The Cell Cycle & Mitosis

Cell Division, Mitosis, and Meiosis
Leo Olivar Icutan Jr.
1 Biology Lecture by Leo Olivar Icutan Jr.

A Review
on Cell
Parts
Biology Lecture
by Leo Olivar
2 Icutan Jr.
Center of Heredity in Cells

Cell Division Functions in
Reproduction, Growth, and Repair
 Cell division involves the distribution of identical genetic

material, DNA, to two daughters cells. What is most
remarkable is the fidelity with which the DNA is passed
along, without dilution or error, from one generation to the
next.

Core Concepts
 All Organisms Consist of Cells and Arise from
Preexisting Cells
 Mitosis is the process by which new cells are generated.
 Meiosis is the process by which gametes are generated for
reproduction.

Core Concepts
 The Cell Cycle Represents All Phases in the Life
of a Cell
 DNA replication (S phase) must precede mitosis, so that all
daughter cells receive the same complement of chromosomes as
the parent cell.
 The gap phases separate mitosis from S phase. This is the time
when molecular signals mediate the switch in cellular activity.
 Mitosis involves the separation of copied chromosomes into
separate cells

Core Concepts
 Unregulated Cell Division Can Lead to Cancer

 Cell-cycle checkpoints normally ensure that DNA replication
and mitosis occur only when conditions are favorable and the
process is working correctly.
 Mutations in genes that encode cell-cycle proteins can lead to
unregulated growth, resulting in tumor formation and
ultimately invasion of cancerous cells to other organs.

In order to better understand the concept of cell
division and genetics, some basic definitions are
in order:
 gene - basic unit of heredity; codes for a specific trait

 locus - the specific location of a gene on a chromosome (locus
- plural loci)
 genome - the total hereditary endowment of DNA of a cell or
organism
 somatic cell - all body cells except reproductive cells
 gamete - reproductive cells (i.e. sperm & eggs)
 chromosome - elongate cellular structure composed of DNA
and protein - they are the vehicles which carry DNA in cells
In order to better understand the concept
of cell division and genetics, some basic
definitions are in order:
 diploid (2n) - cellular condition where each chromosome type
is represented by two homologous chromosomes
 haploid (n) - cellular condition where each chromosome type is
represented by only one chromosome
 homologous chromosome - chromosome of the same size and
shape which carry the same type of genes
 chromatid - one of two duplicated chromosomes connected at
the centromere
 centromere - region of chromosome where microtubules attach
during mitosis and meiosis
Biology Lecture by Leo Olivar Icutan Jr.
9
DNA Basics

What is DNA and
where is it stored?
 Nucleus: contains genetic information
in the form of chromatin
 Chromatin: highly folded ribbon-like
complexes of DNA and histones (a class
of proteins)
 very highly folded when a cell divides
(chromosomes).
 more extended during interphase
(between divisions), a form used for
expression genetic information.

DNA or deoxyribonucleic acid
 a large molecule structured

from chains of repeating units
of the sugar deoxyribose and
phosphate linked to four
different bases abbreviated A, T,
G, and C.
 contains the information for
specifying the proteins that
allow life.
 The process of mitosis is
designed to insure that exact
copies of the DNA in
chromosomes are passed on to
daughter cells.
Chromosome structure
 composed of DNA and protein (histones) all tightly wrapped

up in one package
 duplicated chromosomes are connected by a centromere
14 Biology Lecture by Leo Olivar Icutan Jr. Centromere Locations
Human Chromosomes at Metaphase

Chromosome Structure
Example - an organism is 2n = 4.
 Chromosomes 1 & 2 are

homologous chromosomes
 Chromosomes 1 & 3 came from
the mother
the father
Typical Animal Life Cycle

The Cell Cycle

The Cell Cycle
 The cell cycle consists of four distinct phases: G1 phase, S
phase (synthesis), G2 phase (collectively known as interphase) and M
phase (mitosis).
 M phase is itself composed of two tightly coupled processes:
 mitosis, in which the cell's chromosomes are divided between the two
daughter cells, and
 cytokinesis, in which the cell's cytoplasm divides in half forming distinct
cells.
 Activation of each phase is dependent on the proper progression and
completion of the previous one.
 Cells that have temporarily or reversibly stopped dividing are said to
have entered a state of quiescence called G0 phase.

The Cell Cycle
 The cell cycle consists of four distinct
phases:
 G1 phase,
 S phase (synthesis),
 G2 phase (collectively known
as interphase) and
 M phase (mitosis)
 Cells that have temporarily or

reversibly stopped dividing are said to
have entered a state
of quiescence called G0 phase.
The Cell Cycle
 M phase is itself composed of
two tightly coupled processes:
 mitosis, in which the
cell's chromosomes are divided
between the two daughter cells,
and
 cytokinesis, in which the
cell's cytoplasm divides in half
forming distinct cells.
 Activation of each phase is
dependent on the proper
progression and completion of
the previous one.
State Phase Abbreviation Description
quiescent/ A resting phase where the cell has left the cycle and has
Gap 0 G0
senescent stopped dividing.
Cells increase in size in Gap 1. The G1 checkpoint control

Gap 1 G1 mechanism ensures that everything is ready
for DNA synthesis.
Synthesis S DNA replication occurs during this phase.

Interphase
During the gap between DNA synthesis and mitosis, the
cell will continue to grow. TheG2 checkpoint control
Gap 2 G2
mechanism ensures that everything is ready to enter the
M (mitosis) phase and divide.
Cell growth stops at this stage and cellular energy is
focused on the orderly division into two daughter cells.
Cell division Mitosis M A checkpoint in the middle of mitosis (Metaphase
Checkpoint) ensures that the cell is ready to complete cell
Biology Lecture by Leo Olivar Icutan Jr. division.
22
Phases
Resting (G0 phase)
 The term "post-mitotic" is sometimes used to refer to
both quiescent and senescent cells.
 Non-proliferative cells in multicellular eukaryotes generally
enter the quiescent G0 state from G1and may remain
quiescent for long periods of time, possibly indefinitely (as is
often the case for neurons).
 This is very common for cells that are fully differentiated.
 Cellular senescence is a state that occurs in response to DNA
damage or degradation that would make a cell's progeny
nonviable; it is often a biochemical alternative to the self-
destruction of such a damaged cell by apoptosis.
Representative Cell with 4 Chromosomes

the mother
the father
Interphase
 Before a cell can enter cell division, it needs to take in
nutrients.
 All of the preparations are done during the interphase.
 Interphase proceeds in three stages, G1, S, and G2.
 Cell division operates in a cycle.
 Therefore, interphase is preceded by the previous cycle of
mitosis and cytokinesis.
 Interphase is also known as preparatory phase.

G1 phase
 The first phase within interphase, from the end of the previous M
phase until the beginning of DNA synthesis is called G1 (G
indicating gap).
 It is also called the growth phase.
 During this phase the biosynthetic activities of the cell, which had
been considerably slowed down during M phase, resume at a high
rate.
 This phase is marked by synthesis of various enzymes that are
required in S phase, mainly those needed for DNA replication.
 Duration of G1 is highly variable, even among different cells of
the same species.

S phase
 The ensuing S phase starts when DNA synthesis commences
 Rates of RNA transcription and protein synthesis are very
low during this phase.
 An exception to this is histone production (for DNA
Compaction), most of which occurs during the S phase.

G2 phase
 lasts until the cell enters mitosis.
 significant biosynthesis occurs during this phase, mainly
involving the production of microtubules, which are required
during the process of mitosis.
 Inhibition of protein synthesis during G2 phase prevents the
cell from undergoing mitosis.

Mitosis
 is the process by which a eukaryotic cell separates
the chromosomes in its cell nucleus into two identical sets in two
nuclei.
 It is generally followed immediately by cytokinesis, which divides
the nuclei, cytoplasm, organelles and cell membrane into two cells
containing roughly equal shares of these cellular components.
 Mitosis and cytokinesis together define the mitotic (M)
phase of the cell cycle—the division of the mother cell into two
daughter cells, genetically identical to each other and to their
parent cell.
 This accounts for approximately 10% of the cell cycle.

Mitosis
 Mitosis is nuclear division plus cytokinesis, and produces two
identical daughter cells during prophase, prometaphase,
metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
 Interphase is often included in discussions of mitosis, but
interphase is technically not part of mitosis, but rather
encompasses stages G1, S, and G2 of the cell cycle.

Prophase - the first stage of
mitosis.
 The chromosomes condense and
become visible
 The centrioles form and move
toward opposite ends of the cell ("the
poles")
 The nuclear membrane dissolves
 The mitotic spindle forms (from the
centrioles in animal cells)
 Spindle fibers from each centriole
attach to each sister chromatid at the
kinetochore
Metaphase
 The Centrioles complete their
migration to the poles
 The chromosomes line up in the
middle of the cell ("the equator")

Anaphase
 Spindles attached to kinetochores

begin to shorten.
 This exerts a force on the sister
chromatids that pulls them apart.
 Spindle fibers continue to shorten,
pulling chromatids to opposite poles.
 This ensures that each daughter cell
gets identical sets of chromosomes

Telophase
 The chromosomes
decondense
 The nuclear
envelope forms
 Cytokinesis reaches
completion,
creating two
daughter cells

Significance

 Mitosis is important for the maintenance of the chromosomal set; each
cell formed receives chromosomes that are alike in composition and
equal in number to the chromosomes of the parent cell.
 Following are the occasions in the lives of organism where mitosis

happens:
 Development and growth: The number of cells within an

organism increase by mitosis. This is the basis of the development of
a multicellular body from a single cell i.e., zygote and also the basis
of the growth of a multicellular body.
 Regeneration: Some organisms can regenerate their parts of

bodies. The production of new cells is achieved by mitosis. For
example; sea star regenerates its lost arm through mitosis.
 Cell Replacement: In some parts of body, e.g. skin and digestive
tract, cells are constantly sloughed off and replaced by new ones.
New cells are formed by mitosis and so are exact copies of the cells
being replaced. Similarly, RBCs have short life span (only about 4
months) and new RBCs are formed by mitosis.
 Asexual Reproduction: Some organisms produce genetically

similar offspring through asexual reproduction. For example; hydra
reproduces asexually by budding. The cells at the surface of hydra
undergo mitosis and form a mass called bud. Mitosis continues in
the cells of bud and it grows into a new individual. The same
division happens during asexual reproduction or vegetative
propagation in plants.

Regulation
of the
Cell Cycle
Regulation of the Cell Cycle
 The cell cycle is controlled by a cyclically operating set

of reaction sequences that both trigger and coordinate
key events in the cell cycle
 The cell-cycle control system is driven by a built-in

clock that can be adjusted by external stimuli (chemical
messages)

 Checkpoint - a critical
control point in the cell cycle
where stop and go-ahead
signals can regulate the cell
cycle
 Animal cells have built-in

stop signals that halt the cell
cycles and checkpoints until
overridden by go-ahead
signals.
 Three Major checkpoints are
found in the G1, G2, and M
phases of the cell cycle
 The G1 checkpoint - the Restriction Point
 The G1 checkpoint ensures that:

 the cell is large enough to divide, and that
 enough nutrients are available to support the resulting daughter
cells.
 If a cell receives a go-ahead signal at the G1 checkpoint, it will
usually continue with the cell cycle
 If the cell does not receive the go-ahead signal, it will exit the cell
cycle and switch to a non-dividing state called G0
 Actually, most cells in the human body are in the G0 phase

 The G2 checkpoint
ensures that
 DNA replication in S phase
has been completed
successfully.
 The metaphase checkpoint

ensures that:
 all of the chromosomes are
attached to the mitotic
spindle by a kinetochore.

Terms are some of the features that
are important in regulation
 Cdk (cyclin dependent
kinase, adds phosphate to a
protein), along with cyclins,
are major control switches
for the cell cycle, causing
the cell to move from G1 to
S or G2 to M.

Terms are some of the features that are
important in regulation
 Kinases give the go-ahead signals at the G1 and G2 checkpoints
 Activated by cyclins
 Classes of cyclins (each defined by the stage of the cell cycle at

which they bind Cdks and function).
1.G1/S-cyclins: bind Cdks at the end of G1 and commit the cell to
DNA replication.
2.S-cyclins: bind Cdks during S phase and are required for the
initiation of DNA replication.
3.M-cyclins: promote the events of mitosis.

MPF (Maturation Promoting
Factor)
 aggregates of Cdk and cyclin
which triggers progression
through the cell cycle.
 initiate mitosis
 switches itself off by
initiating a process which
leads to the destruction of
cyclin in the later part of
mitosis (see figure)
PDGF - Platelet-Derived Growth Factors - An Example
of an External Signal for Cell Division
 released by platelets when injury occurs

 required for the division of fibroblasts which are essential in
wound healing
 Fibroblasts: connective tissue cells which possess PDGF
receptors on their plasma membranes
 binding of PDGF activates a signal-transduction pathway that
leads to a proliferation of fibroblasts and a healing of the
wound
Density Dependent Inhibition
 Cells grown in culture will rapidly divide until a single layer of

cells is spread over the area of the petri dish, after which they
will stop dividing
 If cells are removed, those bordering the open space will begin
dividing again and continue to do so until the gap is filled - this
is known as contact inhibition
 Apparently, when a cell population reaches a certain density, the
amount of required growth factors and nutrients available to
each cell becomes insufficient to allow continued cell growth
 p53 is a protein that functions to block the cell cycle if the
DNA is damaged. If the damage is severe this protein can
cause apoptosis (cell death).
 p53 levels are increased in damaged cells. This allows time to

repair DNA by blocking the cell cycle.
 A p53 mutation is the most frequent mutation leading to cancer.
An extreme case of this is Li Fraumeni syndrome, where a
genetic defect in p53 leads to a high frequency of cancer in
affected individuals.

 p27: a protein that binds to cyclin and cdk blocking entry

into S phase
 Recent research (Nature Medicine 3, 152 (1997)) suggests that
breast cancer prognosis is determined by p27 levels.
 Reduced levels of p27 predict a poor outcome for breast cancer
patients (progression of the disease)

Cells Which No Longer Respond to Cell-
Cycle Controls - Cancer Cells
 Cancer cells do not

respond normally to the
body's control mechanism.
 They divide excessively and
invade other tissues
 If left unchecked, they can kill
the organism

 Cancer cells do not exhibit
contact inhibition
 If cultured, they continue to
grow on top of each other when
the total area of the petri dish
has been covered
 They may produce required
external growth factor (or
override factors) themselves or
possess abnormal signal
transduction sequences which
falsely convey growth signals
thereby bypassing normal
growth checks
 Cancer cells exhibit irregular growth sequences

 If growth of cancer cells does cease, it does so at random points of
the cell cycle
 Cancer cells can go on dividing indefinitely if they are given a
continual supply of nutrients
 Normal mammalian cells growing in culture only divide 20-50
times before they stop dividing

The characteristics of How cancer cells are different
normal cells  Cancer cells are different to
 Normal body cells have a normal cells in several ways.
number of important  They don't die if they move to
characteristics. They can another part of the body and
 Reproduce themselves exactly
 Cancer cells don't stop
 Stop reproducing at the right reproducing
time
 Cancer cells don't obey signals
 Stick together in the right place from other cells
 Self destruct if they are
 Cancer cells don't stick together
damaged
 Cancer cells don't specialize, but
 Become specialized or 'mature'
stay immature

Consequences of Errors
 Errors in the control of mitosis may cause cancer.
 All cells have genes that control the timing and number of
mitosis. Sometimes mutations occur in such genes and cells
continue to divide. It results in abnormal cell growth.
 Now what happens is that cell abnormally continue to divide at a
single place. It results in the synthesis of excessive tissue
growths.
 When tissues more than the requirement are synthesized in a
single organ, it results in the formation of tumors.
 As long as these tumors remain in their original location they
are called benign tumors.
 As soon as they start to move and invade other cells the are said
to be malignant tumors (cancerous tumors)
MEIOSIS

Meiosis
 is a special type of cell division necessary for sexual
reproduction.
 In animals, meiosis produces gametes like sperm and egg cells,
while in other organisms like fungi it generates spores.
 Meiosis begins with one diploid cell containing two copies of
each chromosome—one from the organism's mother and
one from its father—and produces four haploid cells
containing one copy of each chromosome (haploid)
 Reduces the number of chromosomes in the nucleus by half

Meiosis

Meiosis
 Each of the resulting chromosomes in the gamete cells is a unique
mixture of maternal and paternal DNA, ensuring that offspring
are genetically distinct from either parent.
 This gives rise to genetic diversity in sexually reproducing
populations, which enables them to adapt during the course
of evolution.

Representative Cell with 4 Chromosomes

the mother
the father
Meiosis
 Meiosis comprises two successive nuclear divisions with only one
round of DNA replication.
 Four stages can be described for each nuclear division.
 Interphase: Before meiosis begins, genetic material is

duplicated.

Meiosis
 First division of meiosis (separation of homologues)
 Prophase 1: Duplicated chromatin condenses. Each chromosome

consists of two, closely associated sister chromatids. Crossing-over
can occur during the latter part of this stage.
 Metaphase 1: Homologous chromosomes align at the equatorial
plate.
 Anaphase 1: Homologous pairs separate with sister chromatids
remaining together.
 Telophase 1: Two daughter cells are formed with each daughter
containing only one chromosome of the homologous pair.

Meiosis
 Second division of meiosis: (separation of chromatids)
 Prophase 2: DNA does not replicate.

 Metaphase 2: Chromosomes align at the equatorial plate.
 Anaphase 2: Centromeres divide and sister chromatids migrate
separately to each pole.
 Telophase 2: Cell division is complete. Four haploid daughter
cells are obtained.

Meiosis
 One parent cell produces four daughter cells.
 Daughter cells have half the number of chromosomes found in the
original parent cell and with crossing over, are genetically different.
 Meiosis differs from mitosis primarily because there are two cell
divisions in meiosis, resulting in cells with a haploid number of
chromosomes.

Meiosis I
(separates homologous chromosomes
into two daughter nuclei)

Most of the significant processes
Prophase I of Meiosis occur during
Prophase I
 The chromosomes condense and become
visible
 The centrioles form and move toward the
poles
 The nuclear membrane begins to dissolve
 The homologues pair up, forming a tetrad
 Each tetrad is comprised of four
chromatids - the two homologues, each
with their sister chromatid
Homologous chromosomes will swap genetic material in a process known
as crossing over (abbreviated as XO: one form of genetic
recombination). Crossing over serves to increase genetic diversity by
creating
66
four
Biology unique
Lecture chromatids
by Leo Olivar Icutan Jr.
Genetic material from the homologous chromosomes is randomly swapped. This creates four
unique chromatids. Since each chromatid is unique, the overall genetic diversity of the gametes is
67 greatlyBiology Lecture by Leo Olivar Icutan Jr.
increased
Metaphase I
 Microtubules grow from the
centrioles and attach to the
centromeres
 The tetrads line up along the cell
equator
 Chiasmata: locations where non-
sister chromatids cross and connect
with each other, helping to hold
homologues together during their
migration to equatorial plate (see
figure in propahse)
Anaphase I
 The homologous
chromosomes separate (note
that the sister chromatids are
still attached) from one another
and are towed by their
kinetochores to opposite poles of
the cell
 The cluster of chromosomes at
each pole contains one member of
each pair of homologous
chromosomes

Telophase I
 Spindle fibers disappear
 Cytokinesis takes place and
divides the cell into two
daughter cells.
 Each two daughter cell has
only one of each type of
chromosome
 Each chromosome, however,
is a duplicated chromosome
with two sister chromatids.

Meiosis II
(separates sister chromatids
into four daughter nuclei)

MEIOSIS II
 Meiosis II usually begins immediately after Meiosis I ends.

 There is no intervening interphase
 The chromosomes are not replicated again
 The chromosomes remain condensed between Meiosis I and
Meiosis II
 Similar with Mitosis in the sense that the sister chromatids of
each duplicated chromosomes separate and are encapsulated
in the nuclei of new daughter cells.

Prophase II
 Spindle fibers reform from

centrioles that move toward the
poles
 The duplicated chromosomes attach
individually to spindle microtubules
via their kinetochores

Metaphase II
 The sister chromatids line up

along the cell equator

Anaphase II
 The centromeres break

and sister
chromatids separate and
start to move towards the
opposite poles
 Cytokinesis begins

Telophase II
 Cytokinesis reaches
completion,
 Nuclear envelope
reform
 The chromosomes
relax into their
extended or non-
condensed state
 End result: four
haploid daughter cells
Question
 How do Meiosis and Sexual Reproduction
Produce Genetic Variability?

Answer
1. Shuffling of Chromosomes Creates Novel Combinations of
Chromosomes
2. Crossing Over Creates Chromosomes with Novel
Combinations of Genetic Material
3. Fusion of Gametes Creates Genetically Variable Offspring

The Consequences of Meiotic Mistakes
 Nondisjunctions occur when homologous chromosomes fail to
separate at meiosis I or when chromatids fail to separate at
meiosis II.
 Fertilization can result in embryos that are 2n + 1 (a "trisomy")
or 2n – 1.
 Abnormal copy numbers of one or more chromosomes is usually,
but not always, fatal (Example: Down syndrome)
 Polyploidy can occur when whole sets of chromosomes fail to
separate at meiosis I or II.
 The resulting 2n gametes, if fertilized by normal sperm, create 3n
zygotes (triploid).
 Organisms with an odd number of chromosome sets cannot
produce viable gametes (Example: seedless fruits).
Source: http://www.uic.edu/classes/bios/bios100/f05pm/lect13.htm
A Comparison between
Mitosis and Meiosis

81
Biology Lecture by Leo Olivar Icutan Jr.
Some questions to ponder
 How does the number of daughter cells produced from mitosis
and meiosis differ?
 How does the ploidy (number of chromosome sets) of the
daughter cells produced from mitosis and meiosis differ?
 Do the daughter cells produced from mitosis contain identical
genetic complements?
 Do any of the daughter cells produced from meiosis contain
identical genetic complements?
 When do the homologous chromosomes separate during
mitosis?
 When do the homologous chromosomes separate during
meiosis?
 When do sister chromatids separate during mitosis?
 When do sister chromatids separate during meiosis?
Activity #1
 Divide the class into two groups

 Using plastic wires and other materials, illustrate the
processes of mitosis and meiosis in the cell of an organism
with a diploid number of 6 chromosomes (2n=3).
 Place labels on each process of mitosis/meiosis involved.
 After constructing the model, present the processes in the
class.

CIAO!

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Cell Division, Mitosis, and Meiosis

Leo Olivar Icutan Jr.

1 Biology Lecture by Leo Olivar Icutan Jr.

3 Biology Lecture by Leo Olivar Icutan Jr.

 Cell division involves the distribution of identical genetic

4 Biology Lecture by Leo Olivar Icutan Jr.

5 Biology Lecture by Leo Olivar Icutan Jr.

6 Biology Lecture by Leo Olivar Icutan Jr.

 Unregulated Cell Division Can Lead to Cancer

7 Biology Lecture by Leo Olivar Icutan Jr.

 gene - basic unit of heredity; codes for a specific trait

10 Biology Lecture by Leo Olivar Icutan Jr.

11 Biology Lecture by Leo Olivar Icutan Jr.

 a large molecule structured

 composed of DNA and protein (histones) all tightly wrapped

15 Biology Lecture by Leo Olivar Icutan Jr.

 Chromosomes 1 & 2 are

17 Biology Lecture by Leo Olivar Icutan Jr.

18 Biology Lecture by Leo Olivar Icutan Jr.

19 Biology Lecture by Leo Olivar Icutan Jr.

 Cells that have temporarily or

Cells increase in size in Gap 1. The G1 checkpoint control

Synthesis S DNA replication occurs during this phase.

 Chromosomes 1 & 2 are

26 Biology Lecture by Leo Olivar Icutan Jr.

27 Biology Lecture by Leo Olivar Icutan Jr.

28 Biology Lecture by Leo Olivar Icutan Jr.

29 Biology Lecture by Leo Olivar Icutan Jr.

30 Biology Lecture by Leo Olivar Icutan Jr.

31 Biology Lecture by Leo Olivar Icutan Jr.

33 Biology Lecture by Leo Olivar Icutan Jr.

 Spindles attached to kinetochores

34 Biology Lecture by Leo Olivar Icutan Jr.

35 Biology Lecture by Leo Olivar Icutan Jr.

36 Biology Lecture by Leo Olivar Icutan Jr.

 Following are the occasions in the lives of organism where mitosis

 Development and growth: The number of cells within an

 Regeneration: Some organisms can regenerate their parts of

 Asexual Reproduction: Some organisms produce genetically

38 Biology Lecture by Leo Olivar Icutan Jr.

 The cell cycle is controlled by a cyclically operating set

 The cell-cycle control system is driven by a built-in

40 Biology Lecture by Leo Olivar Icutan Jr.

 Animal cells have built-in

 The G1 checkpoint ensures that:

42 Biology Lecture by Leo Olivar Icutan Jr.

 The metaphase checkpoint

43 Biology Lecture by Leo Olivar Icutan Jr.

44 Biology Lecture by Leo Olivar Icutan Jr.

 Classes of cyclins (each defined by the stage of the cell cycle at

45 Biology Lecture by Leo Olivar Icutan Jr.

 released by platelets when injury occurs

 Cells grown in culture will rapidly divide until a single layer of

 p53 levels are increased in damaged cells. This allows time to

49 Biology Lecture by Leo Olivar Icutan Jr.

 p27: a protein that binds to cyclin and cdk blocking entry

50 Biology Lecture by Leo Olivar Icutan Jr.

 Cancer cells do not

51 Biology Lecture by Leo Olivar Icutan Jr.

 Cancer cells exhibit irregular growth sequences

53 Biology Lecture by Leo Olivar Icutan Jr.

54 Biology Lecture by Leo Olivar Icutan Jr.

56 Biology Lecture by Leo Olivar Icutan Jr.

The Cell Cycle & Mitosis

The Cell Cycle & Mitosis