Department of ECE Electronics Workshop Manual

KMEA ENGINEERING
COLLEGE

WORKSHOP RECORD

EC110 – ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

WORKSHOP FIRST & SECOND SEMESTER
ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION
DEPARTMENT AS PER KTU SYLLABUS 2015
ONWARDS

Prepared by Verified Approved

by by
Lab-in- HOD PRI
charge
Signature

Date

1
Department of ECE Electronics Workshop Manual

INDEX

Sl Topic Page
No: No:

1 Familiarize and identify electronic components with 3

specification
Familiarization/Application of testing instruments 27
2
and commonly used tools.
3 Familiarization/Application of soldering tools. 36

4 Testing of electronic components 43

5 Inter-connection methods and soldering practice 50

6 Printed circuit boards (PCB) 57

2
Department of ECE Electronics Workshop Manual

EXPERIMENT NO: 1

FAMILIARIZE AND IDENTIFY ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS WITH

SPECIFICATION
AIM
To Familiarize and Identify electronic components with specification (Functionality,
type, size, colour coding, package, symbol, cost etc. (Active, Passive, Electrical,
Electronic, Electro- mechanical, Wires, Cables, Connectors, Fuses, Switches, Relays,
Crystals, Displays, Fasteners, Heat sink etc.)

COMPONENTS & EQUIPMENTS LIST

Table 1.1 Tabular column of components & equipments list for familiarization

Equipments and Type Quantity

Components
Resistors 10 KΩ, ¼ Watt, 10 KΩ, ½
Watt, 4.7 MΩ,1 Watt, 6.8 1 each
KΩ,2 Watt, 10 KΩ pot
Capacitors 0.1µf Disc Type, 0.01nf
Ceramic Type, 470µf 1 each
Electrolytic type, 1µf
Mica
type
Inductors 1 mH 1

Diodes 1N4007, OA 79, SZ5.6, 1 each

LED
Transistors BC 107, BFW10, 2N2646 1 each

THEORY

Basic Components:

Basic electronic components can be divided into 2 categories:

Passive components do not increase the power of a signal. They often cause power to
be lost.
Resistors, capacitors and inductors are examples of passive components.

3
Active components increase the power of a signal and must be supplied with the signal and a
source of power. Examples are bipolar transistors, field effect transistors etc.
Resistors:

It is an electronic component that functions precisely as the name implies – it resists alternating
or direct current. Resistors come in many sizes, shapes, power ratings and tolerances. Some
have the value stamped on the case, while others have a group of color bands that help us to
learn the resistance value.

Resistors can be of two types:

Fixed value resistors and variable resistors.

Fig.1.1 fixed resistors and variable resistors

The formula for resistance is given by:

R=ρl/A

where ρ is resistivity, l is length and A is area of crossection.

Different value resistors can be manufactured by changing the length and area of crossection or
the material itself which changes the resistivity. Materials generally used for fabrication of
resistors are nichrome (80 % Ni and 20 % Cr), constatntan (55% cu and 45 % Ni ) and
Manmganin (85 % Cu and 10 % Mn and < 5 % Ni). Metals are not used as they have a very
high temperature coefficient of resistance. Three main methods of fabrication are (i) a slab or a
4
 rod of suitable resistivity, (ii) Material using thinner crossection and longer length. The length is
doubled and then wound in such a way that inductance effects are cancelled out. (iii) Thin films

of material on insulating substrate. Each resistor has a current carrying capacity. Current more
than the prescribed wattage may damage the resistor.

Fixed resistors are of two types. Carbon film resistors (CFR) and metal film resistors(MFR).

Carbon film Resistors

A carbon film is deposited on an insulating substrate, and a helix is cut in it to create a long,
narrow resistive path. Varying shapes, coupled with the resistivity of amorphous carbon
(ranging from 500 to 800 Ω), can provide a variety of resistances. Compared to carbon
composition they feature low noise, because of the precise distribution of the pure graphite
without binding. Carbon film resistors feature a power rating range of 0.125W to 5 W at 70°C.
Resistances available range from 1 ohm to 10 megohm. The carbon film resistor has an
operating temperature range of −55°C to 155°C. It has 200 to 600 volts maximum working
voltage range. Special carbon film resistors are used in applications requiring high pulse
stability.

Fig.1.2 Carbon film resistors

Metal film Resistors

Metal film resistors have a thin metal layer as resistive element on a non-conducting body. They
are amongst the most common types of axial resistors. Other film type resistors are carbon film
and thick and thin film resistors. In most literature referrals to metal film, usually it is a
cylindrical axial resistor. However, thin film chip resistors use the same manufacturing principle

5
for the metal layer. The appearance of metal film resistors is similar to carbon film resistors, but
their properties for stability, accuracy and reliability are considerably better.

Fig.1.3 Metal film resistors

Variable resistors:

Wire-Wound Resistor

A wire wound resistor is an electrical passive component that limits current. The resistive
element exists out of an insulated metallic wire that is winded around a core of non-conductive
material. The wire material has a high resistivity, and is usually made of an alloy such as
Nickel-chromium (Nichrome) or a copper-nickel-manganese alloy called Manganin. Common
core materials include ceramic, plastic and glass. Wire wound resistors are the oldest type of
resistors that are still manufactured today. They can be produced very accurate, and have
excellent properties for low resistance values and high power ratings.

Fig.1.4 wire-wound resistors

Potentiometer
An instrument for measuring an electromotive force by balancing it against the potential
difference produced by passing a known current through a known variable resistance. A

6
variable resistor with a third adjustable terminal. The potential at the third terminal can be
adjusted to give any fraction of the potential across the ends of the resistor.
A potentiometer is a simple knob that provides a variable resistance, which we can read into
the board as an analog value.

Fig.1.5 Various Potentiometers

Colour Code for Resistors

Fig.1.6 A resistor with 3 colored bands and the fourth band is for tolerance

rd
The first two bands near an end indicate first 2 digits, digit corresponding to 3 band is the
power of 10 to be multiplied and fourth band indicates tolerance as mentioned in the table.
Refer fig 1.6, where brown =1, black =0, red =2 and silver = 10% tolerance. Hence its value is

7
 2
10 x 10 Ω =1 k Ω.

Fig. 1.7 A 5-Band Resistor

th
(The first 3 bands indicate first 3 digits, digit corresponding to 4 band is the power of 10 to be
multiplied and fifth band indicates tolerance as mentioned in the table.) Most commonly used
resistors in lab are fixed value resistors which exist for standard values according to E12. Other
ranges are E24 and E48 Ranges.

E12 Range: Table 1 is for the values of resistors of E12 range. Topmost row defines the basic
value units of resistors in ohms. Every following row is 10 fold of the upper row.

Table 1.2 Table for E12 range values of resistors

1.0 1.2 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 5 6.8 8.2

. . . . . . . .
Ω Ω
5 8 2 7 3 9 7 6
10 12 . . . . 68 82 Ω
Ω
100 680 820
Ω Ω

1k 1.2k 6.8k 8.2k

10k 82k

100 820k
k

1M 1.2 6.8M 8.2

M ` M
10 12M 68M 82M
M
8
Wattage Ratings of Resistors

When a current is passed through a resistor, heat is developed within the resistor. The resistor
must be capable of dissipating this heat into the surrounding air; otherwise, the temperature of
the The ability of the resistor to dissipate heat depends upon the design of the resistor itself.
This ability to dissipate heat depends on the amount of surface area which is exposed to the air.
A resistor designed to dissipate a large amount of heat must therefore have a large physical size.
The heat dissipating capability of a resistor is measured in WATTS. Some of the more common

wattage ratings of carbon resistors are: one-eighth watt, one-fourth watt, one-half watt, one
watt, and two watts.
In some of the newer state-of-the-art circuits of today, much smaller wattage resistors are used.
Generally, the type that you will be able to physically work with is of the values given.
The higher the wattage rating of the resistor the larger is the physical size. Resistors that
dissipate very large amounts of power (watts) are usually wire wound resistors.
Wire wound resistors with wattage ratings up to 50 watts are not uncommon. The illustration
shows some resistors which have different wattage ratings. Notice the relative sizes of the
resistors.

Special purpose resistors

Light dependent resistors (LDR) and thermistors are examples of special purpose resistors.
Thermistor is a resistor whose value depends on its temperature. It is also called a heat sensor.
LDR is a resistance whose resistance depends upon the amount of light falling on it.

Capacitors

Capacitors are capable of storing charges. They are used for coupling ac signals from one circuit
to another and for frequency selection etc. A capacitor consists of 2 metallic plates separated by
a dielectric. The capacitance is defined as :

C = Є Є A / d,
o r

9
where A is the area of plates, d is plates separation, Є is permittivity of free space and Є is
o r

relative permittivity. An important parameter for capacitors is its voltage handling capacity
beyond which the capacitor dielectric breaks down.

The value of a capacitor depends upon the dielectric constant (K = Є Є .) of the material. There
o r

are three main classes of capacitors: (i) Non electrolytic or normal capacitors and (ii)
electrolytic capacitors and (iii) variable capacitors.

Normal capacitors or Non electrolytic capacitors are mostly of parallel plate type and can have
mica, paper, ceramic or polymer as dielectric. In the paper capacitors two rectangular metal foils
are interleaved between thin sheets of waxed paper and the whole system is rolled to form a

compact structure. Each metal foil is connected to an electrode. In mica capacitors alternate
layers of mica and metal are clamped tightly together.

In electrolytic capacitor mostly a thin metal-oxide film is deposited by means of electrolysis on

axial electrode. That‘s how it derives its name. Two types of electrolytic capacitors. Aluminum
electrolytic capacitor and tantalum electrolytic capacitor.

Besides these fixed value capacitors we also have variable capacitors whose value depends upon
the area of crossection. They have a fixed set of plates and a movable set of plates which can be
moved through a shaft. This movement changes the area of overlap of the two sets of plates
which changes its capacity. Examples are trimmers and padders.

Fig. 1.8 Types of capacitors with symbols

10
Colour and Number code of capacitors Electrolytic Capacitors

There are two designs of electrolytic capacitors: (i) Axial where the leads are attached to each
end (220µF in picture) and (ii) Radial where both leads are at the same end (10µF in picture).

Fig. 1.9 Axial and radial electrolytic capacitor

(iii) Non-polarised capacitors ( < 1µF): Small value capacitors have their values printed but
without a multiplier. For example 0.1 means 0.1µF = 100nF. Sometimes the unit is placed in
between 2 digits indicating a decimal point. For example: 4n7 means 4.7nF.

Fig. 1.10 Examples of number coded capacitors

Capacitor Number Code:

A number code is often used on small capacitors where printing is difficult: the 1st number is
the 1st digit, the 2nd number is the 2nd digit, the 3rd number is the power of ten to be
multiplied., to give the capacitance in pF. Any letters just indicate tolerance and voltage rating.
2
For example: 102 means 10 X 10 pF = 1nF and 472J means 4700pF = 4.7nF (J means 5%
tolerance).
Capacitor Colour Code:
Sometimes capacitors just show bands like resistors when printing is tough on them. The
colours should be read like the resistor code, the top three colour bands giving the value inpF.
The 4th band and 5th band are for tolerance and voltage rating respectively. For example:
brown, black, orange means 10000pF = 10nF = 0.01µF.
11
 Fig.. 1.11 capacitor with color bands and no printed values

Available Values of Capacitors: Like resistors capacitors are also available for only particular
values. Following are 2 series defined for capacitors
The E3 series (3 values for each multiple of ten) 10, 22, 47, then it continues 1to100, 220, 470,
1000, 2200, 4700, 10000 etc.
The E6 series (6 values for each multiple of ten) 10, 15, 22, 33, 47, 68, ... then it continues 100,
150, 220, 330, 470, 680, 1000 etc.
Inductors
Inductor is a component made by a coil of wire which is wound on a core. It is used to vary the
impedance of a circuit or for frequency tuning. The value of an inductor depends upon the total
number of turns (N), area of crossection of the core (A) and length of the core (l). The formula
2
is L = μ μ N A / l. Its unit is in Henry.
o r

Types of inductors
While there are several types of inductors the most common to the mobile electronics installer is
the fixed inductor. Variable inductors are also used in some industries, however, these devices
are not typically used in mobile electronics. Fixed inductors come in many shapes and sizes.
One of the main differences in inductor types is that of the core material around which the
conductor is wound. While some inductors use a center core material others do not and are
simply windings of wire.
Iron Core Fixed Inductors (Ceramic Inductors)
One of the most common inductor types, iron core inductors, utilize a core material made of
iron around which the conductor wire is wound. The iron material reacts with the magnetic field
or magnetic flux created by the current passing through the wire. The iron core plays in integral
part in the amount of inductance which the inductor possesses.
12
 Fig.1.12 Iron core inductor

Ferrite Core Fixed Inductors (Torroid Inductors)

Similar to Iron Core Inductors, the ferrite core inductor incorporates a center core made of a
ferrite material. Ferrite is a material consisting of molded metal particles.

Fig.1.13 Ferrite core inductor

Air Core Fixed Inductors

Air core inductors do not incorporate a core material. The air core inductor is simply a winding
of conductor material (wire). Often considered the inductor of choice for crossover applications,
air core inductors are known for their accuracy and performance. With this increased
performance comes a higher price tag. Air core inductors are typically the most expensive. This
price increase is due to the fact that air core inductors utilize more copper wire in lieu of the iron
or ferrite core materials.

Fig.1.14 Air core inductor

13
Variable inductance

Probably the most common type of variable inductor today is one with a moveable ferrite
magnetic core, which can be slid or screwed in or out of the coil. Moving the core farther into
the coil increases the permeability, increasing the magnetic field and the inductance. Many
inductors used in radio applications (usually less than 100MHz) use adjustable cores in order to
tune such inductors to their desired value, since manufacturing processes have certain tolerances
(inaccuracy). Sometimes such cores for frequencies above 100MHz are made from highly
conductive non-magnetic material such as aluminum. They decrease the inductance because the
magnetic field must bypass them.

Fig.1.15 Variable inductors Fig.1.16 Axial lead inductors

Diode

A diode is a single junction device made of p and n type materials. Its main function is to rectify
an ac signal although other special purpose diodes like zener and LED‘s are used for other
purposes. If the junction is made between a metal and semiconductor then it is called a Schottky
diode whose application is in rectifying and non-rectifying contacts and Schottky devices. If the
pn junction is made between very heavily doped materials then it forms a Zener diode. These
are used for voltage regulation in power supplies. and have breakdown voltages which are very
low. The normal diode has a breakdown voltage of greater than 100 V.

Some of the diode specifications are: Maximum reverse voltage (V ), rated forward current
br

(I ) , maximum forward voltage drop (V ) and package style. Table 3 gives some of the most
f f

commonly used diodes with their specifications.

14
 Table 1.3 Some specifications of diodes

V
Device Material IF (mA) VF(V) BR

Number used.
(V)

OA91 Ge 50 2.1 115

In 4148 Si 100 1.0 75

In 4149 Si 100 1.0 75

IN 4007 Si 1000 1.6 1000

Fig. 1.16 Silicon diode (1N 4007) and Germanium diode(OA 79)

Light Emitting Diode (LED)

LED‘s are PN junction devices which emit light radiation when biased in the forward direction.
The semiconductor material used for these junctions is a compound semiconductor like AlGaAs
whose band gap corresponds to a particular wavelength according to equation E = 1.24 / λ
g

where E is the band gap in ev and λ is the wavelength in microns. (e.g. red ~ 0.7 μ hence
g

corresponding E = 1.24 / 0.7 = 1.77 ev). When the pn junction is forward biased, the electrons
g

are excited to conduction band and when they fall to the valence band, they give out energy in
the form of radiation corresponding to the example of the material Conventional LED‘s are

15
made from the materials like AlGaAs, GaAlP, GaAsP, GaP and GaN which emit Red, green,
orange, yellow and blue colours respectively. Dual colour LED‘s are also available where two
junctions are encapsulated on the same chip. It has three leads where cathode is common
whereas normal LED‘s have two leads one for cathode and other for anode. A very important
precaution while using an led is the amount of current being passed through it. For most LEDs
the maximum allowable current is 20 mA beyond which the led can burn out. Hence in most of
the circuits a resistor is used to limit the current. Some important specifications before using an
LED are: LED colour, peak wavelength, viewing angle, optical power output, luminous
intensity, forward current and forward voltage.

Zener Diode

A Zener diode is a diode which allows current to flow in the forward direction in the same
manner as an ideal diode, but also permits it to flow in the reverse direction when the voltage is
above a certain value known as the breakdown voltage, "Zener knee voltage", "Zener voltage",
"avalanche point", or "peak inverse voltage".

Fig. 1.18 Zener Diode

Transistors

A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals and
electrical power. It is composed of semiconductor material with at least three terminals for
connection to an external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's
terminals changes the current through another pair of terminals. Because the controlled (output)
power can be higher than the controlling (input) power, a transistor can amplify a signal.
Transistors are semiconductor devices used for applications like amplification of voltages,
current and are also used in oscillator circuits and switches. It‘s a two junction and 3 terminal
devices made of three layers of n and p type materials.

16
Different types of transistors are bipolar junction transistor, field effect transistor and
unijunction transistor.

Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

The three regions are emitter, base and collector. They are of 2 types (i) pnp and (ii) npn. Their
most important specifications are Ic, Vce, hfe and Power rating. They come in different casings
like TO18, TO92C, and TO39 etc.Figure gives some of the transistors with the symbols for npn
and pnp and some of the casings with the configurations for emitter, base and collector leads.

Fig. 1.19 Different types of transistors with its terminals

Field Effect Transistor

The field-effect transistor (FET) is a transistor that uses an electric field to control the shape and
hence the electrical conductivity of a channel of one type of charge carrier in a semiconductor
material. FETs are also known as unipolar transistors as they involve single-carrier-type
operation. The FET has several forms, but all have high input impedance.
17
 Fig. 1.20 Field effect transistors
Unijunction Transistor

A unijunction transistor (UJT) is a three-lead electronic semiconductor device with only one
junction that acts exclusively as an electrically controlled switch.The UJT is not used as a linear
amplifier. It is used in free-running oscillators, synchronized or triggered oscillators, and pulse
generation circuits at low to moderate frequencies (hundreds of kilohertz). It is widely used in
the triggering circuits for silicon controlled rectifiers. The low cost per unit, combined with its
unique characteristic, have warranted its use in a wide variety of applications like oscillators,
pulse generators, saw-tooth generators, triggering circuits, phase control, timing circuits, and

voltage- or current-regulated supplies

Fig. 1.21 Unijunction Transistors

Integrated Circuit (IC)

Today all electrical, electronic and computer parts have IC‘s in them. Integrated circuit is a
name given to a package which can hold more than 10 and up to millions of electronic
components. They can give various functions like: (i) the function of a full microprocessor
circuit (eg 8085), (ii) a memory chip, (iii) a voltage regulator (LM 7805) or (iv) Can contain
just 10 AND gates (eg LS7400). They come in a black bench like casing with a notch on one
side and with electrical legs for connections, which are called pins. The size is usually around 1
18
 2 2
cm X 1 cm . Refer to the picture. Its name is always written on top which contains a few letters
with numerals, according to its type, make and company. For example an IC with name LS
7400 would mean LS series with And gates, LM741C - mA741C is an operational amplifier
(opamp). Datasheets can be referred to, to know the details of pin configurations and make etc.
The pins are usually read starting from left of notch and going anticlockwise as shown in picture
for 555 timer IC.

Cables
An electrical cable comprises two or more wires running side by side and bonded, twisted, or
braided together to form a single assembly, the ends of which can be connected to two devices,
enabling the transfer of electrical signals from one device to the other. Cables are used
extensively in electronic devices for power and signal circuits. Power cables are used for bulk
transmission of alternating and direct current power, especially using high voltage cable.
Electrical cables are extensively used in building wiring for lighting, power and control circuits
permanently installed in buildings.

Connectors
Connectors constitute a link which can easily be broken. This provides flexibility in a
system.
Connectors are generally made in accordance with some standard or specification, such as
BS (British Standard), CCTU(French standard), DIN(German standard), IEC(European
standard), MIL (U.S.military standard), etc. This standardisation is extremely important as

19
regards the potential to switch between different manufacture of the same connector, so that
the connector fulfils the same environmental requirements, lifetime etc.
When selecting connectors, it is important to have a clear idea of what demands are to be
placed on the connector in terms of current, voltage, lifetime and environment. There is no
connector which can be used universally.

An electrical connector is an electro-mechanical device for joining electrical circuits as an

interface using a mechanical assembly. Connectors consist of plugs (male-ended) and jacks

(female-ended). The connection may be temporary, as for portable equipment, require a

tool for assembly and removal, or serve as a permanent electrical joint between two wires
or devices. An adapter can be used to effectively bring together dissimilar connectors.

There are hundreds of types of electrical connectors. Connectors may join two lengths of
flexible copper wire or cable, or connect a wire or cable to an electrical terminal.

Fuses
The fuse is a security and protection component that cuts the power. More commonly it
means a component that senses the current consumption in a circuit and cuts the power if
the consumption gets to large, like at short-circuits or overload.

The rated voltage is the greatest extended working voltage and the type of voltage (AC
voltage or DC voltage) at which the fuse may be used.
The current rating is the working current at which the fuse is designed to be used. The
current rating is somewhat lower than the current which is able to flow for a next ended
period without tripping the fuse. The difference between these two currents varies for
different standards.
The breaking characteristics describe the correlation between how quickly the fuse trips
and how high the current is. The main groups are fast and delayed action fuses. Fast fuses
are used in particular cases when a fuse which trips as quickly as possible is required, e.g.in
an instrument input. Sometimes, these fuses are also necessary from the point of view of
safety. It is necessary to use delayed action fuses when the load exhibits high current during
startup, e.g. when a motor is turned on. Transformers also give increased in rush current,

20
and this applies to a particularly great extent to toroidal core transformers. The breaking
capacity is the greatest current which the fuse is capable of breaking at a specific voltage
without it short-circuiting or reconnects.
Models
Thermo fuses are available in many different models. Glass tube fuses and ceramic fuses are
the types most commonly used. In European equipment, the fuses commonly used are
5×20mm in size, while American equipment uses slightly larger fuses, 6.3×32mm. The
ceramic models have greater breaking capacity.
Many variants of special fuses of other sizes and with other properties are available.
Subminiature fuses can be found, for example, at the input of certain measuring instruments
in order to protect them against overloading. They are available in models for mounting in
holders or for permanent mounting, both for hole mounting and surface mounting.
Switches and relays
Switches
The term switch is used to describe a wide range of components, most of them manually
operated, that close or open an electrical circuit or switch it from one line to another. The
voltage being handled by the switch must be known in advance because higher voltages
require better insulation. The strength of current is another important factor.
The current capacity depends on the design of the contact surfaces, the selected material,
the dimensions and the pressure of the contact. It is also different for direct current or
alternating current. This is due, for example, to the arcing which can occur when a switch is
opened. To extinguish the arc, either the distance between the contact surfaces must be
come sufficiently large, or the current must be reduced. In alternating currents, the current
is regularly reduced to zero, thereby making it easier to extinguish the arc.
Alternating current also prevents the migration of material from one pole to the other. Some
manufacturers specify plus and minus poles for the connections, in which case one of the
contacts is silver-plated while the other is made of solid silver. The polarity is selected so
that the material migrates from the solid silver contact to the silver-plated contact.
The insulation material should be selected on the basis of the intended application of the
switch. The insulation material causes losses that increase as the frequency increases. High

21
frequency signals require ceramic or PTFE insulation. In the case of very high frequencies,
the conducting paths also have to be impedance- matched to keep losses and signal
reflections to a minimum.
From the mechanical point of view, there are several types of switches:
Toggle switches usually require considerable mechanical force and actuator movement, but
the positions are distinct.
Slide switches do not have such distinct switching positions. They are only used with low
voltages, e.g. miniature switches in DIL packages.
Micro gap switches are ideal when a small actuator movement is required together with
very little operating force. Switches of this type contain curved split springs allowing the

moving contact to move to either position. Between these positions, the switch is unstable.
The result is precise and distinct positions, and fast changeover.
Reed switches are sensitive to magnetic fields. A glass tube contains a metal blade which,
when acted on by a magnetic field, closes the electric circuit between the two electrodes in
the switch. Reed switches are available either as standalone components or they form part
of reed relays.
Functional descriptions
SP (Single Pole) = 1pole. DP(Double Pole)= 2poles. ST (Single Throw) = two- position
contact with an output for one position only (i.e. make or break). DT (Double Throw), CO
(Change Over) = two- position contact with separate outputs for each of the positions (i.e.
change over).
Form A: Make contact. Form B: Break contact. Form C: Change over contact, break-
before-make. Form D: Change over contact, make- before- break. If the name includes a
number, this relates to the number of contacts.
Shorting, make- before- break: When the switch changes from one position to another,
the contact to the new position is made before the previous position is broken. This means
that the connections to the outputs for the old and new positions are short – circuited for an
instant (unless the switch has completely separate contacts for each position).

22
Non-shorting, break – before - make: When the switch changes from one position to
another, the contact to the old position is broken before the contact to the new position is
made. There is no short circuit between the outputs.
Instantaneous, momentary, (on), (off), normally closed (NC), normally open (NO),
opening, closing are all terms used to describe contacts with a starting position to which
they return when the button is released. The term "spring - return", however, can also mean
that just the button returns to its original position, and not the contacts. The terms "(on)"
and "(off)" mean that the contacts return from an on/ off position respectively. The term
"normal" refers to the function in the starting position, and "opening" and "closing" indicate
how the position of the contacts changes from the starting position.
Latching action means that the contact position changes the first time the button is pressed,
and the position does not revert to the starting position until the button is pressed a second
time.

Group actuation means that a number of switches are inter connected in a group in such a
way that when one of the switches is actuated, any switches already actuated revert to their
starting position.
Relays
Relays are switches that can be remote controlled, normally bypassing electric current
through a coil whose magnetic force actuates mechanical contacts. The main differences
between relays consist of their contact function and coil characteristics.
Contact function
Contacts can have a make function (form A), break function (form B) or change over
function (form C). The contacts are designed with a specific maximum power in mind. This
maximum power depends on the contact pressure and on the size and material of the
contact surfaces. Complete relay data includes the maximum voltage, current and power.
Coil data
Relays are manufactured with actuating coils for direct current or alternating current,
usually for voltages between 5−220V. When selecting relays, you may need to take its own
power consumption into account. Ind. c. relays, consumption depends on the resistance of

23
the relay coil, and the higher the resistance, the lower the power consumption of the relay.
You can use the coil voltage (U) and resistance (R) to calculate the power consumption (P)
2
with the following formula: P=U /R
Specific relay types
Solid state relays usually consist of one drive stage and one output stage. An isolating
component is normally placed between the stages, for example an opto- isolator or reed
relay. Depending on the type of current and the power, the output stage consists of a
transistor, a triac or two opposing thyristors.

Fig. 1.22 Solid state relay

Electromechanical relays
Electromechanical relays are electrically operated switches used to isolate circuits or batteries,
detect faults on transmission and distribution lines, and control a high powered circuit using a
low power signal. Simple relays consist of a magnetic core wrapped in a wire coil, a movable
armature attached to an iron yoke, and one or more set of contacts. When an electric current
passes through the coil it generates a magnetic field that activates the armature, therefore
moving the contacts to make or break a connection.

Fig. 1.23 Electromechanical relay

24
The diagram below shows the parts of a relay and its operation. The relay on the left is off,
meaning there is no current flowing to the coil. The relay on the right has switched on due to the
energizing of the coil and subsequent movement of the armature and contact.

Fig. 1.24 working of relay

Heat sinks

The amount of heat given off by semiconductors like power transistors and diodes is too
great for the component itself to transfer to the surrounding air satisfactory. To prevent
temperatures rising to unacceptable levels, the components have to be helped to get rid of
the excess heat. One way of doing this is to install a heat sink, which transfers the heat
generated by the transistor into the surrounding air through conduction and radiation. A flat

metal panel is the simplest form of heat sink, but not the most effective. A more complex
structure usually makes more sense in terms of cost, size and weight.
In a semiconductor, heat is generated in the barrier layer. The heat is then generally
transferred from there to the case, and then to the surrounding air through the heat sink.
This method of heat transmission is similar to the flow of current through electrical
conductors. Accordingly, the thermal resistance (Kin°C/W) corresponds to electrical
resistance (RinV/A).
The following simple formula can be used to calculate the heat sink:

25
 Tj−Tamb=P×(Kj-m+Km-h+Kh)
Tj =temperature in barrier layer.
Tamb=temperature of surrounding air.
P =heat generated in the semiconductor.
Kj-m=thermal resistance between the barrier layer and the case.
Km-h = thermal resistance between the case and the heat sink. This value depends on the
size and structure of the contacting surface.
Kh = thermal resistance of the heat sink, i.e. the thermal resistance between the
contacting surface and the surrounding air.
The thermal resistance between the semiconductor and the heat sink should be kept also was
possible by using a large, flat and well machined contacting surface. Screws should be
tightened to the recommended torque to ensure good heat conductivity, but without
reducing mechanical strength. Any air pockets can be filled with silicon between the
semiconductor and heat sink, but do not apply any more than is necessary. Thick layers
reduce heat transmission. The thermal resistance Km-h varies between 0.14 and 0.05°C/W.
It is sometimes desirable to insulate the semiconductor from the heat sink using an insert.
Different types have different thermal resistance. The thermal resistance of a 0.05mm thick
mica insert is about 1°C/W, of an 0.4 to 0.06 mm thick mica insert, silver-plated on both
sides, about 0.5°C/W and of a 3mm thick aluminium insert with insulating aluminium
oxide, about 0.3°C/W. Inserts made of kapton, silicon erubber and beryllium oxide are also
available.
RESULT:

26
EXPERIMENT NO: 2

FAMILIARIZATION/APPLICATION OF TESTING INSTRUMENTS

(CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE, FUNCTION GENERATOR
AND MULTIMETER)
AIM
To familiarize with the working of cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO), Function generator, Power
supply, Multimeter etc .

COMPONENTS AND EQUIPMENT REQUIRED

Cathode ray oscilloscope, function generator and multimeter, Power supply etc.

THEORY
CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE
The cathode ray oscilloscope is an instrument which we use in laboratory to display measure
and analyze various waveforms of various electrical and electronic circuits. Actually cathode
ray oscilloscope is very fast X-Y plotters that can display an input signal versus time or other
signal. Cathode ray oscilloscope uses luminous spot which is produced by striking the beam of
electrons and this luminous spot moves in response variation in the input quantity. The general
forms of cathode ray oscilloscope operate on voltages. Nowadays, with the help of transducers
it is possible to convert various physical quantities like current, pressure, acceleration etc to
voltage thus it enable us to have a visual representations of these various quantities on cathode
ray oscilloscope.

Power on/off: Push button switch for supplying power to the instrument.

X5: Switch when pushed forward gives 5 times magnification of X signal.

XY: Switch when pressed cuts off the time base and allows access to the external horizontal
signal to be fed through channel-II (used for X-Y display).

CH-1/CH-II: Select and trigger CH-I and when pressed, selects and trigger CH-II.
Mono/Dual: Switch selects the dual operation.

27
Alt/CHOP/ADD: Switch selects alternate or chopped in Dual mode. If Mono is selected, then this
switch enables addition/subtraction of channel in CH-I and CH-II.

TIME/DIV: Switch selects time base speeds.

AT/NORM: Switch selects Auto/Normal position. Auto is used to get trace when no signal is fed
at the input. In Normal the trigger level can be varied from the positive peak to negative peak
with level control.

CAL/OUT: Socket provided for square wave output 200mV used for providing compensation and
checking vertical sensitivity.

TRIG/INP: Socket provided to feed external trigger signal in EXT mode.

LEVEL: Control the trigger level from peak to peak amplitude of signal.

Hold off: Controls hold off time between sweeps at normal position (full counter clockwise).

X-POS: Controls horizontal position of the trace.

EXT: Switch when pressed allows external triggering signal to be fed from the socket marked
TRIG-INP.

VAR: Controls the time speed in between two steps of TIME/DIV. Switch for calibration put this
fully anticlockwise.

LINE: Switch when pressed display signal gets synchronised with main/line frequency.

ALT: Selects alternate trigger mode from CH-I and CH-II.

+/-: Switch selects the slope of triggering, whether +ve going or -ve going.

INV CH-II: Switch when pressed invert the CH-I.

INTENS: Controls the brightness of the trace.

TR: Controls the alignment of the trace with graticule.

FOCUS: Controls the sharpness of the trace.

CT: Switch when pressed starts CT operators.

DC/AC/GD: Input for each channel. In AC the signal is coupled through 0.1 MFD capacitors.

28
CH-I (Y) and CH-II (X): BNC connectors serve as input connection for CH-I and CH-II input
connector also serves as horizontal external signal.

CT-IN: To test any component in the CT mode, put one test probe in this socket and connect the
other test probe in ground socket.

VOLTS/DIV: Switches select the sensitivity of each channel.

Y POS I & II: Controls provided for vertical deflection of trace for each channel.

Fig. 2.1 Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

FUNCTION GENERATOR
The function generator is a versatile signal source for most measurements and test
application. A function generator is usually a piece of electronic test equipment used to generate
different types of electrical waveforms over a wide range of frequencies. Some of the most
common waveforms produced by the function generator are the sine, square, triangular and saw
tooth shapes. These waveforms can be either repetitive or single-shot (which requires an
internal or external trigger source).

Fig. 2.2 Function Generator

29
 The control and sockets in front panel of a function generator are the following.
1. Power: push button switch for supplying power to instrument.
2. Digital display(instrument LED): digit frequency /amplitude meter,LED indicator for
KHz,Hz, mv and V
3. Frequency lamp:select display of frequency/amplitude
4. AMP(Adjusting knob):continuous adjustment of the output voltage from 0 to -20 d B when
terminated with 50 Ω
5. -20 d B ,+20 d B (push button):two fined attenuators,-20d B each.When both are
activated,total attenuation of -40d B results.Includes amplitude control the maximum
attenuation at 60 d B(factor 1000)
6. Output(BNC Connector):short circuit proof signal output of the generator.outputimpedence is
50 Ω.Switchselectable.Maximum output amplitude is 80Vpp(open circuit)or 15Vpp when
transmitted with 50 Ω
7. 50/600 Ω: push button .when pressed, selects 600 Ω else 50 Ω in released position
8. DC(ON) ,offset(adjusting knob):Adjustment of positive or negative offset voltage.This DC
can be superimposed on the o/p signal.The maximum offset voltage is ±12.5 V(Open circuit)
or ±
6.5 V respectively when terminated with 50 Ω. This voltage is also available in DC mode
9. Function C4 position push button: Mode selection DC, sine, triangle or square.
10. Over drive (LED‘s): when working in the offset mode and the output amplifier is over drives
either in positive or negative direction ,the corresponding LED light up.
11. FVAR (adjustable knob):continuous and linear frequency adjustment from 1Hz to 1 MHz in
steps, selected with frequency range.
12. VAK: When trigger output is selected, output can be set with VAK, to approx 15Vpp.
13. Frequency (T position button):frequency course adjustment from 1Hz to 1MHz in several steps.
14. TRIG output(BNC connector):this short circuit proof output supplies a square signal in
synchronous with the output signal. It has switch selectable TTL/CMOS and duty factor of
approx 50%.
15. TTL/CMOS: switch selects trigger output TTL to CMOS.
16. FMIN (BNC generator):applying a DC voltage to this input will vary the oscillator frequency
to max 1:100.The maximum allowable input voltage is 30 V.

30
17. AMPC(Adjustable knob ):Attenuation of input voltage for FM input. This permits the user to
change the sweep width.
MULTIMETER
Multimeter is a very popular device for measuring and it is an essential equipment to
repair or trouble shoots an electronic circuit. Multimeter as its name indicates is used to measure
various electrical quantities such as voltage current and resistance. Multimeter works in different
modes namely ammeter, voltmeter, and ohmmeter. This mode can be set using selector switch
provided in the multimeter. Some multimeter incorporates the additional facility to measure
inductance, capacitance, and resistance of transistors.
Both AC& DC voltages and currents can be measured using the multimeter. These are
available in two types . They are called analog and digital multimeters. Analog multimeter will
have needle moving along the calibrated scale. While the digital are different in the fact that
they provide a digital display of measured quantities. A digital multimeter is made from the
basic digital voltmeter for the measurement of current; voltage drop across precision resistance
is measured. Digital multimeter can be converted into an ohmmeter by using an accurate current
source. It measures the voltage drop across the resistance being measured.

Fig. 3.3 Multimeter

Measurements using digital multimeter (DMM)

DC and AC voltage measurements using DMM
 Insert the positive and negative test leads in proper places

31
 Set the range selector switch to DC/AC volt range and connect the test leads across the
voltage under measurement. If the voltage under measurement is unknown, set the e range
selector switch to highest range and walk down the lower range.

Note : If the display as in fig: it indicates over range.

Range selector switch must be set to higher range.
DC and AC current measurements using DMM
Connect the positive test lead to the COM terminal red test lead to the terminal marked for the
measurement of current up to 2A.For the measurement of current in the range from 2A to 20
A, connect the red test lead to 20A
Set the range selector switch to DC or AC current accordingly and connect the test lead series
with the load under measurement.
Note : If the current is unknown, set the range selector to the highest range and work down. If
the figure displayed over the range is being indicated and the range selector switch must be put
to higher range.
Resistance measuring using DMM
1) Insert positive and negative test leads in proper places.
2) Set the range selector switch to ‗2‘ range and connect the test leads across the resistance
under measurement.
Note: If figure is displayed over the range is being indicated set the range selector switch to
high range . Ensure that the power is removed from circuit under the test
Continuity instruments
After setting up of electronic circuits it is a good practice to verify the shorts and opens in a
circuit .For this, set the selector switch to position diode in some multimeters. If there is
continuity (short) between lead tips ,a beep sound will be produced.

POWER SUPPLY
A power supply is an electronic device that supplies electric energy to an electrical load.The
primary function of a power supply is to convert one form of electrical energy to another and, as
a result, power supplies are sometimes referred to as electric power converters. Some power
supplies are discrete, stand-alone devices, whereas others are built into larger devices along with
their loads. Every power supply must obtain the energy it supplies to its load, as well as any

32
 energy it consumes while performing that task, from an energy source. Depending on its design,
a power supply may obtain energy from various types of energy sources, including electrical
energy transmission systems, energy storage devices such as a batteries and fuel cells,

electromechanical systems such as generators and alternators, solar power converters, or another
power supply. All power supplies have a power input, which receives energy from the energy
source, and a power output that delivers energy to the load. Some power supplies have other
types of inputs and outputs as well, for functions such as external monitoring and control.

Fig. 3.4 Power supply

This is a high quality power supply with a continuously variable stabilized output adjustable
at any value between 0 and 30VDC. The circuit also incorporates an electronic output current
limiter that effectively controls the output current from a few milliamperes (2 mA) to the
maximum output of three amperes that the circuit can deliver. This feature makes this power
supply indispensable in the experimenter‘s laboratory as it is possible to limit the current to the
typical maximum that a circuit under test may require, and power it up then, without any fear
that it may be damaged if something goes wrong. There is also a visual indication that the
current limiter is in operation so that you can see at a glance that your circuit is exceeding or not
its preset limits.

Technical Specifications – Characteristics

Technical Specifications
1. Input Voltage: ……………. 24 VAC
2. Input Current: ……………. 3 A (max)
3. Output Voltage: …………. 0-30 V adjustable
4. Output Current: …………. 2 mA-3 A adjustale

33
5. Output Voltage Ripple: …. 0.01 % maximum
RESULT:
The working of cathode ray oscilloscope, function generator, multimeters was familiarized and
figures were drawn.

34
 EXPERIMENT NO: 3

FAMILIARIZATION/APPLICATION OF SOLDERING TOOLS

AIM
To familiarize with working and application of soldering iron, desoldering pump, pliers,
cutters,wire strippers, screw drivers, tweezers, crimping tool, hot air soldering desoldering
station etc.
COMPONENTS AND EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
Soldering iron, desoldering pump, pliers, cutters,wire strippers, screw drivers, tweezers,
crimping tool, hot air soldering desoldering station etc.
THEORY
1. Soldering Technique

Soldering is a process in which two or more metal items are joined together by melting and
flowing a filler metal (solder) into the joint, the filler metal having a lower melting point than
the adjoining metal. Soldering differs from welding in that soldering does not involve melting
the work pieces.

Required Tools

Before discussing soldering techniques, one should must set up a soldering work station. The
following is a list of tools for a typical soldering station.

1. Variable temperature soldering iron: used for applying heat to joints during the soldering
process.

2. Damp sponge: for cleaning soldering iron tip.

3. Rosin-core solder: to electrically and mechanically bond a component to the PCB.

4. Wire cutters or side cutter: for trimming component leads and stripping insulation from wires.

5. Needle nose pliers: for holding, placing and shaping components.

6. Desoldering pump and/or desoldering braid: for removing solder.

7. Ventilation: to extract and dispel fumes generated during the soldering process.

35
8. Flux: to clean components and PCB pads.

9. Acid brush: to assist in the removal of flux residue.

Good Solder Joint - Solder Fillet.

Fig.2.1 Joint Examples

SOLDERING IRON

A soldering iron is a hand tool used in soldering .It supplies heat to melt solder so that it can
flow into the joint between two workpieces. A soldering iron is composed of a heated metal tip
and an insulated handle. Heating is often achieved electrically, by passing an electric current
(supplied through an electrical cord or battery cables) through a resistive heating element.
Cordless irons can be heated by combustion of gas stored in a small tank, often using a catalytic
heater rather than a flame. Simple irons less commonly used than in the past were simply a large
copper bit on a handle, heated in a flame. Soldering irons are most often used for

36
Installation, repairs, and limited production work in electronics assembly. High-volume
production lines use other soldering methods.

Fig. 2.2 Soldering Iron

DESOLDERING PUMP:

In electronics, desoldering is the removal of solder and components from a circuit board
for troubleshooting, repair, replacement, and salvage. A desoldering pump is exactly what it
sounds like: a pump that sucks up solder. Usually the pump is spring-loaded and provides a
recoil when released.

37
 Fig. 2.3 Desoldering with a solder pump

HOT AIR SOLDERING STATION:

Fig. 2.4 Hot air Soldering Station

Features:
A) Soldering Iron
1) ESD safe, lead free iron with printed ceramic
heater 2)Microcontroller based smart circuit design.
3)Sleep function to save energy and conserve the bit.

B) Hot Air Gun:

1)High Capacity heater with temperature sensor for uniform and fast heating.
2)Blower on the handle with speed control makes it light weight, efficient and easy to use.
3)When placed in the cradle, the hot air gun heater switches off automatically and starts fan to
cool it.

38
WIRE STRIPPER

A wire stripper is a small, hand-held device used to strip the electrical insulation from electric
wires. A simple manual wire stripper is a pair of opposing blades much like scissors or wire
cutters. The addition of a center notch makes it easier to cut the insulation without cutting the
wire. This type of wire stripper is used by rotating it around the insulation while applying

pressure in order to make a cut around the insulation. Since the insulation is not bonded to the
wire, it then pulls easily off the end. This is the most versatile type of wire stripper.
Another type of manual wire stripper is very similar to the simple design previously mentioned,
except this type has several notches of varying size. This allows the user to match the notch size
to the wire size, thereby eliminating the need for twisting. Once the device is clamped on, the
remainder of the wire can simply be pulled out, leaving the insulation behind.

Fig. 2.5 A wire stripper

39
CUTTERS
Diagonal pliers (or wire cutters or diagonal cutting pliers or diagonal cutters) are pliers intended
for the cutting of wire (they are generally not used to grab or turn anything). The plane defined
by the cutting edges of the jaws intersects the joint rivet at an angle or "on a diagonal", hence
the name.
Instead of using a shearing action as with scissors, diagonal pliers cut by indenting and wedging
the wire apart. The jaw edges are ground to a symmetrical "V" shape, thus the two jaws can be
visualized to form the letter "X", as seen end-on when fully occluded. The pliers are made of
tempered steel, and inductive heating and quenching are often used to selectively harden the
jaws.

Fig. 2.6 Diagonal pliers with uninsulated handles.

SCREW DRIVERS
A screwdriver is a tool, manual or powered, for turning (driving or removing) screws. A typical
simple screwdriver has a handle and a shaft, and a tip that the user inserts into the screw head to
turn it. The shaft is usually made of tough steel to resist bending or twisting. The tip may be
hardened to resist wear, treated with a dark tip coating for improved visual contrast between tip
and screw—or ridged or treated for additional 'grip'. Handle are typically wood, metal, or
plastic and usually hexagonal, square, or oval in cross-section to improve grip and prevent the
tool from rolling when set down. Some manual screwdrivers have interchangeable tips that fit
into a socket on the end of the shaft and are held in mechanically or magnetically. These often
have a hollow handle that contains various types and sizes of tips, and a reversible ratchet
action that allows multiple full turns without repositioning the tip or the user's hand.A
screwdriver is classified by its tip, which is shaped to fit the driving surfaces—slots, grooves,
recesses, etc. on the corresponding screw head. Proper use requires that the screwdriver's tip

40
engage the head of a screw of the same size and type designation as the screwdriver tip.
Screwdriver tips are available in a wide variety of types and sizes

RESULT

41
EXPERIMENT NO: 4

TESTING OF ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS

AIM
Testing of electronic components [Resistor, Capacitor, Diode, Transistor, UJT and JFET
using multimeter.]

COMPONENTS AND EQUIPMENT REQUIRED

Equipments and Type Quantity

Components
Resistors 10 KΩ, 10 KΩ pot
1 each
Capacitors 0.1µf Disc Type, 0.01nf
Ceramic Type, 470µf 1 each
Electrolytic type, 1µf
Mica
type
Inductors 1 mH 1

Diodes 1N4007, OA 79, SZ5.6, 1 each

LED
Transistors BC 107, BFW10, 2N2646 1 each

TESTING A RESISTOR
Turn a circuit off before measuring resistance. If any voltage is present, the value of resistance
will be incorrect. In most cases you cannot measure a component while it is in-circuit. This is
because the meter is actually measuring a voltage across a component and calling it a
"resistance." The voltage comes from the battery inside the meter. If any other voltage is
present, the meter will produce a false reading. If you are measuring the resistance of a
component while still "in circuit," (with the power off) the reading will be lower than the true
reading.

42
 Fig 1:set up to test the resistor using DMM
MEASURING RESISTANCE

To check the value of a resistor, it should be removed from the circuit. Resistors VERY
RARELY change value, but if it is overheated or damaged, the resistance can increase.If the
resistor shows signs of blackening or charring, it may be damaged by excess current flow. A
resistor showing blackening or charring should be replaced and discarded. Read the resistor
value visually.
1. The resistor value will be printed on the resistor. Smaller resistors may have their value
indicated by color coded bands. Note the resistor tolerance. No resistor is precisely the value
indicated on it. The tolerance indicates how much the printed value may vary and still be
considered a properly sized resistor.
2. Set the adjustable scale of the DMM to the next setting higher than the expected resistor
value. For example, if the DMM may be set to scales that are multiples of 10 and a resistor
marked as 840 ohms is to be measured, set the DMM to the 1,000 ohm scale.
3. Measure the resistance. Connect the 2 leads of the DMM to the 2 legs of the resistor.
Resistors have no polarity, so it does not matter which DMM lead is connected to which resistor
leg.

43
4. Determine the actual resistance of the resistor. Read the result shown on the multimeter. In
determining whether or not the resistor is within the allowable range for that resistor, do not
forget to take the resistor tolerance into account.

TESTING POTENTIOMETERS (variable resistors)

To check the value of a variable resistor, it should be removed from circuit or at least 2 legs
should be removed. A Rheostat is a variable resistor using only one end and the middle
connected to a circuit. The resistance between the two outside pins is the value marked on the
component and the centre leg will change from nearly zero to the full resistance as the shaft is
rotated. Read the value of resistance same as that of fixed resistors using DMM.

TESTING A CAPACITOR

Capacitors are one of the most difficult things to test. That's because they don't give a reading
on a multimeter and their value can range from 1p to 100,000u.A faulty capacitor may be
"open" when measured with a multimeter, and a good capacitor will also be "open." You need a
piece of test equipment called a CAPACITANCE METER to measure the value of a capacitor.

a)By Digital Multimeter

1. Make sure the capacitor is discharged.

2. Set the meter on Ohm range (Set it at lease 1000Ohm = 1k).

3. Connect the Meter leads to the Capacitor terminals.

4. Digital meter will show some numbers for a second. Note the reading.

5. And then immediately it will return to the OL (Open Line). Every attempt of Step 2 will show
the same result as was in step 4 and Step 5. It‘s mean that Capacitor is in Good Condition.

6. If there is no Change, then Capacitor is dead.

b) By Multimeter in the capacitance setting

If multimeter has a Capacitance meter in it, the following method is good for tiny capacitors.

44
1. Make sure the capacitor is fully discharged.

2. Remove the capacitors from board or circuit.

3. Now Select ―Capacitance‖ on the multimeter.

4. Now connect the capacitor terminal to the multimeter leads.

5. If the reading is near to the actual value of the capacitor (i.e. the printed value on the
Capacitor container box).

6. Then the capacitor is in good condition. (Note that the reading may be less than the actual
value (the printed value ) of the capacitor .

7. If the reading a significantly lower capacitance or none at all, then capacitor is dead and
you should change it.

TESTING DIODES
A diode is best tested by measuring the voltage drop across the diode when it is forward-biased.
A forward-biased diode acts as a closed switch, permitting current to flow.A multimeter‘s
Diode Test mode produces a small voltage between test leads. The multimeter then displays the
voltage drop when the test leads are connected across a diode when forward-biased. The Diode
Test procedure is conducted as follows:
1. Make certain a) all power to the circuit is OFF and b) no voltage exists at the diode.
2. Turn the dial (rotary switch) to Diode Test mode .
3. Connect the test leads to the diode. Record the measurement displayed.
4. Reverse the test leads. Record the measurement displayed.

Fig 2:set up to test the diode using DMM

45
 Diode test analysis

 A good forward-based diode displays a voltage drop ranging from 0.5 to 0.8 volts for the most
commonly used silicon diodes. Some germanium diodes have a voltage drop ranging from
0.2 to 0.3 V.

 The multimeter displays OL when a good diode is reverse-biased. The OL reading indicates
the diode is functioning as an open switch.

 A bad (opened) diode does not allow current to flow in either direction. A multimeter will
display OL in both directions when the diode is opened.

TESTING OF A TRANSISTOR (BJT) WITH A MULTIMETER

Digital Multi Meter(DMM) can be used to get a basic pass/fail reading from a suspected faulty
NPN or PNP bipoloar transistor is a simple and quick task. Some multimeters have a built-in
transistor testing function ,if so simply insert the transistor into the socket on the multimeter and
set the meter to the hFE mode. It will probably show information such as the gain(hFE) that
could be checked against the datasheet as well as a pass/fail reading. If it does not have a
transistor testing function, transistors can easily be checked with the ―Diode‖ testing setting.
Remove the transistor from the circuit for accurate test results.

Step 1: (Base to Emitter)

Hook the positive lead from the multimeter to the to the BASE (B) of the transistor. Hook the
negative meter lead to the EMITTER (E) of the transistor. For a good NPN transistor, the meter
should show a voltage drop between 0.45V and 0.9V. If it is a PNP transistor, it should show
―OL‖ (Over Limit).
Step 2: (Base to Collector)
Keep the postitive lead on the BASE (B) and place the negative lead to the COLLECTOR (C).

For a good NPN transistor, the meter should show a voltage drop between 0.45V and 0.9V. If it
is a PNP transistor, it should show ―OL‖ (Over Limit).

Step 3: (Emitter to Base)

46
 Hook the positive lead from the multimeter to the to the EMITTER (E) of the transistor. Hook
the negative meter lead to the BASE (B) of the transistor.

For a good NPN transistor, it shows ―OL‖ (Over Limit).If it is a PNP transistor, the meter
should show a voltage drop between 0.45V and 0.9V.

Step 4: (Collector to Base)

Hook the positive lead from the multimeter to the COLLECTOR (C) of the transistor. Hook the
negative meter lead to the BASE (B) of the transistor. For a good NPN transistor, it shows ―OL‖
(Over Limit).If it is a PNP transistor, the meter should show a voltage drop between 0.45V and
0.9V.
Step 5: (Collector to Emitter)
Hook the postitive meter lead to the COLLECTOR (C) and the negative meter lead to the
EMITTER (E)– A good NPN or PNP transistor will read‖OL‖/Over Limit on the meter. Swap
the leads(Positive to Emitter and Negative to Collector) – Once again,a good NPN or PNP
transistor should read ―OL‖.
If the bipolar transistor measures contrary to these steps, consider it to be bad.
This test only verifies that the transistor is not shorted or open, it does not guarantee that the
transistor is operating within its designed parameters. It should only be used to help decide if
you need ―replace‖ or ―move on to the next component‖.

TESTING OF A TRANSISTOR (FET) WITH A MULTIMETER

Testing FET with diode mode

Step-1.

 Connect DMM positive test lead to GATE

 Connect DMM Negative test lead to DRAIN, Display reading shows 0.715v

 Connect DMM Negative test lead to SOURCE, displayreading shows 0.703v

Step-2.

 Connect DMM Negative test lead to GATE

47
 Connect DMM positive test lead to DRAIN OL DMM reading ( OL means Over Load).

 Connect DMM positive test lead to SOURCE OL

Step-3.

 DMM positive test lead to DRAIN

 DMM Negative test lead to SOURCE,display reading 0.090V

 DMM Negative test lead to DRAIN display reading ( OL MEANS OVER LOAD)

 DMM Positive test lead to SOURCE READING 0.090v or (090 mV)

Connect DMM Negative lead to Shield

 DMM Positive test lead to GATE open or open or ‗1‘

 DMM positive test lead to DRAIN OL DMM READING ( OL MEANS OVER LOAD)

 DMM positive test lead to SOURCE OL

If the DMM shows above reading the condition is GOOD. If the reading in forward bias as 0000
or OL or 1, and in reverse bias as 0000 (or) low values the FET transistor can be FAULTY and
needs replacement.
RESULT

48
EXPERIMENT NO: 5

INTER-CONNECTION METHODS AND SOLDERING PRACTICE

AIM

To practice interconnection methods and soldering practice.

MATERIALS AND TOOLS REQUIRED

Breadboard, wrapping tool, crimping tool, solder , flux, knife/blade, soldering iron, nose plier,
desoldering pump

THEORY :

BREADBOARD

In order to temporarily construct a circuit without damaging the components used to build it, we
must have some sort of a platform that will both hold the components in place and provide the
needed electrical connections. In the early days of electronics, most experimenters were amateur
radio operators. They constructed their radio circuits on wooden breadboards. Although more
sophisticated techniques and devices have been developed to make the assembly and testing of
electronic circuits easier, the concept of the breadboard still remains in assembling components
on a temporary platform.

Fig. 4.1: (a) A typical Breadboard and (b) its connection details

A real breadboard is shown in Fig. 4.1(a) and the connection details on its rear side are shown in
Fig. 4.1(b). The five holes in each individual column on either side of the central groove are
electrically connected to each other, but remain insulated from all other sets of holes. In addition
to the main columns of holes, however, you'll note four sets or groups of holes along the top and

49
bottom. Each of these consists of five separate sets of five holes each, for a total of 25 holes.
These groups of 25 holes are all connected together on either side of the dotted line indicated on

Fig.1 (a) and needs an external connection if one wishes the entire row to be connected. This
makes them ideal for distributing power to multiple ICs or other circuits. These breadboard
sockets are sturdy and rugged, and can take quite a bit of handling. However, there are a few
rules you need to observe, in order to extend the useful life of the electrical contacts and to
avoid damage to components. These rules are:
 Always make sure power is disconnected when constructing or modifying your experimental
circuit. It is possible to damage components or incur an electrical shock if you leave power
connected when making changes.
 Never use larger wire as jumpers. #24 wire (used for normal telephone wiring) is an excellent
choice for this application. Observe the same limitation with respect to the size of component
leads.
 Whenever possible, use ¼ watt resistors in your circuits. ½ watt resistors may be used when
necessary; resistors of higher power ratings should never be inserted directly into a breadboard
socket.
 Never force component leads into contact holes on the breadboard socket. Doing so can
damage the contact and make it useless.
 Do not insert stranded wire or soldered wire into the breadboard socket. If you must have
stranded wire (as with an inductor or transformer lead), solder (or use a wire nut to connect) the
stranded wire to a short length of solid hookup wire, and insert only the solid wire into the
breadboard. If you follow these basic rules, your breadboard will last indefinitely, and your
experimental components will last a long time.
Commercial electronic equipment is constructed on printed circuit boards by photo etching the
circuit layout onto a sheet of copper after which the components are soldered into place. For
testing simple circuits, a solder less breadboard is used to build a prototype circuit, thus saving
time and effort. A breadboard has a regular pattern of holes or sockets that are connected with
built –in conductor. Connecting wires or components are interconnected with these conductors
below once they are pushed in firmly into place. The interconnecting wires follow the patterns
as shown in figure 1 such that the two lines at either edge of the breadboard are interconnected
along the length, these sockets are used for power lines where as the main holes in the central

50
 part of the board are interconnected in the direction across the board and are used for circuit
component interconnection.

Construction Tips

 Build your circuits compactly.

 Avoid using long leads between components as they introduce stray capacitance and

can result in oscillations or high frequency pickup. Having said that, do not

build the circuits so compactly that you have trouble accessing test points and

manipulating the wires.

 For clarity, construct your circuits so that the input port is on the left side of the

board, circuitry in the middle, and the output port on the right side.

 Adhere to consistent colour coding to make your wiring clear, it is convenient to use

black for ground connections, red for power and any other colour for

interconnections

WRAPPING

Wire wrap is a method to construct electronic circuit boards. Electronic components mounted
on an insulating board are interconnected by lengths of insulated wire run between their
terminals, with the connections made by wrapping several turns around a component lead or
a socket pin. Wire wrap construction can produce assemblies which are more reliable than
printed circuits: connections are less prone to fail due to vibration or physical stresses on the
base board, and the lack of solder precludes soldering faults such as corrosion, cold joints and
dry joints. The connections themselves are firmer and have lower electrical resistance due
to cold welding of the wire to the terminal post at the corners.
Wire wrap was used for assembly of high frequency prototypes and small production runs,
including gigahertz microwave circuits and super computers. It is unique among automated
prototyping techniques in that wire lengths can be exactly controlled, and twisted pairs or
magnetically shielded twisted quads can be routed together.

51
 CRIMPING

A crimp connection is achieved with a type of solder-less electrical connector. Simple crimp
connectors are typically used to terminate stranded wire. Specialized crimp connectors are

also used, for example as signal connectors on coaxial cables in applications at high radio
frequencies (VHF,UHF).
 Close the handle so far as the terminal and barrel are not deformed. Insert the cable to the
conductor stopper, then close the handle until the ratchet is released.
 When reopening the handle, the crimped contact can easily be removed.

 If the handle is required to be opened during crimping, press the open knob.

Remove the excess from wire stripping and scrap metal from the cable stopper. This scrap
material may cause operation problems

Use of manual crimping tool

 Open the handle, then insert a contact into the crimper according to the detailed

diagram of the crimper.

SOLDERING

It is the process of joining two or more similar or dissimilar metals by melting another metal
having a low melting point.

52
 Fig. 4.1 Soldering unit

Soldering fluxes

In order to make the surfaces accept the solder readily, the component terminal should be free
from oxides and other obstructing films. Soldering flux cleans the oxides from the surface of
the metal. The leads should be cleaned chemically or by scraping using a blade or knife. Small
amount of lead should be coated on the cleaned portion of the leads and the bit of the soldering
iron. This process is called tinning. Zinc chloride, ammonium chloride and rosin are the most
commonly used fluxes. These are available in petroleum jelly as paste flux. The residues which
remain after the soldering may be washed out with more water accompanied by brushing.

Solder

Solder is used for joining two or more metal at temperature below their melting point. The
popularly used solders are the alloys of tin(60%) and lead(40%) that melts at 375 oF and
soldifies when it cools. Most of the solder wires are flux cored type. When such solder wires are

53
used, extra soldering flux is not required.

Soldering iron

It is the tool used to melt the solder and apply at the joints in the circuit. It operates in 230V
mains supply. The power rating of the soldering iron are 10W, 25W,3 5W, 65W, 125W etc. The
iron bit at the tip of it gets heated up within a few minutes.

Desoldering

It is the process of removal of older from a previously soldered joint. Desolder pump is used for
this. When the solder melts by the action of soldering iron, a trigger on the desolder pump
shoulf\d activate to create a vaccum. The vaccum pulls the solder into the tube.

RULES IN SOLDERING

1. Select the proper soldering iron for work.

2. Tin the bit before soldering

3. Keep the tinned bit always clean from oxide formed while soldering.

4. Do not overheat the PCB and devices

5. Do not use excess solder or flux

6. Clean the surfaces of the leads to be joined using a blade

PROCEDURE

1. Make a lay out of the connection of the components in the circuit. Plug in

the chord of the soldering iron to the main supply and get it heated.

2. Components leads using a blade or knife and bend them according to the needs.

Apply a little flux on the leads. Take a little solder on the soldering iron and apply the
molten

solder on the leads. Care must be taken to avoid the components getting heated up.

54
 3. Mount the components on the PCB, apply flux on the joint and solder the joints.
Soldering must be done in minimum time to avoid dry soldering and heating up of the
components.
4. Wash the residues using water and brush.

5. Practice desoldering a soldered circuit using soldering iron and desoldering pump.

RESULT

Familiarized the various interconnection methods and studied the procedure and instructions
to solder a simple circuit on PCB.

55
EXPERIMENT NO: 6

PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD

AIM

To study the basics of Printed Circuit Board and its fabrication methods.

INTRODUCTION TO PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD

Printed circuit boards are electronic circuits boards created for mounting electronic components
on a nonconductive board, and for creating conductive connections between them. A printed
circuit board, is used to mechanically support and electrically connect electronic components
using conductiv e pathways, tracks or traces etched from copper sheets laminated onto a non-
conductive substrate. Printed circuit boards are electronic circuits boards created for mounting
electronic components on a nonconductive board, and for creating conductive connections
between them. The creation of circuit patterns is accomplished using both additive and
subtractive methods. The conductive circuit is generally copper, although aluminum, nickel,
chrome, and other metals are sometimes used. It is also referred to as printed wiring board
(PWB) or etched wiring board. A PCB populated with electronic components is a printed
circuit assembly (PCA), also known as a printed circuit board assembly (PCBA). Printed circuit
boards have copper tracks connecting the holes where the components are placed. They are
designed specially for each circuit and make construction very easy.

Types of PCB

PCB‘s are mainly classified into 3 types –

i) Single Sided PCB ii) Double Sided PCB and iii) Multilayer PCB

1) Single sided PCB

In this type of PCB, the conductor patterns are only on one side of the board. The components
are mounted on the other side.

2) Double Sided PCB

In this type of PCB, the conductor patterns are on both sides of the base material. The
components are mounted only on one side of the board. They can be made with or without PTH.

56
 The production cost of boards without PTH is considerably lower because platting can be

avoided. Here contacts are Made from one side of the board to the other side by soldering the

components leads on both sides of the board.

3) Multilayer PCB

Conductors on 3 or more layers separated by dielectric material and the layers are
interconnected by PTH or pads 4 layer PCB is a sandwich of 2 double layered PCBs. Likewise
6 layer PCB is a sandwich of 3 double layered PCB. This sandwiching is done by placing
oxidizing material between double layered PCBs. The spatial and density requirement and the
circuitry complexity determine the type of board to be produced.

Process involved in PCB fabrication

Following are the steps involved in fabrication of PCB.

1.Preparation of the layout of the track

57
2.Transferring the layout of the track

3.Etching to remove the copper from the copper clad wherever it is not required.

4.Drilling holes for component mounting.

Preparing Layout

The track layout of the electronic circuit must be drawn on a white paper. The layout should be
made in such a way that the paths are in easy routes. This enables the PCB to be more compact
and economical.

Transferring the layout to copper

The layout made on the white paper should be redrawn on the copper clad using paint or nail
polish or permanent marker pen.

Etching

Ferric chloride solution is the popularly used etching solution. The ferric chloride powder is
made into a solution using water and kept in a plastic tray. Marked copper clad is immersed in
this solution for two hours. Due to the reaction, the solution will become weak and it is not
recommended for another etching process. The copper in the unmarked area will be etched out.
Take out the etched sheet from the tray and dry it in sunlight for an hour. Later remove the paint
or nail varnish using turpentine.

Drilling

The holes are made by a drilling machine for the component insertion.

58
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Fig 6.1 Circuit diagram of centre tapped Rectifier

PCB LAYOUT FOR THE ABOVE CIRCUIT

Fig 6.2 PCB layout of centre tapped Rectifier

59
PCB Design Rules

Layout Design

Layout design is the first step of the PCB design and it is a rough design of the artwork which

contains proper information for PCB. For the preparation of layout, designer should have the

following information

1. Physical size of each component

2. Pin configuration details of components

3. Design rule for particular application

4. Preferable size of PCB

5. Termination of connection

Layout scale

Depending on the accuracy required, layout should be produced at 1:1, 2:1 or 4:1 scale. 2:1
scale is commonly used.

Layout procedure

1.Prepare component layout

2.Layout should be prepared in the direction of signal flow as far as possible

3.Among the components, larger ones are placed first and the place in between this is filled
with smaller ones.

4.Components that require input output connections are placed near the PCB edge

5.All components are placed in such a manner that desoldering of other components is not
necessary if they have to be replaced.

6.The circuit can be subdivided into functional subunits and each subunit is realized on a
definite position of the board.

7.While preparing the layout it is a common practice to draw conductor lines only on graph
sheet.

8.Spacing between the components must be uniform.

60
9.Components producing considerable heat have to be identified so as to avoid concentrated
heat on the board.

Component list

A separate list giving all the desired information about the components is needed with the
circuit diagram for layout preparation. A component list may include the following details –
component code, exact specification, supplies of the component, price, matching requirements
and echanical dimensions.

RESULT

Studied PCB designing and fabrication.

61