composite evaluation of factors that affect
- Processing of flavoring, browning cooking, or palatability of meat (tenderness, juiciness, and
preserving food by exposing it to smoke from flavor). These factors include carcass maturity,
burning or smoldering material, most often wood firmness, texture, and color of lean, and the
- Smoke is generated through the thermal amount and distribution of marbling within the
destruction of the wood component lignin and lean. Beef carcass quality grading is based on
cellulose (1) degree of marbling and (2) degree of
Desirable effects on processed meat maturity.
products Degrees of Marbling
- Meat preservation through aldehydes,
phenols, and acids (antimicrobial
effects)
- Antioxidant impact ​through phenols
and aldehydes
- Smoke color formation ​through
carbonyls and aldehydes
- Surface hardening ​of sausages/ casing
through aldehydes
Undesirable of smoking
Lean Maturity
- Benzopyrene ​in smoked products is
carcinogenic when intake is in high
doses. But normally not related with
moderately smoked food such as
smoked and meat products
Two principal of smoking techniques
1. Cold Smoking
- Done through fermentation, salting or
curing before process begins should be
cooked to an internal temperature of
What are the factors to consider when the meat is:
160 Fahrenheit before consumption
 a. Raw -​ generally refers to any type of uncooked
muscle tissue of an animal used for food
b. Packaged Meat - processing the meats for sale,
including the packaging of processed meat
products
Factors to consider when the meat is
(unprocessed meat):
Fat Level
● Marbling - interspersed fat – gives a deeper,
more delicious taste.
● Feel and squeeze the meat in the refrigerated
display. It should feel firm, as cold fat is hard.
● A fatty coating also contributes to helping the
meat retain its juice and taste while cooking.
Older animals – with more yellow fat – can be
less tender, but the meat often has a deeper,
more mature taste.
Tenderizing
● Meat from veal, lamb, pork and poultry is
consumed directly, whereas beef needs to
tenderize over one or two weeks.
● Meat that is hanged to tenderize develops a
great taste and loses considerable liquid, which
is a one reason why it is more expensive. But
the difference in price can be seen as good
business since you don’t have to pay for water,
which would anyway disappear during cooking.
Feed
● Animals that graze build meat and fat in natural
proportions.
● Green grass gives a tastier meat and – even
better – more deliciously interspersed fat than
other feeds.
● Spanish Pata Negra pigs, which are raised on
acorns, corn-fed chicken and calves that have
been fattened convincingly show how different
feeds can change the taste of
considerably.
Happy Animals
● We have a moral obligation to make sure all
animals have a decent life. Luckily for those of
us who appreciate good meat, there is a
connection between good animal husbandry and
good quality meat.
raw Price and Result
● When you buy cheap meat, it is likely that you
are paying for added saltwater.
● It is better to opt for a smaller sized, but nicer
and more tastier cut that is not transformed into
a pool of liquid in the pan.
● Estimate 120-200 grams per person depending
on the menu and company and the quality of the
meat.
Purpose
● Depending on the purpose of the meat, choose
the whether to pick the tender part or the hard
part of the meat. Remember, each part of the
meat differs depending on the use.
Factors to consider when the meat is packaged:
● Should be firm when chilled.
● The darker meat, the richer taste. The color
should be clear, deep and red.
● Avoid meat that is brown at the edges or
grayish.
● The meat should be firm and dry, never wet and
wobbly.
● Marbling (interspersed fat) gives juicier meat
and more taste.
● The pieces should be evenly and carefully cut.
● Avoid processed, pre-spiced, pre-marinated
meat – which usually is produced from lower
quality cuts.
● Smell, look, feel and rely on your own judgment.
● Read the label. The information on the label is
usually inadequate, but read it anyway.
meat
Extra Tips:
Sex, age, and breed
 ● The sex of an animal is usually important when it a. remove the animal’s pelt (for sheep and cows)
comes to beef selection, where the female or the feathers (poultry), generally de-feathered
tastes the best. Castrated bull, steer or bullock, by a plucking machine
is also tastier. b. dress the carcass - avoid rupturing the innards
● Age is more important than sex for animals that or getting any contaminants on the carcass for
are slaughtered before they reach sexual food safety reasons
maturity.
● In terms of breed, the Wagyu is the best cattle Grading
breed but it is grown only in certain parts of Meat is graded depending on
Japan. Wagyus present in other countries are a. animal’s size
half-bred only. b. muscle mass
c. fat deposits
Most Expensive Cuts of Meat ​ ased on
Poultry is graded on a letter scale from ​a to c b
1. A5 Kobe Strip Steak – $350 bruising and other defects.
2. Fullblood Wagyu Tenderloin- $295 Beef is graded on the amount of marbling (​fat specs)​ in
3. Charbroiled Kobe Filet – $258 the ribeye muscle (​lean)​ portion and combines the
4. Renga-tei Kobe Filet- $246 maturity (​age​) of the beef carcass.
5. Australian Wagyu Sirloin – $169 USDA Grading System
6. Wagyu Kobe Steak – $144 The USDA certifies certain beef cuts as
7. Wagyu Ribeye – $144 a. Prime
8. Zuma’s Wagyu No Sumibiyaki – $136 b. Choice
9. The Wagyu Tomahawk – $109 c. Select
10. Wagyu Kobe Ribeye Cheesesteak – $100
Cutting
FARM TO MARKET: THE 6 STAGES OF GETTING ● Chicken – boneless skinless breasts
MEAT ONTO YOUR PLATE ● Cows and Pigs – cut into three large pieces first,
Raising the Animal before the meat is cut into specific pieces like
Some lucky cows and pigs are set loose on grass ribs, bacon, or brisket.
pastures, while others are crowded into cramped
feedlots for much of their short lives Packaging and Distributing
The meat is put into plastic bags and vacuum sealed. It
Stunning and Slaughter then gets boxed and sent out to stores and restaurants,
Stunning ​- to prevent them from feeling the pain at which point you, the consumer, get to eat it.
Methods of stunning:
a. carbon dioxide ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF
b. electric current PROCESSED MEAT
c. captive bolt pistol Advantages of Processed Meat
● Longer shelf life
Butchering ● Quality convenience
● Availability
 ● Palatability and sensory improvements 3. Keeping or storing Etag
● Reducing health inequalities and concerns 4. Consumption

Disadvantages of Processed Meat MEAT MANUFACTURING PROCESS

● Added sodium Classification of Processed Meat
● Increases your risk of cancer Processed meat can be classified as sausages, cured
● Risk of Heart Disease and Diabetes whole muscle cuts or as restructured meat products.
● Meat Carries The Highest Risk Of Foodborne I. SAUSAGES
Illness The numerous varieties of sausages necessitate several
● Most meat has hormones in it and slightly different processing procedures.
● It May Make You Resistant To Antibiotics The meat can come from:
● It increases your risk of death ● Beef
● Veal
Etag (dried and salted pork/meat) ● Pork
- an Igorot food that is preserved small slab of ● Lamb
meat (esp. pork)) made through salt-treating, ● Poultry
sun-drying, and /or smoking. ● combination of these sources
- Its color is partly dark brown with noticeable Before grounding, the meat can be:
whitish yellow fat color ● cured
- It comes from different varieties depending on ● smoked
method used ● cooked
- Its savory and salty taste made it good *other sausages are formed first Operations in
seasoning ingredient in for some foods emulsion-type sausage production
Ingredients and Materials Types of Sausages
1. 1 kilo of pork, sliced into 1-inch thick slabs, it A. Fresh Sausages
should have no bones , and must have 20% to - made from comminuted meat and are not
80% fat per slab cured, smoked or cooked.
2. 1/5 to 1/4 kilo of salt - must be cooked before serving. Some
3. A large bowl examples are fresh pork sausage, fresh
4. Gusi (earthen jar) or any container enough for bratwurst, chorizo, bockwurst, and
the meat Italian-style sausage.
5. A stick or straw, use to pierce the slabs for B. Uncooked and smoked
hanging - These sausages may include cured but not
6. Firewood (optional) cooked meat.
Procedures - They are smoked after forming but must be
1. Treating it with salt cooked before serving
2. Curing stages - Smoked pork sausage, kielbasa and
a. Sun soaking smoked country-style sausage are
b. Smoking examples.
c. Combination C. Cooked
 - Usually made from meat that has been ● A two-phase system, with the dispersed phase
cured and cooked, these sausages are consisting of either solid or liquid fat particles
ready-to-eat, although some may be heated and the continuous phase being the water
before serving. containing salts and dissolved, gelled and
- Types of cooked sausages include suspended proteins.
precooked bratwurst, braunschweiger, ● First phase​: the lean meat, either previously
liverwurst, blood sausage and tongue ground or not, is placed in the cutter and
sausage. chopped.
D. Cooked and smoked (This is done by the simultaneous addition of all
- These products are made from meat that the curing salts (kitchen salt, nitrite), phosphate
has been cured, formed into sausages, and/or citrate for the total batch and one-third of
cooked and subjected to a light smoke. the total amount of finely crushed ice or water.
- This type of sausage is ready-to-eat, Increased salt concentration in the water phase
although some may prefer to heat certain of the mixture will result in a greater extraction of
kinds of this product before serving. the meat protein and is of paramount importance
- Examples are bologna, cotto salami, in forming a stable emulsion. The extraction of
frankfurters and Vienna sausage. protein is most effective when the meat is near
E. Dry and/or semi-dry freezing point but the emulsification process is
- These sau​sages may be smoked or adversely affected by low temperature. After this
unsmoked, and processing always includes time, fat trimmings, pork jowls and other fat
curing and usually involves cooking at the meats, then sweeteners, spices and the
plant. remaining two-thirds of the total water are
- controlled fermentation acts as a added.)
preservative and gives these sausages their ● Second phase​: Chopping is then continued
distinctive and unique flavors. until the batch is thoroughly chopped or the
- Hard salami is usually in the dry-sausage temperature of the meat mass reaches not more
category, while summer sausages are than 18°C.
typically of the semi-dry type. Other varieties ● (Beyond 18°C further cutter operations may
of dry and semi​ dry sausages include contribute to poor stability with release of the fat
cervelat, thuringer, pepperoni and and/or juices during smoking and chopping
mortadella. These sausages are operations. In the course of this time, all water is
ready-to-eat and do not require cooking prior taken up by the disintegrated and homogenized
to consumption. meats. If sodium ascorbate is used, it is also
added toward the very end of the chopping
Meat Emulsion operation.)
● The meat emulsion is formed when the proteins Two types of emulsion-type meat product:
are solubilized and the fat particles suspended ● all-meat products
and entrapped within the protein matrix. The ● contains non-meat binders.
finished emulsion is transferred to a stuffer (When nonmeat binders are not used, the
natural proteins are relied upon to impart a suitable
texture to the comminuted product. It should be
emphasized that consideration must be given to the
amount of lean meat to provide the protein: when the
formulation contains a large amount of variety meats and
other low bind materials, maximum extraction of skeletal
lean meat is necessary.
Variables and Parameters that influence the
formation of meat emulsions
● The Emulsifying capacity of salt soluble proteins
This property is not static since several factors, such as
pH, protein concentration, ionic strength and nature of
neutral salts have been found to have a profound effect
on the emulsifying capacity of proteins.
● Adequate mechanical comminution of the lean
meat
- an essential factor in the binding of an emulsion
- comminute too intensively comminuted connective
tissue could cause structural deterioration of the product
- too long a process and/or high temperatures cause the
already finely divided fat particles to come together
again, forming large islands of fat, and then to separate
during subsequent heat treatment.
- if the emulsion is over chopped, the fat globules
become too small having a very large surface area so
that there may not be enough protein to emulsify all the
fat.
● High temperature
To form a stable emulsion, these fats must be chopped
to a somewhat higher temperature, especially if the raw
materials are derived from older buffalo or zebu cattle.
This is because the meats of older animals have less
salt soluble proteins but their emulsifying capacity is
more efficient.
● Emulsifying Mill
- To produce a finer texture, the mixture can be passed
through an emulsifying mill.
- As this operation is accompanied by a rise in
temperature of 2.5–4.5°C, the initial temperature of the
mixture prior to the emulsifying process should be below
10°C. On the contrary, an increased temperature can
reduce the stability of the emulsion.
Operations in Emulsion-Type Sausage Production
a. Choice of Meat
● absolutely fresh and derived from
veterinary-inspected animals, both
frozen or chilled beef
● The lean meat should be well trimmed
to a level of less than 10 percent of
non-trimmable fat and connective tissue
● the trimmed lean meat thus being
practically free from sinews and gristle
and entirely free from ligament, bone
and cartilage particles.
● most meat ingredients are of a good
water binding capacity.
● pork and veal rinds are also employed
by some sausage makers in formulating
low cost frankfurter products.
● Raw rinds are normally heat processed
because of their high bacterial count.
b. Precuring
● replaced today by adding curing salts at
the time of chopping.
c. Grinding
● fist-size chunks of lean meats are first
grinded by running them through a 3–6
mm grinder plate while fat trimmings or
fatty tissues are reduced through a 6–9
mm grinder plate.
● The tripe and the filler meats are
preferably grinded twice: first, through a
3–4 mm and then through a finer grinder
plate.
● The curing process may take place
either overnight in a chiller at 1–4°C or
after final chopping in the cutter with
other ingredients and stuffing
d. Chopping
 ● the meat is cut to a very fine particle ● Immediate and well-organized
size which encourages protein processing operations and a high level
extraction. Proteins have the function of of hygiene and cleanliness of machines
binding the water surrounding fat and tools help to avoid this problem.
droplets and keeping them dispersed. f. Preblending of prerigor meat
● Since protein extraction is increased ● Preblending of ground prerigor beef with
with the time of chopping, the lean meat ice and curing salts 10 to 20 hours
should be chopped for a sufficient before further processing has
period, normally not less than 6–8 successfully been practised for many
minutes. years.
● The temperature of the mixture is ● In the time interval between preblending
recommended not to exceed 12–14°C. It and further processing, the finely
is assumed that at a mixture homogenized mass was kept under
temperature of 18°C, the temperature in refrigeration (2 to 6°C) in shallow pans
the area around the knives will be up to about 15 cm deep
60°C and 70°C. These high g. Emulsified fat batters
temperatures cause coagulation or ● The desirable properties of
denaturation of proteins. When emulsion-type sausages are largely
phosphates are used, the firmness of determined by the stability of moisture
the product fails at a temperature above and fat binding in the highly hydrated
20°C. gelable protein matrix.
● During or following cutter operations, the ● Fat is an essential component of
emulsion may also be vacumized; the formulated meat products because it
removal of air contributes to the improves tenderness, juiciness and
stabilization of cured color and enables overall palatability.
better stuffing. ● in a two-component system of fat and
e. Hot meat processing lean meat, fat is nearly equally as
● Deboning and processing of hot meat important as lean meat for desirable
largely avoid weight loss from properties.
evaporation which occurs in chilled ● These emulsified fat batters may be
meats. directly incorporated into finely
● The sticky nature of hot meat may comminuted sausages such as
increase bacterial contamination but this frankfurters or they may be chilled and
belief has not been fully confirmed. On diced into discrete particle sizes to
the contrary, there is some evidence create a desired visual effect in, for
that viable counts of prerigor ground instance, mortadella sausages
meats are similar to those of postrigor h. Stuffing
meat; their shelf-lives are also ● Raw sausage emulsion is encased
comparable both at the time of either in artificial (cellulose or collagen)
fabrication and after storage
 or in natural casings derived from j. Smoking
slaughtered animals. ● The sausages on the smoke rods are
● Casings should be thoroughly selected transferred to the smokehouse. For
in relation to the size and type. smoking of emulsion-type sausages,
Frankfurters in natural casings appeal to so-called “hot smoking” is practiced.
some consumers because of their ● At higher temperatures the smoke
appearance. carries over more of the tar-like
● The ​stuffing horn​, which should have a substances and large carbon molecules
diameter as large as possible to avoid as well as different phenol compounds
smearing of the emulsion on the working into the smokehouse atmosphere.
table, must be absolutely clean. ● Lower temperatures condense out these
● Filling must be to maximum capacity. substances. High humidity or wet
● A skilled operator should be capable of sawdust contributes to a dark colored
providing sausages that are sausage.
substantially uniform in density and ● Smoke composition also depends upon
diameter other factors such as:
i. Linking ● type and quality of the wood - different
● Sausages are tied or linked manually or woods give forth different amounts and
by machine in fixed lengths. density of smoke
● In small-scale plants, the small ● temperature of combustion
sausages are divided by braiding, i.e. by ● relative humidity
twisting at desired intervals. ● air flow, etc.
● The linked sausages are placed on ● Resinous woods impart an unpleasant
smoke rods so that they do not touch flavor to meat.
each other and allowed to dry before ● Soft woods produce a large amount of
smoking at room temperature for a soot that colors the product. Soft woods
period of one to two hours. The use of are only used if special flavour effects
properly shaped metal or wooden rods are desired.
reduces the amount of surface coming ● Hardwoods have low resin content,
into contact with the rods and prevents (oak, beech, maple, birch, walnut,
touch marks and spotting due to contact cedar, hickory, etc.) are most commonly
with adjacently hanging products thus used to generate smoke.
contributing to a longer shelf life and ● Mixtures of hardwood sawdusts are
better appearance of the final product. generally considered to give the best
● In large sausages, such as bologna, smoke composition. Sawdust, especially
stuffed casings are tied with thread or if green, is often wetted down, and
fastened with metal clips and forced air circulation and damp are
suspended from a smoke rod so the necessary to control the burning
entire sausage is not in contact with the process and composition of smoke.
rod.
 ● Acids coagulate muscle proteins. uniformity, resulting in less maintenance
Aldehydes interact with protein and cleaning.
molecules, linking them together to form l. Cooking
a strong net. ● Cooking or scalding follows immediately
● During the tempering period which after smoking.
precedes hot smoking, the curing Methods of cooking:
process is often initiated. If not, the - by immersing in the cooking vat,
initiation of curing may be hastened by - hot showering that is conducted in a
mild heating, with or without smoke, at smoke house equipped with shower
approximately 40–45°C. This nozzles
preliminary heating may be omitted if - hot showering in separate hot water
the curing process is already sufficiently spray cabinets to which sausages are
advanced. moved immediately after smoking,
● In the next phase, smoking continues at cooking by dry heat by raising the
a slowly increasing temperature (65°C) smokehouse temperature and giving
until curing has progressed, i.e. until the only a final brief hot water shower,
inside colour is fully developed. In the cooking in tight boxes into which live
following phase of the smoking process, steam is injected, etc.
the sausages are heavily smoked at a - If water sprays are used the
temperature of about 70–75°C, resulting temperature is about 80–82°C. The
in the desired surface colour of the temperature of water in cooking vats
commercial product may be about 73–76°C. A final internal
● the relative humidity should be sausage temperature of 65°C is
maintained at about 80 percent. A too considered as minimum but a
low humidity causes the formation of a temperature of 68°C is an optimum
dehydrated protein shell on the sausage end-point temperature providing a
surface as well as excessive weight loss sufficient shelf life of the product and
and shrivelled appearance of the desired organoleptic characteristics.
product This requires usually about 15–20
k. Liquid smoke minutes.
● Liquid smoke is a water soluble - the smoking and heating period may
chemical solution containing smoke take no more than 1–2 hours but it can
flavour which can be sprayed on the be as long as 2–3 hours.
sausages while they are in the m. Chilling
smokehouse. Liquid smoke is produced ● Chilling by cold water spray (16°C) is
by the condensation and fractional applied at the end of the thermal
distillation of hardwood smoke. Liquid processing schedule to cool frankfurters
smokes are free of carcinogenic to slightly above room temperature
compounds. They offer complete before placing them in a 1–4°C cooler
for final chilling.

II. CURED WHOLE MUSCLE CUTS
A treatment for muscle group with a fat cap or marbled
fat that is cured as a whole, without grinding or dicing the
meat. This can be achieved by direct applications of a
cure or by brine.
Types of Cured Whole Muscle Cuts
A. Ham
- the hind leg of pork that has been cured
and smoked or cured and canned.
Three styles:
a. Bone-in - contain aitch bone (a portion of the
pelvic arch), the femur, the patella (the knee
cap) and the fibula shank and tibia.
b. Semi-boneless - have the aitch and shank
bones removed, although occasionally the
shank is left attached.
c. Boneless - have all the bones removed and
most of the external, and as much as
possible of the inter​ muscular, fat trimmed
away. The lean meat may be rolled, shaped
or formed into a casing.
B. Corned (Cured) Beef
- The brisket is the most popular cut of
meat used for corned beef, although
beef round is also used.
- "corning" referred to the process of
preserving beef by sprinkling it with
grains ("corns") of salt. Today, corned
beef is cured with a pickle solu​tion
consisting of water, salt, sugar, nitrite
and spices.
C. Bacon - ​produced primarily from pork bellies.
Beef bacon is made from the boneless beef
short plate (an anatomical region similar to that
of the belly in pork).
D. Pastrami ​- made from the brisket, plate or top
round muscle of beef. After dry-curing with salt,
the beef is washed, then rubbed with a paste of
garlic powder, ground cumin, red pep​per,
cinnamon, cloves and allspice. It is then smoked
and cooked.
E. Pork Shoulder - divided into two major cuts,
Picnic (arm) and ​Boston (blade). These cuts can
be processed using the same tech​niques
employed to prepare ham from the pork leg.
Shoulder cuts are usually priced more
economically than leg cuts due to differences in
palatability and yield of edible portion.
Two ways of distinguishing whole muscle cured meat
a. Cured-Raw
● do not undergo any heat treatment during
the curing process
● is keep under controlled acclimatized
conditions (temperature and humidity
controlled) during the entire processing
period which comprises curing, fermentation
and ripening
● a decrease in the moisture content is
achieved resulting in a moderate drying
effect of the meat
● Fermentation and ripening processes take
place simultaneously with the drying and
make the products palatable.
● Dry-salting (dry curing) is the traditional
favored method for raw-cured meat.
● Examples: hams, bacons, corned beef
b. Cured-cooked
● always undergo heat treatment, either at
pasteurization or sterilization temperatures,
to achieve the desired palatability
● After curing, the pieces are joined together
in special containers (molds) and/or casings
prior to cooking to “reconstituted meat”.
● moisture losses would make the products
dry and are therefore not desirable
The basic process for whole muscle meat curing
involves:
 1. Curing (2-3 weeks)
The initial stage where the meat is packed with salt and
spices.
● The cure mixture diffuses from the high
outside concentration into the low inside
concentration of the meat, while water is
attracted to the higher osmotic gradient that
is found outside the meat.
● The time necessary to spend in the cure will
depend on the thickness of the meat.
● Excess cure​: an older curing method. The
meat is packed into salt and allowed to stay
there for a number of days. It is a tried and
true method, but can result in overly salted
and spiced meat.
● Equilibrium cure​: a newer curing method,
which uses the scientifically determined
minimum safe values for salt and nitrates.
The cure is added to the meat at the desired
concentrations, an
Dry Curing
● Meat cuts are rubbed with curing salt.
● packed in curing tanks and piled on top of each
other with layers of curing salt between them
and stored at low temperatures (0 to 4°C).
● The liquid accumulates at the bottom of the
curing container.
● For equal distribution (uniform exchange
process) re-piling and adding of dry curing salt
should be carried out every seven days with the
lower piles up and the upper ones down.
Wet curing
● Meat cuts are submerged in a chilled liquid. This
process does away with rubs in favor of water as
a lubricating agent.
● The cure dissolves and disperses in the liquid
and the liquid has a uniform concentration of
cure throughout as long as it is stirred
occasionally.
● Wet curing takes less time than dry curing,
sometimes only days.
● On a commercial scale, it requires a lot of space
and cooling.
2. Drying (3 weeks or more)
● Meat is dried by putting it into a casing ang
hanging in a curing chamber.
● The temperature is important to allow for
beneficial bacteria and mold growth, while
preventing the meat from spoiling.
● The humidity is important to allow to for the
slow diffusion of water out of the meat, over
a longer period of time.
If the humidity is not high enough, the
meat can develop something called ​case
hardening.
If the humidity is too high, it can
encourage the growth of non-beneficial molds
and slow down weight loss to a halt.
● Ways to determine when a meat product is
done: track the water weight loss over time.
30% weight loss creates an optimal product
in most cases.
3. Cold smoking (4 hours+)
● not a necessary step to create a cured meat
product, but is always an option
● A cold smoking setup will keep the
temperature below 30 oC while still
imparting a smoky flavor to the cured
product.
● It preserves the complex flavors brought out
by the slow process of curing.
● Most people cold smoke before the drying
stage, but some do it after.
III. RESTRUCTURED MEAT
Restructured meat is generally made from flaked,
ground or sectioned beef, processed meats or pork,
which is shaped into roasts, steaks or loaves.
These meat products are usually frozen, may be ● Once the desired particle size and
breaded and coated. composition are attained, the meat is mixed
with salt and phosphates until the product
Objective of producing restructured products becomes moderately tacky.
● To effectively market low value carcasses of ● The flaked or sliced meat mixture is then
spent or aged animals with poor conformation stuffed under vacuum into suitably sized
and carcass components. plastic bags, frozen and tempered.
● These newly defined meats are normally
Examples of Restructured Meat Products used for only as fresh products, such as
● Luncheon loaves steaks, cutlets, chops, and roasts.
● Roast beef ● Advantage: Flaked- and – formed meat
● Turkey breast products are more economical than
● boneless hams boneless intact meat cuts and have a size
● patties and uniform shape that permits better
● nuggets portion control.
C. Tearing and Forming
Restructured Meat Process ● This method need specialized apparatus for
A. Chunking and Forming tearing meat fibers and then reforming them
● Chunking is done by passing the meat into shapes resembling intact cuts.
through a coarse grinder plate, or by putting ● Advantages: 1) It would cause less
it into a dicing machine that reduces the membrane damage, and conceivably be
pieces of meat into chunks approximately less susceptible to oxidation and 2) the
not larger than 1.5 in. cubes. product would have more structural integrity
● The meat is either mixed or tumbled with and would more closely resemble intact
salt, phosphate and protein materials. Also, meat cuts in texture.
meat emulsion or a nonmeat binder may be ● This technology is not yet fully developed.
added before mixing. This serves to bind the
chunks of meat together before forming. Advantages of Restructured Meat Products
● Careful trimming to remove the sinews and ● improved portioned weight control (less
excessive amounts of fat and other giveaway)
connective tissue is important to maintain ● ability to incorporate seasonings into the meat
the quality of the finished product. for improved flavor
● Advantage: Chunked and formed meat ● consistent texture, tenderness, flavor and
products maintain more of the characteristic appearance at economic cost
structure and texture of the original meat ● convenient to prepare
cuts. ● can be formulated as per the requirement of
B. Flaking and Forming specific group of consumers seeking low fat, low
● Slicing and flaking machines are used to salt, high dietary fiber and antioxidants in meat
make thin slices or flakes of meat. products

Disadvantages of Restructured Meat Products
● Off color
● Color variation
● Rancidity
● Connective tissue can be seen
FRUITS AND VEGETABLES:FROM FARM TO
MARKET
Planting of Fruits and Vegetables
Things to consider:
● Conditions and topography of the location
● Plant species to be planted
● Location management practices
Planting System for Vegetables
● The traditional vegetable garden
● Permaculture - It focuses on the sustainable use
of your land and working in harmony with nature.
Permaculture methods are based on the adage:
Reduce, Reuse, Recycle.
● No-dig - Create narrow beds between boards at
least 15cm high, held in place with pegs
hammered into the ground. Several layers of
newspaper are spread over the soil and a mulch
of straw, sawdust and grass clippings added.
This needs to be watered well before spreading
a layer of compost, finished off with about 6cm
of soil, which is the layer into which you plant
your seeds. The soil level will drop as the layers
of mulch rot down, but your beds can be topped
up with compost, as required.
● Raised Beds -​ It works on the same principle as
the no-dig techniques, but tend to be deeper –
they are basically large boxes of soil and
compost.
● Square Foot Gardening -​ This system is
particularly effective where space is at a
premium. You divide a specially prepared deep
raised bed into one foot modules, planting each
of your crops into this area. This method is
particularly suited to salad crops and miniature
varieties of vegetables.
Planting System for Fruit trees
● Square System
This is a common system of planting
adopted in plains. The distance from
plant to plant and row to row is equal.
The planting is done at each corner of
the squares.
The square system of the layout is easy to draw and
provides equal space to each fruit plant. The space at
the center of square remains unutilized which is the main
demerit of the system.
● Rectangular System
In this system of planting row to row
distance is kept is more than the plant
to plant distance. The planting is done
at each corner of the rectangles.
The main disadvantage of the system is a greater loss of
income in case of no practice of intercropping.
● Diagonal or Quincunx system
The quincunx system has been
developed to utilize the space between
four trees that remains unutilized in the
square system. The planting is done
similar to the square system except an
additional plant is planted at the center of the square.
The main crop is called primary fruit crop and filler crop
is called secondary or supplementary fruit crop.
The income is increased and growth of the weeds is
suppressed. The acute competition between primary and
filler fruit crops for water, nutrients, sunlight and air along
with overlapping of branches and overcrowding of trees
are the disadvantages of the quincunx system of
planting.
● Triangular System
It is similar to the square system; the
only difference is that the trees in the
alternate rows are planted in the middle of the two
corners of the squares whereas in the alternate rows
also planting is done at the corners of the squares in the
square system of planting.
● Equilateral Triangular or Hexagonal system
In this system of planting fruit trees
are planted at the corners of triangles
have all sides equal in length and are
called equilateral triangles.
The 15% more trees could be accommodated in the
hexagonal system than square system if the distance
between rows and trees remain equal.
● Contour system
The contour is an imaginary line
connecting the points of equal height
on a slope. This system has been
evolved for the planting of fruit trees
on hilly and slopes topography with the objective to
minimize the soil erosion. The trees are planted on the
bench terrace prepared on the contour.
● Freestyle
When planting of fruit plants is done without following
any regular geometrical layout design, the system is
termed freestyle system. The system is followed to plant
the fruit trees on homestead lands, public building’s
compounds, wastelands, ravines, along railway tracks,
rivers, coastal areas, factories etc.
Harvesting of Fruits and Vegetables
Harvesting is one of the important operations
that decide the quality as well as storage life of produce
of fruits and vegetables. It helps prevent huge losses of
fruits and vegetables.
During harvesting operation, a high standard of
field hygiene should be maintained. This should be done
carefully at proper time without damaging the fruits
Methods of Harvesting:.
● Manual Harvesting - harvesting by one’s own
hand.
It is done in several ways:
a. Ladder or bag picking method
b. Poles or Clippers method
c. Harvesting by means of knives
d. Harvesting by means of digging tools
● Mechanical Harvesting - numbers of mechanical
devices are used for harvesting the produce on
commercial scale.
Fruits and Vegetables Grade Standards(U.S. Grade
Standards)
Grade marks for fruits and vegetables and certain other
food products are single, sequential letters for processed
commodities such as—A, B, C, D, and Substandard and
descriptive terminology and sequential numbers for fresh
commodities such as—Extra Fancy, Fancy, No. 1,
Combination, No. 2, and No. 3 and commercial grades
How are U.S. Grade Standards used?
● Fruits and vegetables are sold on the basis of a
quality level, either "generic," brand name,
buyer's specification, or "U.S. grade.” These
quality levels help establish the price that the
buyer is willing to pay the seller. Lower quality
grade products normally sell at lower prices than
higher quality grade products.
● For processed products, the amount of solid
food in the primary container, style, variety,
packing liquid (water, juice, or syrup), and
condition of the primary container also help
establish the value of a product.
Seasonal Availability of Fruits
 c. Regular supplies of the raw material

Types of Processing Systems

a. Small-Scale Processing - requires little
investment: however, it is time consuming and
tedious
b. Intermediate-Scale Processing -​ Processing is
based on the technology used by small scale
processors with differences in the type and
Seasonal Availability of Vegetables capacity of equipment used. The raw materials
are usually grown by the processors themselves
or are purchased on contract from other farmers.
c. Large-Scale Processing - Processing in this
system is highly mechanised and requires a
substantial supply of raw materials for
economical operation. This system requires a
large capital investment and high technical and
managerial skills.

Preparation
Fruits and vegetables should be prepared for
preservation as soon as possible after harvesting, in any
case within 4 to 48 hours.
1. Cleaning and washing
- to remove any dirt or insecticide residues
- When cleaning leafy vegetables, it is best to
first remove the stems.
- Some types of fruit, such as cherries,
strawberries and mushrooms are not
BRIEF OVERVIEW OF PRESERVATION OF FRUITS
washed, because this would actually
AND VEGETABLES
increase the spread of micro-organisms
The main objective of fruit and vegetable processing is
- It is also not advisable to wash cucumbers,
to supply wholesome, safe, nutritious and acceptable
because this shortens their shelf-life.
food to consumers throughout the year.
- Dried beans and nuts are soaked in water
for 16-20 hours before being processed
Factors to consider in choosing raw material
further.
a. The demand for a particular fruit or vegetable in
2. Lye-dip
the processed form
Some products, such as plums and grapes, are
b. The quality of the raw material, i.e. whether it
immersed for 5-15 seconds in a pan of hot, almost
can withstand processing
boiling, lye (NaOH; 10-20g lye/litre water) to make the
peel rough and to thereby speed up the general drying
process.
After such a treatment, the fruit has to be rinsed
vigorously with cold water to remove the lye residues.
Lemon juice can also be used to neutralize any
remaining lye residues.
Disadvantages:
- considered to be ecologically harmful because
alkaline is transported by the waste water into
the environment.
- food can become discoloured and the metal pan
could become corroded
- The use of too-high concentrations of lye is also
unhealthy for the people working with it.
3. Sorting
To achieve a uniformly sized product, fruits and
vegetables are sorted immediately after cleaning
according to their size, shape, weight or colour. Sorting
by size is especially important if the products are to be
dried or heated, because their size will determine how
much time will be needed for these processes.
4. Peeling
Many types of fruits and vegetables have to be
peeled in order to be preserved. This can easily be done
with a stainless steel knife. It is extremely important that
the knife be made of stainless steel because this will
prevent the discolouration of the plant tissues.
It is best to first submerge citrus fruits, tomatoes
and peaches, whose peels are all securely connected to
the fruit, in hot water for 1 ‰ to 3 minutes. The softened
peel can then be removed without too much effort.
5. Cutting
Cutting is important for approximately uniform pieces for
the heating, drying and packing stages. Fruits and
vegetables are usually cut into cubes, thin slices, rings
or shreds. The cutting utensils have to be sharp and
clean to prevent micro-organisms from entering the food.
From the moment they are cut, the quality of the
products decreases due to the release of enzymes and
nutrients for micro-organisms. A decrease in quality is
also caused by the damage done to the plant tissues.
For this reason, the interval between peeling/cutting and
preserving has to be as short as possible.
6. Blanching
Blanching or pre-cooking is done by immersing
fruits or vegetables in water at a temperature of 90-95C.
Exposing them to steam is also possible. The result is
that fruits and vegetables become somewhat soft and
the enzymes are inactivated. Leafy vegetables shrink in
this process and some of the micro-organisms die.
Blanching is done before a product is dried in
order to prevent unwanted colour and odour changes
and an excessive loss of vitamins. Fruit that does not
change colour generally does not need to be blanched.
Onions and leek are not at all suited for blanching.
The disadvantage of this blanching method is
that many vitamins are lost in the hot water. Steaming is
therefore a better alternative. Only a small amount of
water has to be added to the pan and brought to the boil.
Make sure that the fruit or vegetable in the colander is
touched by the steam but not by the water.
MODERN PRESERVATION TECHNIQUES FOR
VEGETABLES
I. Blanching (Cooking)
● Is a cooking process wherein a vegetable is
scalded in boiling water, removed after a
brief, timed interval and finally plunged into
iced water or placed under cold running
water to halt the cooking process.
● Vegetables are immersed under
pre-warmed water (70 to 100°C).
● Times and temperatures are based on the
type of food, size, and shape
● The most common blanching method for
vegetables are hot water and steam, while
cooling is either done using cold water or
cool air
Steps on how to blanche vegetables:
 1. Wash vegetables, and cut them to sizes for
freezing.
2. The blanching process starts with a boiling
water.
3. Add a little salt to lower the boiling temperature.
4. Add a small amount of vegetables.
5. Boil the vegetables until they just begin to
soften.
6. After the blanching time, remove the vegetables
with a strainer.
7. Immediately plunge them into ice cold water.
8. As soon as the vegetables have cooled, strain
them from the cold water.
9. Use a clean towel or wipe off excess moisture.
10. Place the vegetable in airtight freezer bags,
mark bags with the vegetable name then place it
in the freezer immediately.
Advantages:
Advantages:
● reduce quality loss overtime
● preservation of color, flavor and nutritional
values
Disadvantages:
● removal of foreign materials, pesticide and toxic
residues
● kill parasites and their eggs
● reduce oil uptake
● decrease microbial load
Disadvantages
● leaching of water-soluble and heat sensitive
III.
nutrients
● production of effluent
● Over-blanching can lead to an excessive loss of
nutrients and aromatic compounds, as well as
softening of the food.
II. Vacuum Packing
● Is a method of packaging that removes air from
the package prior to sealing.
● This method involves (manually or
automatically) placing items in a plastic film
package, removing air from inside, and sealing
the package.
● Shrink film is sometimes used to have a tight fit
to the contents.
● Used to remove oxygen from the container to
extend the shelf life of foods and, with flexible
package forms, to reduce the volume of the
contents and package.
● Vacuum packing can also be used to store fresh
foods, such as vegetables because it inhibits
bacterial growth.
● substantial increase shelf life
● barrier from external elements
● clear and visible external packaging
● minimal need for chemical preserves
● quick and efficient
● reduce product loss
● affordable packaging option
● excellent for freezer storage
● External gases can increase cost
● Proper gas levels and oxygen levels must be
known to increase shelf life
● Loss of preservation once the package has been
opened
Irradiation
● It is a technology that improves the safety and
extends the shelf life of foods by reducing or
eliminating microorganisms and insects.
Why irradiate food?
● to eliminate organism that cause food borne
illnesses such as Salmonella and Escherichia
coli
● to destroy or inactivate organisms that cause
spoilage and decomposition and extend the
shelf life of vegetables.
● to kill insects that destroys the vegetables
● LAB (Lactic Acid Bacteria)
- adhere to cells
- exclude or reduce pathogenic adherence
- persist and multiply
- be safe, noninvasive, noncarcinogenic and
nonpathogenic
● Nisin in tinned vegetables, Pediocin in salad and
Enterocin against B. cereus in vegetables.

V. Hurdle Technology
● Hurdle concept by Leistner: “Microbrial safety,
stability, sensorial, and nutritional qualities of
food are based on the application of combined
preservative factors(called hurdles) that
Three sources of radiation used for vegetables: microorganism present in the food are unable to
● Gamma rays are emitted from radioactive forms overcome.”
of the element cobalt or cesium. ● Refers to the combination of different
● X-rays are produced by reflecting a high-energy preservation methods and processes to inhibit
stream of electrons off a target substance in microbial growth.
vegetables.
● Electron beam is similar to X-rays and is a
stream of high-energy electrons propelled from
an electron accelerator in food.
Advantages:
● immune deficiency benefits VI. Pulse Electric Field Treatment
● kills dangerous organism (Electroporation)
● proactive measure against insects The application of pulse electric field causes the
Disadvantages: formation of pores in both eukaryote and prokaryote cell
● No promises membranes, increasing their permeability.
● Can cause health problems with a variety of
animals
● Colors and textures

IV. Biopreservation
● Defined as the extension of shelf life and
enhanced safety of foods by the use of natural
or controlled microbiota and/or microbial
compounds.
● Fermentation: common form of biopreservation Advantages:
 ● improve cut quality of food products such as
potato, vegetable and fruits
● easier peeling of vegetables and fruits
● shorter drying times of vegetables and other
products
PRESERVATION TECHNIQUES OF FRUITS
I. Canning
Canning is the processing of food in special glass jars
with pressure-sealed lids. The jars are heated up either
by placing them in a boiling-water or are pressure
canned to a specific amount of temperature and time.
Safe Canning Methods
● Boiling Water Bath Method
The boiling water bath method is safe for
tomatoes, fruits, jams, jellies, pickles and other
preserves. In this method, jars of food are heated
completely covered with boiling water (212°F at sea
level) and cooked for a specified amount of time.
● Pressure Canner Method
Jars of food are placed in 2 to 3 inches of water
in a special pressure cooker which is heated to a
temperature of at least 240° F. This temperature can
only be reached using the pressure method. A
microorganism called Clostridium botulinum is the main
reason why pressure processing is necessary.
Though the bacterial cells are killed at boiling
temperatures, they can form spores that can withstand
these temperatures. The spores grow well in low acid
foods, in the absence of air, such as in canned low
acidic foods.
Advantages of Canned Fruits:
● Cheap
● Convenience
● Long shelf life
Disadvantages of Canned Fruits
● Taste Aspects
● Sodium and sugar content
● Exposure to BPA (Bisphenol A)
II. Drying
One of the earliest and easiest known practices, drying
refers to dehydrating the food. The purpose is to remove
all the moisture from the food which inhibits the growth
of yeast, bacteria and helps in preserving food.
Drying of Fruits Outdoors
● Sun Drying
The high sugar and acid content of fruits make
them safe to dry in the sun. Fruits dried in the sun are
placed on trays made of screen or wooden dowels.
Screens need to be safe for contact with food. The best
screens are stainless steel, teflon coated fiberglass or
plastic.
Cover the trays with cheesecloth to help protect
the fruit from birds or insects.
Fruits dried in the sun must be covered or
brought under shelter at night. The cool night air
condenses and could add moisture back to the food,
thus slowing down the drying process.
● Solar Drying
Solar drying also uses the sun as the heat
source. A foil surface inside the dehydrator helps to
increase the temperature. Ventilation speeds up the
drying time. Shorter drying times reduce the risks of food
spoilage or mold growth.
Drying of Fruits Indoors
● Food Dehydrator
● Oven Drying
An oven is ideal for occasional drying of fruit
leathers, banana chips or for preserving excess produce
like celery or mushrooms.
Oven drying is slower than dehydrators because
it does not have a built-in fan for the air movement. It
takes about two times longer to dry food in an oven than
it does in a dehydrator.
Disadvantages of Too Much Dried Fruits
● Gastrointestinal Problems
● Increased Calorie Count
● Tooth Decay
● Sugar Crash
III. Sugaring
Sugaring is a method of food preservation that requires
the food to be dehydrated and then to be packed with
either crystallized sugar or with the liquids containing
high amount of sugar such as honey or molasses.
The Process of Sugaring
● Any fruit that has to be preserved is washed
thoroughly and desiccated by dehydration.
● The food is then cooked in liquid sugar product
or raw sugar until crystallized and the resultant
food is preserved in dried form.
● Some fruits are even glazed in sugar syrup, but
sold after being extracted from the liquid. The
sugary coating on the fruits and the internal high
sugar content increases the shelf life of the food.
Advantages
● Does not require large number of ingredients
● Less time involvement
Disadvantages
● When the atmospheric moisture is high in
content, the yeast present in the environment
starts its action and sugar starts fermenting into
carbon dioxide and alcohol.
IV. Pickling
Pickling is an example of chemical preservation. In the
case of pickling, the product may be preserved by the
addition of salt, sugar, acetic acid (vinegar), and alcohol.
High sugar content also acts as a fruit preservative by
tying up all available moisture so that microorganisms
cannot grow.
Advantages
● Adds unique flavors
● Good sources of nutrients, including vitamins,
amino acids and healthy bacteria
● Decrease muscle cramps caused by heat
● Can be preserved longer than the food could be
eaten fresh
Disadvantages
● Alters the taste of foods
● Can cause higher blood pressure
V. Freezing
Freezing is quick, convenient and the most popular form
of home based food preservation. The actual freezing
process is done at a much lower temperatures of -0 F (-
18 C) or lower.
VI. Vacuum Sealing
This is a process where the inside air of the food
package is removed before actually sealing the package.
The reduced atmospheric oxygen greatly slows down
the deterioration of food sources and helps in retaining
food quality for a longer time.
Vacuum Pack Food With an Automatic Machine
1. Clean and prepare the food that you wish to
vacuum pack.
Scrub or peel fruits so dirt is not trapped inside
the vacuum seal.
2. Place the food inside the plastic bag.
Most machines require using a specific brand of
bag.
3. Put the open edge of the bag into the sealing
machine
4. Press the button, if necessary, to start the
vacuum and sealing process
Many vacuum pack food machines have an
automatic sensor that alerts the machine when a
 bag has been placed inside and automatically
starts the sealing process.
5. Watch as the vacuum pack food machine
withdraws the air and the plastic bag shrinks
6. Wait for the machine to stop its operation, which
signaling that the plastic bag has properly been
sealed
7. Remove the vacuum packed food and store it in
the pantry, fridge or freezer
TRADITIONAL PRESERVATION TECHNIQUES
I. Canning
● Canning involves placing fruits and vegetables
in airtight containers, typically jars, and so
prevent bacteria getting in to them.
● Canned good can be stored on shelves for
years, if required.
II. Salting
● One of the oldest methods of preserving food.
● Salting can be used for meat and fish, as well
as sliced vegetables.
● There are two methods of Salting: low salt to
vegetable ratio and high salt to vegetable ratio.
● Produce must be stored in the refrigerator.
Low Salt to Vegetable Ratio
● Contains 2% to 5% salt per weight
vegetables.
● This level of salting promotes the growth of the
lactic acid bacteria, which in turns inhibits the
growth of other bacterial forms that could spoil
the food.
● It also serves slightly pickle the vegetables.
High Salt to Vegetable Ratio
● Contains 20% to 25% salt per weight of
vegetables.
● It preserves the freshness of the produce but
adding a salty flavor when used, even after the
salt has been washed off.
III. Pickling
● Pickling is a method of preserving food in an
edible, antimicrobial liquid.
● Can be broadly classified into two categories:
Chemical Pickling and Fermentation Pickling.
Chemical Pickling
● In Chemical Pickling, the food is placed in an
edible liquid that inhibits or kills bacteria and
other microorganisms.
● Many Chemical pickling process also involve
heating or boiling so that the food being
preserved becomes saturated with the pickling
agent.
● Examples of Pickling Agents: Brine (high in salt),
vinegar, alcohol, and vegetable oil.
Fermentation Pickling
● In Fermentation Pickling, bacteria in the liquid
produce organic acids as preservation agents,
typically by a process that produces lactic acid
through the presence of lactobacillales.
● Examples of Fermented Pickles : Sauerkraut,
nukazuke, kimchi, and surstromming.
IV. Burial
● Burial of food can preserve it due to a variety of
factors : lack of light, lack of oxygen, cool
of temperatures, pH level, or desiccants in the soil.
● Burial can be combined with other methods of
preservation such as salting or fermentation.
V. Cooling
● Cooling Preserves food by slowing down the
growth and reproduction of microorganisms and
the action enzymes that causes food to rot.
● Before the era of mechanical refrigeration,
cooling food storage occurred in the form of root
cellars and iceboxes.
VI. Freezing
 ● Freezing is also one of the most commonly used ● Kidney beans
processes, both commercially and domestically, ● Black eyed peas
for preserving a wide range of foods. ● Chickpeas
● Cold stores provide large-volume, long-term ● Mung beans
storage for strategic food stocks held in case of ● Black beans
national emergency in many countries. ● Soybeans
● Green peas
VII. Lye
● Sodium hydroxide (lye) makes food too alkaline
for bacterial growth.

TYPES OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES

Types of Fruits
● APPLES AND PEARS
● CITRUS FRUITS – grapefruit, lime, mandarin,
orange, etc.
● STONE FRUITS – peach, plum, apricot, cherry,
nectarines, etc.
● TROPICAL AND EXOTIC FRUITS – durian,
rambutan, mangosteen, jackfruit, Buddha’s
hand, miracle fruit, etc.
● BERRIES – strawberry, blueberries, goji berries,
acai berries, etc.
● MELONS- bitter melons, watermelons,
wintermelon, canataloupe green
● TOMATOES

Types of Vegetables
● Leafy Greens and Cruciferous vegetables –
Kale, Spinach, Cabbage, Sweet Chard, Bok
Choy, Brocolli, Cauliflower
● Marrow – squashes, chayote, kohlrabi
● Root – beet, yam, sweet potatoes, parnsips,
potatoes, yucca root, taro, ginger
● Edible plant stem – asparagus, bamboo shoot,
birch sap, wasabi, cinnamon, sugarcane
● Allium – onion, garlic, scallions, leeks, chives

Types of Legumes
● Lima beans