Subject : Theories of Personality

Focus : PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORIES

By : Benny S. Soliman, RGC.,LPT.,RPm.

Learning Objectives
At the end of the lecture, the participants are expected to recognize the fundamental
concepts of the major theories under the psychodynamic approach which includes the
following:

a. Sigmund Freud’s Psychoanalysis

b. Alfred Adler’s Individual Psychology
c. Carl Jung’s Analytical Psychology
d. Erik Erikson’s Ego Psychology/ Post-Freudian Theory
e. Karen Horney’s Psychoanalytic Social Theory
f. Harry Stack Sullivan’s Interpersonal Theory
g. Erich Fromm’s Humanistic Psychoanalysis

PART I. SIGMUND FREUD’S PYCHOANALYSIS

I. OVERVIEW OF PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY

Psychoanalysis is considered as the most interesting, controversial and famous of all
personality theories. This is because Freud believed that people are motivated primarily by
drives of which they have little or no awareness. These drives include SEX and AGGRESSION
which are considered as the twin cornerstones of psychoanalysis.
Freud believed that all human behaviors have a cause. Nothing happened simply by
chance- not even an accident. Freud believed that minor mistakes like slips of the tongue are
also manifestations of unconscious motives. He likewise indicated that through humor a person
can express his aggressiveness or sexual desires without fear of retaliation by either the ego or
the superego.
Psychoanalytic theory also place big emphasis on the influence of childhood experiences
to the personality of man.

II. SIGMUND FREUD’S BIOGRAPHY

Sigmund Freud was born in Freinsberg, Moravia (now Czechoslovakia). He later moved to
Vienna where he lived for nearly 80 years. He died in England one year after his family
migrated there.
He was the first of six children by the second wife of his father. He and his mother had a
very close and powerful relationship.
He was an excellent student, graduating as the head of his class. He was accepted in
medical school at the age of 17. Although he was not interested in medicine he saw it as a
means by which he can engage in scientific research.
 He had six children one of his daughters, Ana, became a famous child psychiatrist in
London.
Freud worked with Joseph Breuer, a successful medical practitioner, who was then
developing a new method of treating hysteria- a disorder with a wide variety of symptoms such
as paralysis, loss of sensation, disturbance of speech and sight. Breuer found out that some of
the symptoms of his patients would disappear temporarily or permanently by encouraging them
to express their feelings and emotions. He called this process catharsis. However, Breuer found
that during the course of treatment, the patient responds to the therapy thinking as if he or she
was an important person in the doctor’s life. Breuer called this transference. Likewise the
analyst may also form an emotional attachment to the patient which he termed counter
transference. These can bring about failure in treatment.
Freud later went to France where he studied under Jean Charcot, a French psychiatrist
who was using hypnosis in the treatment of hysteria. From Charcot, Freud learned two (2)
things:
1. It is possible to treat hysteria as a psychological disorder rather than as an organic
one.
2. The possibility that a patient’s problem has a sexual basis.

Freud first used hypnosis (induction of a state of consciousness in which a person

apparently loses the power of voluntary action and is highly responsive to suggestion or
direction) for treating hysteria but later abandoned it because he found out that not all his
patients could be hypnotized. Eventually, he developed the technique of free association which
he called the “the fundamental rule of psychoanalysis”. Here the patients were encouraged to
speak freely and to report whatever their thoughts were, regardless of the apparent relationship
or lack of relationship to their symptoms.
Then he began his self- analysis because he felt that before one can analyze others, he
must first undergo analysis himself.
He also wrote several books. The most successful was “Interpretation of Dreams” which
led to the start of the psychoanalytic movement.
Freud spent his life developing and defending psychoanalysis. He retained control over the
psychoanalytic movement by expelling members who did not agree with his views.

III. FREUD’S CONTRIBUTIONS TO PERSONALITY THEORY

A. Levels of Mental Life/ Parts of the Mind

The key starting point in understanding the Freudian approach to personality is the
division of the human mind into three parts. This is not the same as the division of the human
brain into physical sections. The three parts are the following:

1. Conscious- mental elements in awareness at any given point in time. It is the only level of mental
life directly available to us. This material is changing constantly as new thoughts enter your mind
and others pass out of awareness.
2. Preconscious- contains all those elements that are not conscious but can become conscious either
quite readily or with some difficulty.
3. Unconscious- contains all those drives, urges, or instincts that are beyond our awareness but that
nevertheless motivate most of our words, feelings, and actions.

B. Provinces of the Mind/ Structures of the Personality

According to Freud, personality consists of three interacting forces: a. the Id, b. Ego and
c. Superego.

1. Id- is concerned only with satisfying personal desires, regardless of the physical or social
limitations that might prevent us from getting whatever we want. The actions taken by the id
are based on the pleasure principle. Freud maintained that at birth, id is the only part of the
human personality. For example, when babies see something they want, they reach for it; it
doesn’t matter whether the object belongs to someone else or may be harmful.

In addition, said Freud, the id uses wish fulfillment to satisfy its needs: If a baby is
hungry and doesn’t see food nearby, the id imagines the food and thereby at least temporarily
satisfies the need.

2. Ego- the primary job of the ego is to mediate/ balanced the demands of the Id and the
outer forces of reality. Because the Id impulses are unacceptable and therefore threatening for
the individual, it is the ego’s job to keep these impulses in the unconscious. It is important to
emphasize that the ego’s job is not to frustrate the aims of the id.
Ego gradually develops during the first two years of life as the child interacts with his or
her environment.

3. Superego- the moral arm of the personality, it corresponds to one’s conscience. It

represents society’s- and in particular, the parents’-values and standards. The superego thus
place more restrictions on what an individual can and cannot do. It is formed when a child
reach the age of 5 and develops from the internalized patterns of reward and punishment
received from the parents.
But the superego does not merely punish the individual for moral violations. It also
provides the ideals the ego uses to determine if a behavior is virtuous and therefore worthy of
praise. Because of poor child-rearing practices, some children fail to fully develop the superego.
Here the person could suffer from anxiety-an ever-present feeling of shame and guilt- for failing
to reach standards no human can meet.

C. Dynamics of Personality
Freud postulated a dynamic, or motivational principle, to explain the driving forces behind
people’s actions. To Freud, people are motivated to seek pleasure and to reduce tension and
anxiety.
Drives- Freud used the German word Trieb to refer to a drive or a stimulus within the person.
It operates as a constant motivational force. This includes sex drive (libido) and aggression
drive.

1. Sex (Eros) - the aim of this drive is pleasure, but this pleasure is not limited to genital
satisfaction. Freud believed that the entire body is invested with libido. Besides the genitals, the
mouth and anus are especially capable of producing sexual pleasure and are called erogenous
zone.
Sex can take many forms, including narcissism, love, sadism, and masochism. The latter
two also possess generous components of the aggressive drive.
a. Narcissism- it is manifested during the infant who are primarily self-centered, with
their libido invested almost exclusively on their own ego.
b. Love- develops when people invest their libido on an object or person other than
themselves.
c. Sadism- the need for sexual pleasure by inflicting pain or humiliation on another
person.
d. Masochism- the need for sexual pleasure from suffering pain and humiliation inflicted
either by themselves or by others.

2. Aggression (Thanatos)- this is considered as the destructive drive, according to Freud the
aim of this drive is to return the organism to an inorganic state. The ultimate inorganic
condition is death, thus, the final aim of the aggressive drive is self-destruction.
As with the sexual drive, aggression is flexible and can take a number of forms, such as
teasing, gossip, sarcasm, humiliation, humor, and the enjoyment of other people’s suffering.
The aggressive tendency is present in everyone and is the explanation for wars, violence, and
religious persecution.

Freud’s Concept of Anxiety

Sex and aggression share the center of Freudian dynamic theory with the concept of
anxiety. In defining anxiety, Freud emphasized that is a felt, affective, unpleasant state
accompanied by a physical sensation that warns the person against impending danger. The
unpleasantness is often vague and hard to pinpoint, but the anxiety itself is always felt.

Three Kinds of Anxiety

1. Neurotic anxiety- apprehension about an unknown danger. People may experience
neurotic anxiety in the presence of a teacher, employer, or some other authority figure because
they previously experienced unconscious feelings of destruction against one or both parents.

2. Moral anxiety- stems from the conflict between the ego and superego. After children
establish a superego- usually by the age of 5 or 6- they may experience anxiety as an
outgrowth of the conflict between realistic needs and the dictates of their superego. For
example, a failure to behave consistently with what they regard as morally right, for example,
failing to care for aging parents.

3. Realistic anxiety- this kind of anxiety is defined as an unpleasant, nonspecific feeling

involving a possible danger. It is closely related to fear.

D. Defense Mechanisms
The ego is attempting to reduce or avoid anxiety- an unpleasant emotional experience
similar but not identical to feelings of nervousness, worry, agitation, or panic. Awareness of
certain unacceptable material creates anxiety. The feeling that unacceptable unconscious
thoughts are about express themselves into consciousness also can create vague feelings of
anxiety.
How does the ego deal with anxiety-provoking material? The ego has at its disposal many
different techniques, known collectively as defense mechanisms, which can be used to deal
with unwanted thoughts and desires. The principal defense mechanisms are:

1. Repression- is a mechanism by which the ego prevents anxiety-provoking thoughts from

being entertained in the conscious level. Freud believed that all of us use repression, for we all
have material in our unconscious minds we would rather not bring into awareness.
According to Freud, repression is “the cornerstone on which the whole structure of
psychoanalysis rests”. In essence, repression is an active effort by the ego to push unwanted
material out of consciousness or to keep such material from ever reaching consciousness.
Repressed wishes can find unconscious outlet is through one’s dreams or through
unconscious expressive gestures. Example, Freud regarded certain dream contents as disguised
representations of the sex act. Or typical mannerisms like swinging one’s legs while sitting, is a
manifestation of a repressed wish.

2. Sublimation- channelling or substituting of negative id impulses into socially acceptable

actions. For example, our aggressive impulses can get us into trouble if directed at the people
we might want to express them to. But if these impulses are sublimated into, say, boxing or
football, that is acceptable, because in our society aggressive athletes are considered heroes
and rewarded for their actions. Freud called this sublimation whereby the unconscious process
of the libido or the sex instinct is transformed into a more acceptable form as artistic, scientific,
social work, religious activities and the like. According to Freud, sublimation is truly successful
defense mechanism, in that the more we use it, the more productive we become.

3. Displacement- channelling or substituting our impulses from an original target to another

person or object. For example, a woman whose boss yells at her might want to strike back at
the employer, but a functioning ego will keep that impulse out of her consciousness. Instead,
she might express her aggression by yelling at her husband or children. Although doing so
could create other problems, it’s probably less threatening than losing her job. Freud noted that
many of our apparently irrational fears, or phobias, are merely symbolic displacements. For
example, a fear of one’s father might be displaced to something that symbolically represents
the father, such as strong and powerful horses.

4. Denial-when we use denial, we simply state that certain facts do not exist. This is more
than saying we do not remember, as in repression. Rather, we are insisting that something is
not true, despite all evidence to the contrary. A widower who loved his wife deeply may act as if
she were still alive long after her death. He may set a place for her at the table, or tell friends
that she is just away visiting a relative. To the widower, this charade is more acceptable than
admitting consciously that his wife has died. Obviously, denial is an extreme form of defense.
The more we use it, the less we are in touch with reality, and the less likely are we able to
function fully.

5. Reaction Formation- is concealing a motive by giving strong expression to the opposite.

For example, a young woman who cannot tell enough people how much she loves her mother
could be masking strong unconscious hatred for the mother. People who militantly get involved
with anti-pornography crusades could, according to the Freudian view, unconsciously hold a
strong interest in these matters.

6. Projection- attributing an unconscious impulse to other people instead of to oneself. Here

we are projecting the impulse onto another person, for example hatred in oneself can be
projected onto someone else.

7. Rationalization- the process of justifying one’s conduct by offering socially acceptable

reasons in place of real reasons. The excuses are made up to hide or disguise the true motive.
Rationalization may take two forms:
a. Sour Grape- pretending to dislike what one really likes (taken from Aesop fable about the
fox, who, unable to reach the grapes, said that they were probably sour anyway). Example, a
girl is very excited to attend the debut party of her friend but unfortunately she is not invited so
she may rationalize by saying that she is not really interested to attend.
b. Sweet-lemon- pretending to like what one really dislikes. Example, a student who has shift
to another course, say business, because of failure to make the grade in a medicine course,
may rationalize by saying that he is really interested in the business course.
8. Compensation- The process of engaging in substitutive behaviour in order to cover up or
make up social or physical frustration or a lack of ability in a certain area of personality.
Example, the parents who wish their children to enjoy advantages denied them are
compensating for achievements denied them. This covers the anxiety by focusing attention on
other forms of behaviour.

9. Regression- is a mechanism in which a person turns to an earlier stage of development

when he or she experience stress. It is a way of alleviating anxiety by withdrawing from realistic
thinking into behaviours that have, in earlier years, reduced anxiety. Just like an old woman
who is unconsciously showing her anxiety by wearing clothes for teenagers.
10. Introjection- defense mechanism is a defense mechanism whereby people incorporate positive
qualities of another person into their own ego. Example, a teen-ager who identifies with favorite
movie star. In children, introjection is a normal part of growing up, as in trying to be like
superman, or Batman, etc. but in an adult with established life patterns, this is a cover up for
unexpressed motives.

11. Undoing- “cancel out” or “make-up” for a bad act by doing good. An example of undoing
would be excessively praising someone after having insulted.

E. Stages of Psychosexual Development

One of the most controversial contributions Freud made to psychology is his theory of
personality development. Freud believed that “The child is the father of man” which means
that our personality was due to our childhood experiences. In addition, Freud believed that
every child goes through a sequence of developmental stages and that the child’s experiences
during these stages determine adult personality characteristics.

Freud had a tendency to interpret most psychological phenomena within a sexual

framework. Consequently, his explanation of early personality development largely centered on
sexual themes. According to him, each of us progresses through a series of developmental
stages during childhood. Each stage has an erogenous zone or the part or area of one’s body
that will satisfy the activity. In order to make a smooth transition from one psychosexual stage
to the next, the child must not be overgratified or undergratified because it can lead to either
fixation or regression. Freud uses the term fixation to an arrest on the development on which
the person does not progress normally from stage to stage but remains overly involved with a
particular stage. Table 1 shows the stages of psychosexual development formulated by
Sigmund Freud.

Table 1. Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual Development

Stage Age range Erogenous Activities (Physical Personality characteristics/

(approx.) zone expressions) Fixations
1. Oral Birth- 2 yr. Mouth -Sucking Oral personalities:
-Oral receptive -Biting - Over-eating
-Oral sadistic -Licking - Excessive drinking
- Biting pencils
- Putting some objects to
their mouth.
- Too much talking
2. Anal 2- 3 years Anus Toilet training Anal retentive personalities:
(sadistic-anal - Orderly, organize and tidy.
phase) -Vein,meticulous/perfectionist
- Stinginess
Anal expulsive personalities:
- Messy, untidy
 - Disorganize
- Stubborn
- Generous
Anal Triad (orderliness,
stinginess, and obstinacy)
3. Phallic 3-6 years Genital -Sexual desire to - Sexual deviances
area opposite sex parent. (overindulging and
Male Oedipus complex avoidance)
Female Oedipus - Confused or weak sexual
complex identity
4. Latency 6- puberty - Socialization -

5. Genital Puberty Genital Sexual intercourse -

onward area

IV. APPLICATIONS OF PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY

Since the major assumption of Freud is that unconscious materials influence most
behavior, then he employed several techniques or methods to determine the contents of the
unconscious mind as follows:

1. Dream Analysis
According to Freud, dreams are the “royal road to the unconscious”. In 1900 he
published The Interpretation of Dreams, presenting for the first time a psychological theory of
what our dreams really mean. Freud said that dreams provide the id impulses with a stage for
expression. They are a type of wish fulfilment, that is, a representation of what the individual
would like to have.
An exception to the rule that dreams are wish fulfillments is found in patient suffering
from a traumatic experience. Dreams of these people follow the principle of repetition
compulsion rather than wish fulfilment. The dreams are frequently found in people with PTSD
who repeatedly dream of frightening or traumatic experiences.

2 Contents of Dream
a. Manifest Content- what the dreamer sees and remembers.
b. Latent Content- the meaning of the manifest content, what is the unconscious
interpretation of the said dream.
The key to Freudian interpretation of dreams lies in understanding that many of our
unconscious thoughts and desires are presented symbolically in the dream.

Examples:
House- human body
King and Queen- parent
Small animals- children
Water- birth
Train journey- dying
Clothes and uniforms- nakedness
Snake, Sticks, umbrellas, trees, knives, rifles, pencils and hammers- male genitals
Cave, Bottles, boxes, rooms, doors and ships- female genitals
Dancing, riding and climbing- sexual intercourse

2. Projective test
A subject is presented with ambiguous stimuli and asks the person to respond with a
story, the identification of objects, or perhaps a drawing. As with the cloud formations, there
are no right or wrong answers. Rather, responses are individual and indicative of something
going on deep inside the mind, something the person may not be aware of.

3. Free Association
Spend a few minutes to clear your mind of thoughts. Then allow whatever comes into your
mind to enter. Say whatever you feel like saying, even if it is not what you expect and even if
you are a little surprised for embarrassed by what comes out. If you are successful in allowing
these free-flowing ideas into your awareness, you have experienced what some call the
fundamental rule of psychoanalysis: free association.

4. Freudian Slips (Parapraxes)

These are the commonly called slips of the tongue or pen, misreading, incorrect hearing,
misplacing objects, and temporarily forgetting names or intentions that are not chance
accidents but reveal a person’s unconscious intentions. A husband might refer to his wife by her
maiden name may unconsciously wish he’d never married this woman. Although the statement
sounds innocent- an accidental slip- it may be loaded with underlying feelings.

5. Hypnosis
Early experiences with hypnosis helped Freud to understand that there was more to the
human mind than what one can bring into awareness. He argued late in his career that
hypnosis provided proof for the existence of the unconscious.
6. Humor
According to Freud, for a joke to be funny, it must contain anxiety provoking material. We
laugh only at the things that bother us. Most often, sex and death are favorite topics. According
to Freud, if you want to know what has been repressed in a person’s mind, examine what he or
she finds humorous.

7. Symbolic Behavior
 Just as our dreams are interpreted by Freudian psychologists as symbolic representations
of our unconscious desires, so too can many of our daily behaviors be taken as symbolic
gestures of these unconscious thoughts.
Example:
A patient who unconsciously held a great deal of hostility toward his mother was
expressed through an interesting doormat the patient purchased for his home. On the doormat
was a design of several daisies. Daisy is the favorite flower of her mother, thus the son enjoyed
rubbing his feet and stomping on the daisies- symbolically acting out his hostility toward his
mother.

PART II. ALFRED ADLER’S INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY

I. OVERVIEW OF INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY

The term individual psychology was used by Adler to stress his belief that each person is
an integrated whole, striving to attain future goals and attempting to find meaning in life while
working harmoniously with others. It presents an optimistic view of people while resting heavily
on the notion of social interest, that is, a feeling of oneness with all humankind.
Adler argued that people may become largely aware of their deepest impulses and
fictional finalism and, with conscious intent, create their own personalities and lifestyles that will
achieve their highest goals.
In the end, Adler’s position was almost the complete antithesis of Freud’s which
emphasized that our behaviour is largely determined by forces of which we are unaware.

II. ALFRED ADLER’S BIOGRAPHY (1870-1937)

Adler was born on February 7, 1870 in Vienna, Austria. As a young boy, Adler was weak
and sickly and at age 5, he nearly died of pneumonia. Adler’s poor health was in sharp contrast
to the health of his older brother Sigmund. Several of Adler’s earliest memories were concerned
with the unhappy competition between his brother’s good health and his own illness.
In 1907, Adler published the “Study of Organ Inferiority and Its Physical Compensation,”
which assumed that physical deficiencies-not sex- formed the foundation for human motivation.
He finished his doctorate in medicine in 1895 from the University of Vienna. He wrote
the book “The Practice and Theory of Individual Psychology”. He died at the age of 67 while on
a lecture tour in Scotland.

III. ADLER’S CONTRIBUTION TO PERSONALITY THEORY

The following represents the final statement (tenets) of individual psychology.

1. the one dynamic force behind people’s behavior is the striving for success or
superiority.
2. people’s subjective perceptions shape their behavior and personality
3. personality is unified and self-consistent
 4. the value of all human activity must be seen from the viewpoint of social interest
5. the self-consistent personality structure develops into a person’s style of life
6. style of life is molded by people’s creative power

1. Striving for Success or Superiority

The sole dynamic force behind people's actions is the striving for success or
superiority.

The Final Goal

The final goal of success or superiority toward which all people strive unifies personality
and makes all behavior meaningful.

The Striving Force as Compensation

Because people are born with small, inferior bodies, they feel inferior and attempt to
overcome these feelings through their natural tendency to move toward completion.
The striving force can take one of two courses—personal gain (superiority) or
community benefit (success).

Striving for Personal Superiority

Psychologically unhealthy individuals strive for personal superiority with little concern for
other people. Although they may appear to be interested in other people, their basic
motivation is personal benefit.

Striving for Success

In contrast, psychologically healthy people strive for the success of all humanity, but
they do so without losing their personal identity.

2. Subjective Perceptions
People's subjective view of the world—not reality—shapes their behavior.

A. Fictionalism
Fictions are people's expectations of the future. Adler held that fictions guide behavior,
because people act as if these fictions are true. Adler emphasized teleology over
causality, or explanations of behavior in terms of future goals rather than past causes.

B. Physical Inferiorities
Adler believed that all humans are "blessed" with physical inferiorities, which stimulate
subjective feelings of inferiority and move people toward perfection or completion.

3. Unity and Self-Consistency of Personality

Personality is unified and self-consistent.
Adler believed that all behaviors are directed toward a single purpose. When seen in
the light of that sole purpose, seemingly contradictory behaviors can be seen as operating in a
self-consistent manner.

A. Organ Dialect
People often use a physical disorder to express style of life, a condition Adler called
organ dialect, or organ jargon.
 B. Conscious and Unconscious
Conscious and unconscious processes are unified and operate to achieve a single goal.
The part of our goal that is not clearly understood is unconscious; that part of our goal
we fully comprehend is conscious.

4. Social Interest
The value of all human activity must be seen from the viewpoint of social interest.
Human behavior has value to the extent that it is motivated by social interest, that
is, a feeling of oneness with all of humanity.

A. Origins of Social Interest

Although social interest exists as potentiality in all people, it must be fostered in a social
environment. Adler believed that the parent-child relationship can be so strong that it
negates the effects of heredity.

B. Importance of Social Interest

According to Adler, social interest is "the sole criterion of human values," and the
worthiness of all one's actions must be seen by this standard. Without social interest,
societies could not exist; individuals in antiquity could not have survived without
cooperating with others to protect themselves from danger. Even today an infant's
helplessness predisposes it toward a nurturing person.

C. Three Major Tasks in Life to be able to Develop Social Interest:

1. Occupational Tasks – through constructive work, the person helps to advance
society.
2. Social Tasks – this requires cooperation with fellow humans (division of labor).
3. Love and Marriage Tasks – relationship between this tasks and the continuance of
society is clear.

D. Four types of people according to their degree of Social Interest:

a. Ruling – Dominant Type – attempts to rule or dominate people;
b. Getting – Learning Type – expects everything from others and gets everything
he/she can from them.
c. Avoiding Type – such a person avoids failure by never attempting anything.
d. Socially Useful Type – confronts problems and attempts to solve them in a socially
useful way.
The first three types have faulty lifestyles because they lack proper social interest. Only
the socially useful type can cope to live a rich, purposeful life.

5. Style of Life
The self-consistent personality structure develops into a person’s style of life.
The manner of a person's striving is called style of life, a pattern that is relatively well
set by 4 or 5 years of age. However, Adler believed that healthy individuals are marked
by flexible behavior and that they have some limited ability to change their style of life.

6. Creative Power
Style of life is molded by people’s creative power.
 Style of life is partially a product of heredity and environment—the building blocks of
personality—but ultimately style of life is shaped by people's creative power, that is,
by their ability to freely choose a course of action.

IV. Adler’s Concept of Abnormal Development

A. General Description
According to Adler, the one factor underlying all types of maladjustments is
underdeveloped social interest. Besides lacking social interest, neurotics tend to 1. set their
goals too high, 2. live in their own private world, and 3. have a rigid and dogmatic style of life.

B. External Factors in Maladjustment

Adler also recognized three external factors, anyone of which is sufficient to contribute
to abnormality. The following are the external factors which tend to create a faulty lifestyle:
1. Exaggerated Physical Deficiencies- people with exaggerated physical deficiencies
sometimes develop exaggerated feelings of inferiority because they overcompensate for their
inadequacy. They tend to be overly concerned with themselves and lack consideration for
others.
2. Pampered Style of Life- pampered people have a weak social interest but a strong
desire to perpetuate the pampered, parasitic relationship they originally had with one or both of
their parents. They expect others to look after them, overprotect them, and satisfy their needs.
3. Neglected Style of Life- children who feel unloved and unwanted are likely to borrow
heavily from these feelings in creating a neglected style of life. These children are distrustful of
other people and are unable to cooperate for the common welfare.

C. Safeguarding Tendencies- patterns of behavior to protect exaggerated sense of self-

esteem against public disgrace. These protective devices enable people to hide their inflated
self-image and to maintain their current style of life. The following are the common
safeguarding tendencies:
1. Excuses- in this protective device, people first state what they claim they would like to
do- something that sounds good to others- then they follow with an excuse. Excuses are
typically expresses in the “Yes, but” or “If only” format. Examples of excuses:

“Yes, I would like to go to college, but my children demand too much of my attention.”
“Yes, I agree with your proposal, but company policy will not allow it.”
“If only, my husband were more supportive, I would have advanced faster in my
profession.”

2. Aggression- this protective device is used to safeguard the exaggerated superiority

complex, that is, to protect their fragile self-esteem. Safeguarding through aggression may take
the form of depreciation, accusation, or self-accusation.
Depreciation- this is the tendency to undervalue other people’s achievements and to
overvalue one’s own.
 Accusation- this is the tendency to blame others for one’s failure and to seek revenge,
thereby safeguarding one’s own tenuous self-esteem.
Self-accusation- this safeguarding tendency is marked by self-torture, including
masochism, depression, and suicide, as means of hurting people who are close to them.

3. Withdrawal-the style of running away from difficulties. This is a safeguarding through

distance. Adler recognized the following four modes of safeguarding through withdrawal:
Moving backward- this is the tendency to safeguard one’s fictional goal or superiority by
psychologically reverting to a more secure period of life.
Standing still- people who stand still simply do not move in any direction; thus, they
avoid all responsibility by ensuring themselves against any threat of failure.
Hesitating- this includes procrastinations which eventually give them the excuse “It’s too
late now.”
Constructing obstacles- people using this safeguarding tendency creates problem and
showing people that they are capable of overcoming the problem or obstacle they created.

D. Masculine Protest
Both men and women sometimes overemphasize the desirability of being manly, a
condition Adler called the masculine protest. The frequently found inferior status of women
is not based on physiology but on historical developments and social learning.

V. APPLICATIONS OF INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY

The applications of Adler’s individual psychology are divided into the following four areas:
A. Family Constellation- this includes birth order, the gender of siblings, and the age spread
between them. Although people’s perception of the situation into which they were born is more
important than numerical rank, Adler did form some general hypotheses about birth order.
Firstborn children are most likely to have intensified feelings of power and superiority,
high anxiety, and overprotective tendencies. Firstborn children occupy a unique position, being
an only child for a time and then experiencing a traumatic dethronement when a younger
sibling is born. This event dramatically changes the situation and the child’s view of the world.
Second born children begin life in a better situation for developing cooperation and
social interest. Typically, the second born children mature towards moderated competitiveness,
having a healthy desire to overtake the older rival.
Youngest children are often the most pampered and, consequently, run a high risk of
being problem children. They are likely to have strong feelings of inferiority and to lack a sense
of independence. They are often highly motivated to exceed older siblings and to become the
fastest runner, the best musician, the most skilled athlete, or the most ambitious student.
Only children are in a unique position of competing, not against brothers and sisters, but
against father and mother. Living in an adult world, they often develop an exaggerated sense of
superiority an inflated self-concept.
B. Early Recollections (ERs)- these are the recalled memories which can yield clues for
understanding patients’ style of life. Adler did not consider these memories to have a causal
effect to personality.

C. Dream Analysis- is a method wherein a person’s dreams are used to provide a way of
dealing with the person’s life problems. By analyzing how to confront problems and how to plan
future events through dream analysis, a great deal could be learned about the person’s style of
life.

D. Psychotherapy- the chief purpose of Adlerian psychotherapy is to enhance courage, lessen

feelings of inferiority, and encourage social interest. Through the use of humor and warmth,
Adler tried to increase the patient’s courage, self-esteem, and social interest. He believed that a
warm, nurturing attitude by the therapist encourages patients to expand their social interest.

Adler innovated a unique method of therapy with problem children by treating them in
front of an audience of parents, teachers, and health professionals. He believed that this
procedure would enhance children’s social interest by allowing them to feel that they belong to
a community of concerned adults.

PART III. CARL JUNG’S ANALYTICAL PSYCHOLOGY

I. OVERVIEW OF ANALYTICAL PSYCHOLOGY

Analytic psychology rests on the assumption that occult phenomena can and do
influence the lives of everyone. Jung believed that each of us is motivated not only by
repressed experiences but also by certain emotionally toned experiences inherited from our
ancestors.
According to Jung, the human personality is imbedded in the past, present and future; it
consists of conscious and unconscious elements, masculine and feminine traits, rational and
irrational impulses, spiritualistic and animalistic tendencies and tendency to bring all these
contradicting behavior into harmony with each other. Self-actualization is achieved when such
harmony exists. But self-actualization must be sought. It does not happen automatically. Jung
also emphasized that religion is a major vehicle in the journey towards self-actualization.

II. CARL JUNG’S BIOGRAPHY

Carl Jung was a Swiss psychoanalyst. He had a dominant mother and a weak father.
Because of the constant quarrels between his parents, Jung tended to isolate himself from the
family and engaged in dreams remained for Jung important sources of information about
himself and his future.

He studied medicine following his grandfather’s footsteps. It was while he was working
at the psychiatrist clinic of the University of the Munich when he would influence Eugene
Bleuler, the psychiatrist who coined the term “schizophrenia.”
 He became interested in Freud after reading “Interpretation of Dream”, applying Freud’s
ideas into his practice. After a year, he met Freud in Vienna and they became close friends.

After several years of associating with Freud, Jung started to develop doubts about the
emphasis of sexual motivation in Freud’s theory. While traveling with Freud in America
audiences, he suggested to eliminate the role of sex in explaining the causes of behavior. Freud
however thought that this suggestion was a departure from scientific ethics.

Freud supported and helped Jung to be elected as the first president of International
Psychoanalytic Association. However, the relationship with Freud by resigning as the president
of the International psychoanalytic Association and also withdrew as a member. The break was
very disturbing for Jung and he called it the “dark years” – a period of three years during which
he could not read a scientific book.

This also marked a period of complete withdrawal into himself. He explored his own
dreams and fantasies with such intensity that it brought him to the brink of madness.

Later, he developed his own theory of personality which bore only a remote
resemblance to that of Freud’s. He continued to develop his theory until his death at age of 86
in Switzerland.

III. JUNG’S CONTRIBUTIONS TO PERSONALITY THEORY

LEVELS OF THE PSYCHE

Jung saw the human psyche as being divided into a conscious and an unconscious level, with
the latter further subdivided into a personal unconscious and a collective unconscious.
A. Conscious
Images sensed by the ego are said to be conscious. The ego thus represents the conscious
side of personality, and in the psychologically mature individual, the ego is secondary to the
self.
B. Personal Unconscious
The personal unconscious embraces all repressed, forgotten, or subliminally perceived
experiences of one particular individual. It contains repressed infantile memories and impulses,
forgotten events, and experiences originally perceived below the threshold of our consciousness.
Contents of the personal unconscious are called complexes. A complex is an
emotionally toned conglomeration of associated ideas. For example, a person’s experiences
with Mother may become grouped around an emotional core so that the person’s mother, or even the
word “mother,” sparks an emotional response that blocks the smooth flow of thought.

C. Collective Unconscious
In contrast to the personal unconscious, which results from individual experiences, the
collective unconscious has roots in the ancestral past of the entire species. It represents Jung’s
most controversial, and perhaps his most distinctive, concept. The physical contents of the
collective unconscious are inherited and pass from one generation to the next as psychic potential.

Contents of the collective unconscious are called archetypes. Archetypes are

ancient or archaic images that derive from the collective unconscious. These are names given
to the kind of image from his collective unconscious that man uses frequently.
 The most notable of these include the persona, shadow, anima, animus, great mother,
wise old man, hero, and self.

Persona- the side of our personality that we show to others.

Shadow- the dark side of personality.
Anima- feminine side of men
Animus- the masculine side of women
Great mother- the archetype of nourishment and destruction
Wise old man- the archetype of wisdom and meaning
Hero- the image we have of a conqueror who vanquishes evil but who has a
single fatal flaw.
Self- the image we have of fulfillment, completion, or perfection. The most
comprehensive of all archetypes, the self is the archetype of archetypes because it pulls
together the other archetypes and unites them in the process of self-realization. As an
archetype, the self is symbolized by a person’s ideas of perfection, completion, and
wholeness, but its ultimate symbol is the mandala, which is depicted as a circle within a
square, a square within a circle, or any other concentric figure.

DYNAMICS OF THE PSYCHE

Jung believed that the dynamic principles that apply to physical energy also apply to
psychic energy. These forces include causality and teleology as well as progression and
regression.
A. Causality and Teleology
Jung accepted a middle position between the philosophical issues of causality and
teleology. In other words, humans are motivated both by their past experiences and by
their expectations of the future.

B. Progression and Regression

To achieve self-realization people must adapt to both their external and their internal
worlds. Progression involves adaptation to the outside world and the forward flow of psychic
energy, whereas regression refers to adaptation to the inner world and the backward flow of
psychic energy. Jung believed that the backward step is essential to a person's forward
movement toward self-realization.

PSYCHOLOGICAL TYPES
Jung recognized various psychological types that grow out of a union of two basic
attitudes- introversion and extraversion- and four separate functions- thinking, feeling,
seeing, and intuiting.

Attitude- refers to the predisposition to act or react in a characteristic direction. Carl Jung
insisted that each person has both an introverted and an extraverted attitude. Introverts are
tuned into their inner world with all its biases, fantasies, dreams, and individualized perceptions.
On the other hands, extraverts are more influenced by their surroundings than by their inner
world.

Functions-both introversion and extraversion can combine with any one or more of four
functions, forming eight possible orientations, or types. The four functions are all necessary for
man’s mind to perform if he is to know and live in this world. The illogical and nonrational
mental functions are intuition and sensation. The logical and rational functions are feeling and
thinking.

1. Intuition-perception beyond the working of consciousness

2. Sensation- receives physical stimuli and transmits them to perceptual consciousness
3. Feeling- evaluating an idea or event.
4. Thinking- logical intellectual activity that produces a chain of ideas.

DEVELOPMENT OF PERSONALITY

Nearly unique among personality theorists was Jung's emphasis on the second half of life.
Jung saw middle and old age as times when people may acquire the ability to attain self-realization.

A. Stages of Development

1. Childhood- the early morning sun, full of potential but still lacking in brilliance
(consciousness).
Substages
a. Anarchic phase- characterized by chaotic and sporadic consciousness.
b. Monarchic phase- characterized by the development of the ego and by the
beginning of logical and verbal thinking.
c. Dualistic phase- the ego is divided into the objective and subjective.

2. Youth- the morning sun, climbing toward the zenith, but unaware of the impending decline.
The period from puberty until middle life is called youth. Young people strive to gain psychic and
physical independence from their parents, find a mate, raise a family, and make a place in the world.

3. Middle life- early afternoon sun, brilliant like the late morning sun, but obviously headed for the
sunset.
Jung believed that middle life begins at approximately age 35 or 40, by which time the sun has
passed its zenith and begins its downward descent. Although this decline can present middle-aged people
with increasing anxieties, middle life is also a period of tremendous potential.

4. Old age- the evening sun, its once bright consciousness now markedly dimmed.
As the evening of life approaches, people experience a diminution of consciousness just as the
light and warmth of the sun diminish at dusk. If people fear life during the early years, then they will
almost certainly fear death during the later ones.

B. Self-Realization
Self-realization, or individuation, involves a psychological rebirth and an integration
of various parts of the psyche into a unified or whole individual. Self-realization represents the
highest level of human development.

IV. JUNG’S METHOD OF INVESTIGATION

1. Word Association Test- this is the oldest method in which the subject is asked to respond
to some stimulus words with the first word that comes to his mind. Jung typically used a list of
about 100 stimulus words chosen and arranged to elicit an emotional reaction.

2. Dream Analysis- in Jung’s theory, dreams are often compensatory; that is, feelings and
attitudes not expressed during waking life will find an outlet through the dream process. The
purpose of Jungian dream interpretation is to uncover elements from the personal and
collective unconscious and to integrate them into consciousness to facilitate the process of self-
realization.

3. Active Imagination- this method requires a person to begin with any impression- a dream
image, vision, picture, or fantasy- and to concentrate until the impression begins to “move”.

4. Psychotherapy- the ultimate purpose of Jungian therapy is to help neurotic patients

become healthy and to encourage healthy people to work independently toward self-realization.
Jung identified four basic approaches to therapy, representing four developmental stages in the
history of psychotherapy.

a. The first is confession of a pathogenic secret (cathartic method of Breuer)

b. The second stage involves interpretation, explanation, and elucidation (Freud)
c. The third stage involves the education of patients as social beings (Adler)
d. The fourth stage suggested by Jung is transformation. By transformation, he meant
that the therapist must first be transformed into a healthy human being, preferably by
undergoing psychotherapy.

PART IV. ERIK H. ERIKSON’S EGO PSYCHOLOGY/ POST-FREUDIAN THEORY

I. OVERVIEW OF ERIK ERIKSON’S EGO PSYCHOLOGY/ POST-FREUDIAN THEORY

Erikson regarded his post-Freudian theory as an extension of psychoanalysis. Same with Freud,
Erikson also believed that childhood experiences shape our personality later in life but the latter
holds that personality is still flexible throughout the adult years. He states that failure at an
early stage jeopardizes a full development at a later stage but fulfillment in any one stage does
not automatically guarantee success. Each stage of specific psychosocial struggle contributes to
the formation of personality.

The theory was termed ego psychology since Erikson held that ego is a positive force
that creates a self-identity, a sense of “I.” As the center of our personality, our ego helps us
adapt to the various conflicts and crises of life and keeps us from losing our individuality to the
leveling forces of society.

II. ERIKSON’S SHORT BIOGRAPHY

 Erik H. Erikson was born in Frankfurt, Germany, on June 15, 1902. He was brought up by
his mother and stepfather, but he remained uncertain of the true identity of his biological
father. To discover his niche in life, Erikson ventured away from home during late adolescence,
adopting the life of a wandering artist and poet. After nearly 7 years of drifting and searching,
he returned home confused, exhausted, depressed, and unable to sketch or paint.
Thirty years after coming to the United States in the mid- 1930’s, he became a naturalized
citizen of the said country.
Erikson had never received a university degree, he became friendly with the psychoanalysts
and was later trained by them. After changing his name from Homburger to Erikson, he became
a practicing psychotherapist and a well- known personality theorist.
This person who at the end of life was known as Erik H. Erikson had previously been called
Erik Salomonsen, Erik Homburger, and Erik Homburger Erikson.
Although Erikson retained several Freudian ideas in his theory, his own contributions to the
psychoanalytic were numerous.

III. ERIKSON’S CONTRIBUTION TO PERSONALITY THEORY

Erikson as a personality theorist marked with 2 important contributions- the first is his
own concept of Ego and by formulating the stages of psycho-social development.

A. THE EGO IN POST- FREUDIAN PSYCHOLOGY

Erikson’s concept of the ego was much different from Freud. In Freud’s term, ego is the
mediator between id impulses and superego demands but Erikson believed that the ego
contains many important functions of a constructive nature.
Erikson viewed ego as a relatively powerful, independent part of personality that works
toward such goals as establishing one’s identity and satisfying a need for mastery over the
environment. For this reason, his theory was termed as ego psychology.

The principal function of the ego is to establish and maintain the sense of identity. The
sense of identity is a complex inner state that includes a sense of oneself as unique, yet also
as a whole within oneself and having continuity with the past and the future.

Erikson identified three interrelated aspects of ego:

1. Body ego- refers to experiences with our body; a way of seeing our physical self as
different for other people.
2. Ego ideal- represents the image we have of ourselves in comparison with an
established ideal.
3. Ego identity- image we have of ourselves in the variety of social roles we play.

Erikson believed that the ego develops throughout the various stages of life according to
an epigenetic principle, a term borrowed from embryology. Epigenetic development implies a
step-by-step growth of fetal organs. In similar fashion, the ego follows the path of epigenetic
development, with each stage developing at its proper time. This development is analogous to
the physical development of children, who crawl before they walk, walk before they run, and
run before they jump.

B. STAGES OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES

 Each of the eight stages of development is marked by a conflict between a syntonic
(harmonious) element and a dystonic (disruptive) element, which produces a basic strength
or ego quality. Too little basic strength at any one stage results in a core pathology for that stage. Also,
from adolescence on, each stage is characterized by an identity crisis or turning point, which
may produce either adaptive or maladaptive adjustment.

Table 2. Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development

Stage Features Basic Virtues/ Core Pathology
Ego Strength
1. Trust vs. Mistrust Whether children come to trust or Hope Withdrawal
(birth- 1 year) mistrust themselves and other people
Infancy depends on the social care and comfort
Oral-Sensory Mode the primary caregiver has provided.
If infants’ needs are met, and are shown
genuine affection they think the world is
safe and dependable.If care is
inadequate, inconsistent or negative, he
approaches the world with fear and
suspicion.

2. Autonomy vs. During this stage, society creates on Will Compulsion

Shame and Doubt children a new conflict, that is whether to
(2-3 years) assert their will or not.When parents are
Early childhood patient, accepting and encouraging,
Anal-urethral-Muscular children acquire a sense of independence
and competence. When children are not
allowed such freedom and are over-
protected, they may doubt their ability to
deal with the environment.
3. Initiative vs. Guilt
At this stage, children gain greater Purpose Inhibition
(3-5 years)
freedom in exploring their environment
Play age
Genital-Locomotor Mode and often attempt tasks that parents do
not approve. Parents who allow their
children freedom to explore and master
new tasks are allowing them to develop
initiative. Parents who curtail this
freedom and make the children feel
their activities are pointless and a
nuisance, children become passive and
feel guilty about doing things on their
own.

4. Industry vs. This period reflects the determination of Competence Inertia

Inferiority children to master what they are doing
(6-12 years) so that they develop a successful sense
School age of modesty industry. Parents, teachers
Latency who support, reward and praise
 children are encouraging and help in
developing children’s sense of industry.
Those who ignore, rebuff, deride
children’s effort are strengthening
feelings of inferiority.

5. Identity vs. As young adults, they seek Fidelity Role

Identity Confusion independence from parents, achieve Repudiation
(12-18 years) physical maturity and are concerned
Puberty and about what kind of persons they are
Adolescence becoming. Seeking to find an identity,
adolescents try on many new roles. If
they experience continuity in their
perception of self, identity
develops.When the adolescent fails to
develop a sense of identity, he/she
experiences role confusion or a
”negative identity.”

6. Intimacy vs. Young adults reach out and make Love Exclusivity
Isolation contact with other people and to fuse
(19-30 years) one’s identity with that of others to
Young adulthood develop intimate relationship.Central to
Genitality intimacy is the ability to share with and
care for others.Failure to establish close
and intimate relationship results to a
feeling of isolation.

7. Generativity vs. This stage involves having a sense of Care Rejectivity

Stagnation productivity and creativity. Generativity-
(31-60 years) has to do with parental responsibility,
Adulthood interest in producing, and guiding the
Procreativity next generation. Stagnation- condition
in which individuals are not able to find
meaning and purpose in life and have
little interest in self- improvement or in
making contributions to society.

8. Integrity vs. The stage of facing reality, recognizing Wisdom Disdain

Despair and accepting other. Individuals in self-
(60- death) improvement or in making contributions
The Old age to society taking stock of the years that
Generalized Sensuality have gone before. Some feel a sense of
satisfaction with their life’s
accomplishment, achieving a sense of
integrity. Others experience despair,
feeling that the time is too short for an
attempt to start another life and to try
 out alternative roads to integrity.

Erikson’s Eight Basic Virtues/ Ego Strength

The following are the 8 basic virtues in relation to the 8 stages of psychosocial
development:
1. Hope is the enduring belief in the obtainability of fervent wishes, in spite of the dark
urges and rages which mark the beginning of existence.

2. Will is the unbroken determination to exercise free choice as well as self-restraint, in

spite of the unavoidable experience of shame and doubts.

3. Purpose is the courage to envisage and pursue valued goals uninhibited by the defeat
of infantile fantasies, by guilt and by the foiling fear of punishment.

4. Competence is the free exercise of dexterity and intelligence in their completion of

tasks, unimpaired by infantile inferiority.

5. Fidelity is the ability to sustain loyalties freely pledged in spite of the inevitable
contradictions of value systems.
6. Love is mutuality of devotion forever subduing that antagonism inherent in divided
function.
7. Care is the widening concern for what has been generated by love, necessity, or
accident; it overcomes the ambivalence adhering to irreversible obligation.

8. Wisdom is detached concern with life itself, in the face of death itself. (Erikson, 1963)

IV. ERIKSON’S METHODS OF INVESTIGATION

A. Anthropological Studies
Erikson's two most important anthropological studies were of the Sioux of South Dakota
and the Yurok tribe of northern California. Both studies demonstrated his notion that culture and
history help shape personality.

B. Psychohistory
Erikson combined the methods of psychoanalysis and historical research to study several
personalities, most notably Gandhi and Luther. In both cases, the central figure experienced an
identity crisis that produced a basic strength rather than a core pathology.
PART V. KAREN HORNEY’S PSYCHOANALYTIC SOCIAL THEORY

I. OVERVIEW OF PSYCHOANALYTIC SOCIAL THEORY

The psychoanalytic social theory of Karen Horney was built on the assumption that
social and cultural conditions, especially childhood experiences, are largely responsible for
shaping personality. People who do not have their needs for love and affection satisfied
 during childhood develop basic hostility toward their parents and, as a consequence,
suffer from basic anxiety. Horney theorized that people combat basic anxiety by adopting
one of three fundamental styles of relating to others: (1) moving toward people, (2) moving
against people, or (3) moving away from people. Normal individuals may use any of these
modes of relating to other people, but neurotics are compelled to rigidly rely on only one.

Although Horney’s writings are concerned mostly with the neurotic personality, many of
her ideas can also be applied to normal individuals. This part looks at Horney’s basic theory
of neurosis, compares her ideas to those of Freud, examines her views on feminine
psychology, and briefly discusses her ideas on psychotherapy.

II. KAREN HORNEY’S SHORT BIOGRAPHY

Horney was born on September 6, 1885 at the City of Hamburg in Germany. She
attended medical school at the University of Berlin and while there became interested in
psychoanalysis. Unlike many of the neo-Freudians, Horney was not a student of Freud. Instead,
she studied Freud’s work indirectly, and later taught psychoanalysis at the Berlin Psychoanalytic
Institute and the New York Psychoanalytic Institute.
Horney soon began to question some of the basic tenets of Freudian theory. In
particular, she could not agree with some of Freud’s views concerning women, views she
believed to be misleading, perhaps insulting.
The biography of Karen Horney has several parallels with the life of Melanie Klein. Each was
born during the 1880s, the youngest child of a 50-yearold father and his second wife. Each had older
siblings who were favored by the parents, and each felt unwanted and unloved. Also, each had wanted to
become a physician, but only Horney fulfilled that ambition. Finally, both Horney and Klein engaged in
an extended self-analysis

III. HORNEY’S CONTRIBUTION TO PERSONALITY THEORY

The Impact of Culture

Horney insisted that modern culture is too competitive and that competition leads to
hostility and feelings of isolation. These conditions lead to exaggerated needs for affection and
cause people to overvalue love.

The Importance of Childhood Experiences

Neurotic conflict stems largely from childhood traumas, most of which are traced to a
lack of genuine love. Children who do not receive genuine affection feel threatened and adopt
rigid behavioral patterns in an attempt to gain love.

Basic Hostility and Basic Anxiety

All children need feelings of safety and security, but these can be gained only by love
from parents. Unfortunately, parents often neglect, dominate, reject, or overindulge their
children, conditions that lead to the child's feelings of basic hostility toward parents. If
children repress basic hostility, they will develop feelings of insecurity and a pervasive sense of
apprehension called basic anxiety. People can protect themselves from basic anxiety by (1)
affection, (2) submissiveness, (3) power or prestige, and (4) withdrawal. Normal people have
the flexibility to use any or all of these approaches, but neurotics are compelled to rely rigidly
on only one.

Compulsive Drives
Neurotic individuals are frequently trapped in a vicious circle in which their compulsive
need to reduce basic anxiety leads to a variety of self-defeating behaviors; these behaviors then
produce more basic anxiety, and the circle continues.

Neurotic Needs
The table below illustrates the ten needs from which Horney evolved her three basic
adjustment techniques or styles. These needs are the result of the disturbed interpersonal
relationship specifically the parent-child relationship. All personalities have these needs to some
extent. The neurotic has them to an overpowering degree.

Neurotic Needs Salient Feature Tendency of moving in

relation to people
1.The neurotic need for Live to please others and win Toward
affection and approval love
2. The neurotic need for a Attach themselves to a Toward
powerful partner powerful partner
3. The neurotic need to They tend to be contended Away from
restrict one’s life with very little. They
downgrade their own abilities
and dread making demands
on others
4. The neurotic need for The need to control others Against
power and to avoid feelings of
weakness or stupidity

5. The neurotic need to The need to win at games, Against

exploit others always be dominant
6. The neurotic need for socialThe need to be recognized Against
recognition or prestige and attract attention to
themselves
7. The neurotic need for The need to be admired for Against
personal admiration what they are rather than for
they possess
8. The neurotic need for Have a consuming desire to Against
ambition in personal be rich, famous, important
achievement regardless of cost to self and
others
9. The neurotic need for self- Go to extreme lengths to Away from
sufficiency and independence avoid being obligated to
anyone
10. The neurotic need for They strive relentlessly for Away from
perfection and unassailability perfection, they dread making
mistakes
Neurotic Trends
Horney originally identified four general ways that people protect themselves against the
feeling alone in a potentially hostile world. This includes affection, submissiveness, power, and
withdrawal. As her theory evolved, she began to see that the list of 10 neurotic needs could be
grouped into three general categories, each relating to a person’s basic attitude toward self and
others.

In 1945, Horney identified the three basic attitudes, or neurotic trends enumerated
and discussed below.

1. Moving toward People (helplessness)

One approach to dealing with neurotic anxiety is to emphasize one’s helplessness.
People who employ this style become extremely dependent on others, compulsively seeking
affection and acceptance. A person who relies on this style “ needs to be liked, wanted,
desired, loved; to feel accepted, welcomed, approved of, appreciated; to be needed, to be
of importance to others, especially to one particular person; to be helped, protected, taken
care of, guided.”

In terms of relationship, people using this style do not love; they cling. They do not
give; they only take. They do not share affection; they demand it. The slogan that best
identifies this style is “If you love me, you will not hurt me”.

2. Moving against people (hostility)

If one way of handling anxiety is to cling to others, another way is to fight. Some
children find that aggressiveness and hostility are the best means of dealing with a poor
home environment. This hostility includes need to exploit others, to take advantage of
weaknesses in others, to be in control, to be powerful.

This style is characterized by Horney as externalization (similar to Freud’s

projection), that is, the belief that all people are basically hostile and out to get what they
can.
Relationships with neurotic people who use this style are necessarily shallow,
unfulfilling, and ultimately painful. They regard love and other such emotions as silly and
sentimental; they enter into relationships only when there is something to be gained. The
individual who uses this technique says “If I have power, no one can hurt me.”

3. Moving away from people (isolation)

Instead of dealing with others in a dependent or hostile manner, the child may
choose to reduce anxiety by being self- sufficient and independent. The desire for privacy
is very strong. Such people usually find a job requiring little interaction with others; in
general, they avoid affection, love, sympathy, and friendship.
This is certainly the wrong kind of person to fall in love with- affection cannot be
returned; it is not even felt. Thus, for both participants, the relationship will be shallow and
unrewarding. People using this style say “If I withdraw, nothing can hurt me.”
Intrapsychic Conflicts
The neurotic trends flow from basic anxiety, which in turn, stems from a child’s
relationships with other people. To this point, our emphasis has been on culture and
interpersonal conflict. However, Horney did not neglect the impact of intrapsychic factors in the
development of personality. As her theory evolved, she began to place greater emphasis on the
inner conflicts that both normal and neurotic individuals experience.
This section looks at two important intrapsychic conflicts: the idealized self-image and
self-hatred.

A. The Idealized Self-Image - an extravagantly positive view of themselves with infinite

powers and unlimited capabilities; they see themselves as “a hero, a genius, a supreme lover, a
saint, a god.” Horney recognized the following three aspects of the idealized image:
1. Neurotic search for glory- it is comprehensive drive toward actualizing the ideal
self. As neurotics come to believe in the reality of their idealized self, they begin to incorporate
it into all aspects of their lives- their goals, their self-concept, and their relations with others.
This includes three elements: the need for perfection, neurotic ambition, and the drive toward a
vindictive triumph.
2. Neurotic claims- a belief that something is wrong with the outside world, they
proclaim that they are special and therefore entitled to be treated in accordance with their
idealized view of themselves.
3. Neurotic pride- a false pride based not on a realistic view of the true self but on a
spurious image of the idealized self.

B. Self-Hatred- it is the outcome when the neurotics realized that their self does not match
the insatiable demands of their idealized self. Horney (1950) recognized six major ways in
which people express self-hatred as follows: relentless demands on the self, merciless self-
accusation, self-contempt, self-frustration, self-torment, and self-destructive actions and
impulses.

FEMININE PSYCHOLOGY
As a psychoanalyst in the 1930s, Horney found herself a woman in a man’s world. Many
of her initial doubts about Freud’s theory began when Horney found she couldn’t agree with
some of Freud’s disparaging views of women.
For an instance, Freud maintained that the essence of female development could be
found in the concept of penis envy, the desire of every young girl to be a boy. Horney
countered this male-flattering position with the concept of womb envy, which maintains that
men are jealous of women’s ability to bear and nurse children. Horney did not suggest that men
are therefore dissatisfied with themselves, but rather she argued that each sex has attributes
that the other admires. She did suggest, however, that men compensate for their inability to
have children through achievement in other domains.

IV. HORNEY’S PSYCHOTHERAPY

The general goal of Horneyian therapy is to help patients gradually grown in the
direction of self-realization. More specifically, the aim is to have patients give up their idealized
self-image, relinquish their neurotic search for glory, and change self-hatred to an acceptance
of the real self. Therefore, the therapy includes self-analysis leading to self-understanding.
 As to techniques, Horneyian therapists use many of the same ones employed by
Freudian therapists, especially dream interpretation and free association.

PART VI. HARRY STACK SULLIVAN’S INTERPERSONAL THEORY

I. OVERVIEW OF INTERPERSONAL THEORY

Harry Stack Sullivan, the first American to construct a comprehensive personality theory,
believed that people develop their personality within a social context. Without other people,
Sullivan contended, humans would have no personality. “A personality can never be isolated
from the complex of interpersonal relations in which the person lives and has his being”
(Sullivan, 1953).
Sullivan insisted that knowledge of human personality can be gained only through the
scientific study of interpersonal relations. His interpersonal theory emphasizes the
importance of various developmental stages- infancy, childhood, juvenile era, preadolescence,
early adolescence, late adolescence, and adulthood.
In many ways, Sullivan’s theory is dramatically different from Freud. In fact, some
writers prefer to place Sullivan’s theory in a category other than psychoanalytic approach. His
rejection of many Freud’s concepts and his emphasis on the interpersonal nature of personality
places Sullivan’s approach somewhere between that of the psychoanalysis and that of the social
learning theorists.

II. SULLIVAN’S BIOGRAPHY

Unlike the other neo- Freudians theorists covered here, Harry Stack Sullivan was born
and trained in America. He was born in the small farming town of Norwich, New York on
February 21, 1892, the sole surviving child of poor Irish catholic parents.
When Sullivan was 8 ½ years old, he formed a close relationship with a 13-year-old boy
from neighboring farm. This chum was Clarence Bellinger, who lived a mile beyond Harry in
another school district. Although the two boys were not peers chronologically, they had much in
common socially and intellectually. Both later became psychiatrists and neither ever married.
The relationship had a transforming effect on Sullivan’s life. It awakened in him the power of
intimacy, that is, the ability to love another who was more or less like himself.
A bright student, Sullivan graduated from high school as valedictorian at age 16. He then entered
Cornell University intending to become a physicist, although he also had an interest in psychiatry. His
academic performance at Cornell was a disaster, however, and he was suspended after 1 year. The
suspension may not have been solely for academic deficiencies. He got into trouble with the law at
Cornell, possibly for mail fraud.
In any event, for the next 2 years Sullivan mysteriously disappeared from the scene. Perry (1982)
reported he may have suffered a schizophrenic breakdown at this time and was confined to a mental
hospital. Alexander (1990), however, surmised that Sullivan spent this time under the guidance of an
older male model who helped him overcome his sexual panic and who intensified his interest in
psychiatry. Whatever the answer to Sullivan’s mysterious disappearance from 1909 to 1911, his
experiences seemed to have matured him academically and possibly sexually.
In 1911, with only one very unsuccessful year of undergraduate work, Sullivan enrolled in the
Chicago College of Medicine and Surgery, where his grades, though only mediocre, were a great
improvement over those he earned at Cornell. He finished his medical studies in 1915 but did not receive
his degree until 1917. Sullivan claimed that the delay was because he had not yet paid his tuition in full,
but Perry (1982) found evidence that he had not completed all his academic requirements by 1915 and
needed, among other requirements, an internship.
Sullivan served as a military officer, first for the Federal Board for Vocational Education and then
for the Public Health Service. In 1921, with no formal training in psychiatry, he went to St. Elizabeth
Hospital in Washington, DC. He conducted intensive studies on schizophrenic patients and concluded
that their illness has interpersonal basis. He moved to New York City and opened a private practice.
On the personal side, Sullivan was not comfortable with this sexuality and had
ambivalent feelings toward marriage. As an adult, he brought into his home a 15-year-old boy
who was probably a former patient. This young man-James Inscoe- remained with Sullivan for
22 years, looking after his financial affairs, typing manuscripts, and generally running the
household. Although Sullivan never officially adapted James, he regarded him as a son and
even had his legal name changed to James I. Sullivan.

III. SULLIVAN’S CONTRIBUTION TO PERSONALITY THEORY

Some of the important and interesting concepts proposed by Sullivan are discussed
below:

A. Tension- it refers to the potentiality for action that may or may not be experienced in
awareness. Thus, not all tensions are consciously felt. Sullivan recognized two types of
tensions: needs and anxiety.

Needs- these are tensions brought on by biological imbalance between a person and
physiochemical environment, both inside and outside the organism. Although needs
originally have a biological component, many of them stem from the interpersonal
situation. For Sullivan, the most basic interpersonal need is tenderness.
General needs- facilitate the overall well-being of a person which includes
interpersonal and physiological needs.
Zonal needs- arise from a particular area of the body which includes oral, genital, and
manual.

Anxiety- it is the chief disruptive force blocking the development of healthy interpersonal
relations. Severe anxiety makes people incapable of learning, impairs memory, narrows
perception, and may even result in complete amnesia. Because anxiety is painful, people
have a natural tendency to avoid it, inherently preferring the state of euphoria, or
complete lack of tension.

B. Energy Transformations- these are the tensions that are transformed into actions, either
overt or covert. This somewhat awkward term simply refers to our behaviors that are
aimed at satisfying needs and reducing anxiety- the two great tensions.
C. Dynamisms- refer to a typical pattern of behavior. Dynamisms may relate either to specific
zones of the body or to tensions.

1. Malevolence- the disjunctive dynamism of evil and hatred is called malevolence,

defined by Sullivan as a feeling of living among one’s enemies. Those children who
become malevolent have much difficulty giving and receiving tenderness or being
intimate with other people.

2. Intimacy- the conjunctive dynamism marked by a close personal relationship

between two people of equal status is called intimacy. Intimacy facilitates interpersonal
development while decreasing both anxiety and loneliness. Intimacy must not be
confused with sexual interest. In fact, it develops prior to puberty.

3. Lust- in contrast to both malevolence and intimacy, lust is an isolating dynamism.

That is, lust is a self-centered need that can be satisfied in the absence of an intimate
interpersonal relationship. In other words, although intimacy presupposes tenderness or
love, lust is based solely on sexual gratification and requires no other person for its
satisfaction.

4. Self-System- the most inclusive of all dynamisms is the self-system, or that pattern of
behaviors that protects us against anxiety and maintains our interpersonal security. The
self system is a conjunctive dynamism, but because its primary job is to protect the self
from anxiety, it tends to stifle personality change. Experiences that are inconsistent with
our self-system threaten our security and necessitate our use of security operations,
which consist of behaviors designed to reduce interpersonal tensions. One such security
operation is dissociation, which includes all those experiences that we block from
awareness. Another is selective inattention, which involves blocking only certain
experiences from awareness.

D. Personifications– a mental image we have of other people and of ourselves.

Personifications need not to correspond to reality, for the importance of how they
influence our interactions with others lies in the individually different way in which we
conceive of the other person.
Sullivan believed that people acquire certain images of self and others throughout the
developmental stages, and he referred to these subjective perceptions as personifications.
Some of these personifications are the following:

1. Bad-Mother, Good-Mother
The bad-mother personification grows out of infant’s experiences with a nipple
that does not satisfy their hunger needs. All infants experience the bad-mother
personification, even though their real mothers may be loving and nurturing. Later, infants
acquire a good-mother personification as they become mature enough to recognize the
tender and cooperative behavior of their mothering one. Still later, these two
personifications combine to form a complex and contrasting image of the real mother.

2. Me Personifications
 The most noteworthy of the personifications are those related to the self. According
to Sullivan, we all form images of ourselves, and these images fall into three basic
categories:
2.1 The good- me personification- consists of those aspects of ourselves that we
feel good about, that have been rewarded in the past, and that are not
associated with anxiety.
2.2 The bad-me personification- reflects those parts of our experiences that we
would rather not think about, that have not been rewarded, and that have
associated with anxiety.
2.3 The not-me personification- represents those aspects of ourselves which are
so threatening that we dissociate them from the self- system and maintain them
in our unconscious. This process of dissociation is similar to Freud’s concept of
repression.

3. Eidetic Personifications
One of Sullivan’s most interesting observations was that people often create
imaginary traits that they project onto others. Included in these eidetic personifications are
the imaginary playmates that preschool-aged children often have. These imaginary
friends enable children to have a safe, secure relationship with another person, even though
that person is imaginary.

E. Levels of Cognition in Interpersonal Theory

Sullivan recognized three levels of cognition, or ways of perceiving things-prototaxic,
parataxic, and syntaxic.

1. Prototaxic Level. Experiences that are impossible to put into words or to communicate to
others are called prototaxic. Newborn infants experience images mostly on a prototaxic level,
but adults, too, frequently have preverbal experiences that are momentary and incapable of
being communicated.

2. Parataxic Level. Experiences that are prelogical and nearly impossible to accurately
communicate to others are called parataxic. Included in these are erroneous assumptions
about cause and effect, which Sullivan termed parataxic distortions.

3. Syntaxic Level. Experiences that can be accurately communicated to others are called
syntaxic. Children become capable of syntaxic language at about 12 to 18 months of age
when words begin to have the same meaning for them that they do for others.

F. Stages of Development in Interpersonal Theory

Sullivan saw interpersonal development as taking place over seven stages, from infancy to
mature adulthood. Personality changes are most likely during transitions between stages.
1. Infancy (0-2 years)
The period from birth until the emergence of syntaxic language, usually at about age
18-24 months- a time when the child receives tenderness from the mothering one while also
learning anxiety through an empathic linkage with the mother. Anxiety may increase to the
 point of terror, but such terror is controlled by the built-in protections
of apathy and somnolent detachment that allow the baby to go to sleep. During infancy
children use autistic language, that is, private language that makes little or no sense to
other people.

2. Childhood (2-6 years)

The stage that lasts from the beginning of syntaxic language until the need for
playmates of equal status is called childhood . The child’s primary interpersonal relationship
continues to be with the mother, who is now differentiated from other persons who nurture
the child. Besides their parents, preschool-aged children often have one other significant
relationship- an imaginary playmate.

3. Juvenile Era (6- 8 ½ years)

The juvenile stage begins with the need for peers of equal status and ends until
the child develops a need for an intimate relationship with a chum. At this time children
should learn how to compete, to compromise, and to cooperate. These three abilities, as
well as an orientation toward living, help a child develop intimacy, the chief dynamism of
the next developmental stage.

4. Preadolescence (8 ½ - 13 years)
Perhaps the most crucial stage is preadolescence, because mistakes made earlier
can be corrected during preadolescence, but errors made during preadolescence are nearly
impossible to overcome in later life. Preadolescence spans the time from the need for a
single best friend (chum) until puberty. A preadolescent’s intimate relationship ordinarily
involves another person of the same gender or social status. Children who do not
learn intimacy during preadolescence have added difficulties relating to potential sexual
partners during later stages.

5. Early Adolescence (13- 15 years)

Begins with puberty and ends with the need for sexual love with one person.
Development during this stage is ordinarily marked by a coexistence of intimacy with a
single friend of the same gender and sexual interest in many persons of the opposite
gender. However, if children have no preexisting capacity for intimacy, they may confuse
lust with love and develop sexual relationships that are devoid of true intimacy.

6. Late Adolescence (15-18 years)

It begins when a person is able to feel both intimacy and lust toward the same
person. Late adolescence is characterized by a stable pattern of sexual activity and the
growth of the syntaxic mode, as young people learn how to live in the adult world.

7. Adulthood (18 onwards)

Late adolescence flows into adulthood , a time when a person establishes a stable
relationship with a significant other person and develops a consistent pattern of viewing
the world.

G. Psychological Disorders
 Sullivan believed that all psychological disorders have an interpersonal origin and can be
understood only with reference to the patient’s social environment. Most of Sullivan’s early
therapeutic work was with schizophrenic patients, and many of his subsequent lectures and
writing dealt with schizophrenia.
Sullivan (1962) distinguished two broad classes of schizophrenia. The first included all
those symptoms that originate from organic causes and are therefore beyond the study of
interpersonal psychiatry. The second class included all schizophrenic disorders grounded in
situational factors. These disorders were the only ones of concern to Sullivan because they
are the only ones amenable to change through interpersonal psychiatry.

IV. SULLIVAN’S PSYCHOTHERAPY

Because he believed that psychic disorders grow out of interpersonal difficulties, Sullivan
based his therapeutic procedures on an effort to improve a patient’s relationship with others. To
facilitate this process, the therapist serves as a participant observer, becoming part of an
interpersonal, face-to-face relationship with the patient and providing the patient an opportunity
to establish syntaxic communication with another human being.

PART VII. ERICH FROMM’S HUMANISTIC PSYCHOANALYSIS

I. OVERVIEW OF HUMANISTIC PSYCHOANALYSIS

Erich Fromm’s basic thesis is that modern-day people have been torn away from their
prehistoric union with nature and with one another, yet they have the power of reasoning,
foresight, and imagination. He developed a theory of personality that emphasizes the influence
of sociobiological factors, history, economics, and class structure. His humanistic psychoanalysis
assumes that humanity’s separation from the natural world has produced feelings of loneliness
and isolation, a condition called basic anxiety.

According to Fromm, individual personality can be understood only in the light of human
history. “The discussion of the human situation must precede that of personality, psychology
must be based on an anthropologic-philosophical concept of human existence”.

II. FROMM’S SHORT BIOGRAPHY

Erich Fromm was born in Germany in 1900, the only child of orthodox Jewish parents.
A thoughtful young man, Fromm was influenced by the bible, Freud, and Marx, as well as by
socialist ideology. After receiving his PhD, Fromm began studying psychoanalysis and became an
analyst by virtue of being analyzed by Hanns Sachs, a student of Freud. In 1934, Fromm moved
to the United States and began a psychoanalytic practice in New York, where he also resumed his
friendship with Karen Horney. Much of his later years were spent in Mexico and Switzerland. He
died in 1980.

III.FROMM’S CONTRIBUTION TO PERSONALITY THEORY

A. Escape from Freedom and Positive Freedom

 Fromm believes that we are free to be and do whatever we please. Yet it is very
freedom that creates greatest problem for us. Once we emerge on our own, we are faced with
enormous personal responsibilities, we are isolated, we are alone. Freedom can be frightening.
As Fromm said, we feel an “unbearable state of powerlessness and aloneness.” As we become
aware of our individuality, we become aware of all that we cannot control and come painfully
face-to-face with our insignificance. According to Fromm, we have two types of responses to
this situation: escape from freedom or positive freedom.

Mechanisms of Escape from Freedom

The following are the three strategies people employ in an attempt to overcome the
feelings of powerlessness and anxiety that accompany freedom.

1. Authoritarianism- the tendency to “fuse one’s self with somebody or something

outside of oneself in order to acquire the strength which the individual self is lacking”.
Fromm describes these authoritarian characters as reflecting an ironic combination of
strivings for submission and strivings for domination, or, in Fromm’s terms, masochism
and sadism.

2. Destructiveness- the individual attempts to overcome life’s threatening situations by

destroying them. For example, we may say that we are fighting for love of country but
in reality we are neurotically striving to overcome the feelings of powerlessness and
isolation that threatens us all.

3. Automaton Conformity- the individual simply has a blind acceptance of all of the
contradictions of life. If he can’t beat them, he must join them. He totally lacks any
spontaneity and has no true experience of what is really his own life.

Positive Freedom-it refers to spontaneous and full expression of both the rational and
emotional potentialities. Spontaneous activity is frequently seen in small children and in artists
who have little or no tendency to conform to whatever others want them to be. They act
according to their basic natures and not according to conventional rules.

B. Character Orientations
According to Fromm, people relate to the world in two ways- by acquiring and using
things (assimilation) and by relating to self and others ( socialization). In general terms, people
can relate to things and to people either productively or nonproductively.

Nonproductive Orientations
1. Receptive characters- feel that the source of all good lies outside themselves and that the
only way they can relate to the world is to receive things, including love, knowledge, and
material possessions.
2. Exploitative characters- aggressively take what they desire rather than passively receive
it.
3. Hoarding- seeks to save that which they have already obtained. People with this orientation
hold everything inside and do not let go of anything.
4. Marketing character- see themselves as commodities, with their personal value dependent
on their exchange value, that is, their ability to sell themselves.

Productive Orientations
The single productive orientation has three dimensions- working, loving, and reasoning.
Healthy people value work not as an end in itself, but as a means of creative self-expression.
Productive love is characterized by care, responsibility, respect, and knowledge. In addition to
these four characteristics, healthy people possess biophilia: that is, a passionate love of life
and all that is alive. Finally, productive thinking is motivated by a concerned interest in
another person or object.

C. Personality Disorders
Fromm (1981) held that psychologically disturbed people are incapable of love and have
failed to establish union with others. He discussed three severe personality disorders-
necrophilia, malignant narcissism, and incestuous symbiosis.
Necrophilia- more generalized sense to denote any attraction to death. It is an alternative
character orientation to biophilia. Necrophilic personalities hate humanity, they are bullies, they
love destruction, terror, and torture.
Malignant Narcissism- people with this disorder are preoccupied with themselves, but this
concern is not limited to admiring themselves in a mirror. Preoccupation with one’s body often
leads to hypochondriasis, or an obsessive attention to one’s health.
Incestuous Symbiosis- refers to an extreme dependence on the mother or mother surrogate.

D. Fromm’s Concept of LOVE

In the final analysis of man’s troubled existence, Fromm fervently feels that the answer
to the problem is the capacity of man to love. According to him, love is an art, it requires the
effort and knowledge the other types of art demand. Love is an active process in which we
establish individuality. It is in genuine love, said Fromm, that we find the paradox “two beings
become one yet remain two”.
In his popular book entitled “The Art of Loving” , Fromm identified care, responsibility,
respect, and knowledge as four basic elements common to all forms of genuine love. He
proposes five types of love. They are described below:
1. Brotherly love- the most fundamental, the strongest, and the most underlying kind
of love. It is a love between equals.
2. Motherly love- the love and care for the helpless, the wanting to make them
strong and independent.
3. Erotic love- usually allied with sexual experience, a “craving for complete function,”
and is what most consider the only kind of love. It is exclusive and inclined toward
jealousy.
4. Self-love- care, responsibility, respect, and knowledge of self.
5. Love of God- has the highest value, is the most desirable good, and emphasizes
care, respect, responsibility, and specially knowledge.

E. Fromm’s Five Existential/ Human Needs

 1. Transcendence- to go above being just an animal, to improve and learn, to increase in
material things.
2. Sense of Identity-capacity to be aware of ourselves as a separate entity.
3. Rootedness-the need to establish roots or to feel at home again in the world.
4. Frame of orientation-the need for road map to make their way through the world.
5. Relatedness- feeling of oneness with fellow men and with self. Fromm postulated
three basic ways in which a person may relate to the world: (1) submission, (2) power,
and (3) love.

IV. PSYCHOTHERAPY
Fromm believed that the aim of therapy is for patients to come to know themselves.
Without knowledge of ourselves, we cannot know any other person or thing. He believed that
patients come to therapy seeking satisfaction of their basic human needs- relatedness,
transcendence, rootedness, a sense of identity, and a frame of orientation. He asked the
patients to reveal their dreams, as well as fairy tales and myths. Then, Fromm would ask for
the patient’s associations to the dream material.

References:

Bischof, L.J. (1970). Interpreting Personality Theories 2 nd Edition. New York: Harper & Rows,
Publishers.

Burger, J.M. (1986). Personality Theory and Research. California: Wadsworth Publishing
Company.

Feist, J & Feist, F. (2008). Theories of Personality, Seventh Edition. United States of America:
McGraw-Hill

Teh, L.A. & Macapagal, M.J. (editors) (2008). General Psychology for Filipino Students. Manila,
Philippines: Ateneo De Manila University Press.

Prepared by:
BENNY S. SOLIMAN, RGC.,LPT.,RPm.
Lecturer, Theories of Personality