FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

BFC43103

1.0 Site investigation

▪ Also know as Subsurface Exploration/Soil Exploration
▪ It is the process of identifying the layers of deposits that underlie a proposed structure
and their physical characteristics.
▪ With the information obtain from site investigation, it will aid the geotechnical
engineer in:
1) Selecting the type and depth of foundation suitable for a given structure.
2) Evaluating the load-bearing capacity of the foundation.
3) Estimating the probable settlement of a structure.
4) Determining potential foundation problems (e.g., expansive soil, collapsible soil,
sanitary landfill, and so on).
5) Determining the location of the water table.
6) Predicting the lateral earth pressure for structures such as retaining walls, sheet pile
bulkheads, and braced cuts.
8) Establishing construction methods for changing subsoil conditions.
Step 1: Collection of Preliminary Information/Literature Search
▪ It involves obtaining information regarding the type of structure to be built and its
general use. Information such as:
a) For the construction of buildings, the approximate column loads and their
spacing and the local building-code and basement requirements should be
known.
b) The construction of bridges requires determining the lengths of their spans and
the loading on piers and abutments.
▪ A general idea of the topography and the type of soil to be encountered near and
around the proposed site can be obtained from the following sources:
a) Geological society of Malaysia.
b) JKR
Reconnaissance
▪ The engineer should always make a visual inspection of the site to obtain
information about:
1. The general topography of the site, the possible existence of drainage ditches,
abandoned dumps of debris, and other materials present at the site. Also,
evidence of creep of slopes and deep, wide shrinkage cracks at regularly spaced
intervals may be indicative of expansive soils.
2. Soil stratification from deep cuts, such as those made for the construction of
nearby highways and railroads.
3. The type of vegetation at the site, which may indicate the nature of the soil.
4. High-water marks on nearby buildings and bridge abutments.
5. Groundwater levels, which can be determined by checking nearby wells.
6. The types of construction nearby and the existence of any cracks in walls or other
problems.
 Detail Site Investigation/Laboratory Testing
▪ The detail site investigation phase of the exploration program consists of planning,
making test boreholes, and collecting soil samples at desired intervals for
subsequent observation and laboratory tests.
▪ The approximate required minimum depth of the borings should be
predetermined.
▪ The depth can be changed during the drilling operation, depending on the subsoil
encountered.

Type of project Spacing

(m)
Multistory building 10 – 30
One-story industrial plants 20 – 60
Highways 250 – 500
Depth of boring according to Sowers (1970) Residential subdivision 250 – 500
Dams and dikes 40 - 80

Approximate spacing of boreholes

▪ According to American Society of Civil Engineers (1972), approximate minimum depth
of boring can be determine by:
1) Determine the net increase in the effective stress, Δσ', under a foundation with depth
2) Estimate the variation of the vertical effective stress, σo’ ,with depth.

3) Determine the depth, D = D1, at which the effective stress increase Δσ' is equal to
(1/10)q (q = estimated net stress on the foundation).
4) Determine the depth, D = D2, at which Δσ'/σo’ = 0.05.
5) Choose the smaller of the two depths, D1 and D2, just determined as the approximate
minimum depth of boring required, unless bedrock is encountered.
▪ Auger boring is the simplest method of making exploratory boreholes.
▪ A wide variety of equipment is available for performing borings and obtaining soil samples.
▪ The method used to advance the boring should be compatible with the soil and groundwater
conditions to assure that soil samples of suitable quality are obtained.

HAND AUGER BORINGS/HAND OPERATED AUGER

AUGER BORINGS
▪ Rotating an auger while simultaneously advancing it into the ground; the auger is
advanced to the desired depth and then withdrawn.
▪ Samples of cuttings can be removed from the auger; however, the depth of the sample
can only be approximated. These samples are disturbed and should be used only for
material identification.
▪ This method is used to establish soil strata and water table elevations, or to advance to
the desired stratum before Standard Penetration Testing (SPT) or undisturbed sampling
is performed.
▪ However, it cannot be used effectively in soft or loose soils below the water table without
casing or drilling mud to hold the hole open.
TYPES OF AUGER
(a) Plate Auger.
Used in strata which will stand unsupported. It is necessary to pull out every foot to examine
cuttings. Depth limited by length of kelly bar (generally 6 m).

(b) Continuous Flight Auger.

A spiral continuous flight is used to transfer the soil to the surface. Identification of strata changes is
difficult. Useful in proving known strata.
(c) Hollow Flight Auger.
▪ A continuous spiral around a tube is used to transfer cuttings to the surface. A plug and
spade auger device can be used to drill soil below the control tube, or a continuous
sample can be taken in a central sampling barrel, or undisturbed samples driven ahead
through the tube.
▪ SPT and undisturbed samples are obtained through the hollow drill stem, which acts like
a casing to hold the hole open.
(c) Wash Boring
▪ In this method, the boring is advanced by a combination of the
chopping action of a light bit and the jetting action of water flowing
through the bit.
▪ This method of advancing the borehole is used only when precise
soil information is not required between sample intervals.
▪ A chopping bit on a string of rods is used inside a casing, soft strata
being washed out below the casing and carried to the surface by a
jet of water passing through the rods and bit, and returning inside
the casing.
▪ Firmer materials are penetrated by chopping with the bit, and
chopped particles being carried to the surface by the flow of water.

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▪ Two types of soil samples can be obtained during subsurface exploration: disturbed and
undisturbed.

▪ Disturbed Sampling
Disturbed samples are generally obtained to determine the soil type, gradation, classification,
consistency, density, presence of contaminants, stratification, etc. These samples are considered
disturbed since the sampling process modifies their natural structure.

▪ Undisturbed Sampling
Undisturbed samples are used to determine the in place strength, compressibility
(settlement), natural moisture content, unit weight, permeability, discontinuities, fractures and
fissures of subsurface formations.
SAMPLING/SAMPLER
▪ Samplers are equipment's to obtain disturb and undisturbed samples.
▪ In order to determine if the samplers could obtain disturbed or undisturbed soil,
the degree of disturbance is determined.
▪ Degree of disturbance is measure by the Area Ratio:

Hence, this sample is highly disturbed.

Split-Barrel Samplers: (a) Lengths of 457 mm (18 in) and 610 mm (24 in); (b) Inside diameters from
38.1 mm (1.5 in) to 89 mm (3.5 in).

Both ends of the tube should then be

sealed with at least a 25 mm (1 in)
thick layer of microcrystalline
(nonshrinking) wax after placing a
plastic disk to protect the ends of the
sample or using an O ring packer.
Piston Sampler.
(a) Picture with thin-walled tube cut-out to show piston, (b) Schematic (After
ASTM D4700).
BOX SAMPLING
1. Soil Classification Tests: BS 1377: Part 2: 1990
▪ Moisture content, Liquid limit, Plastic limit, Plasticity index, linear shrinkage, particle size distribution. (These tests are from disturbed
samples such as split spoon samplers (SPT), bulk samples, etc.).

2. Chemical & Electro-chemical Tests: BS 1377 Part 3: 1990

▪ Organic matter content, Mass loss on ignition, Sulphate content of soil and ground water, Carbonate content, Chloride content, Total
dissolved solids, pH value.

3. Compaction-related (tests from bulk samples) Tests: BS 1377: Part

▪ Dry density - moisture relationship (2.5 kg/4.5 kg hammer), Moisture condition value (MCV), CBR tests

4. Compressibility, Permeability and Durability Tests: BS 1377: Part 5

▪ 1-D consolidation test, Swelling and collapse tests, Permeability by constant head, Dispersibility

5. Consolidation & Permeability Tests in Hydraulic Cells & with pore pressure measurements: BS 1377: Part 6
▪ Consolidation Properties using hydraulic cell, Permeability in hydraulic consolidation cell, Isotropic consolidated properties using triaxial
cell, Permeability in a triaxial cell

6. Shear Strength Tests (Total Stress) BS 1377: Part 7

▪ Lab vane shear, Direct shear box (small), Direct shear box (large), Residual strength, Undrained shear strength (UU), Undrained shear
strength (multi loading)

7. Shear Strength Tests (Effective Stress) BS 1377: Part 8

▪ CIU with pore pressure measurement, CD with pore pressure measurement
▪ The common tests include:
standard penetration (SPT),
cone penetration test (CPT),
piezocone (CPTu), flat
dilatometer (DMT),
pressuremeter (PMT), and vane
shear (VST).
▪ Boreholes are required for
conducting the SPT and normal
versions of the PMT and VST.
▪ In the case of the CPT, CPTU,
and DMT, no boreholes are
needed, thus termed .direct-
push. technologies.
STANDARD PENETRATION TEST (SPT)
▪ Performed during the advancement of
a soil boring to obtain an approximate
measure of the dynamic soil resistance,
as well as a disturbed drive sample
(split barrel type).
▪ The SPT involves the driving of a
hollow thick-walled tube into the
ground and measuring the number of
blows to advance the split-barrel
sampler a vertical distance of 300 mm
(1 foot).
▪ A drop weight system is used for the
pounding where a 63.5-kg (140-lb)
hammer repeatedly falls from 0.76 m
(30 inches) to achieve three successive
increments of 150-mm (6-inches) each.
▪ The first increment is recorded as a
seating, while the number of blows to
advance the second and third
increments are summed to give the N-
value ("blow count") or SPT-resistance
(reported in blows/0.3 m or blows per
foot).
▪ If the sampler cannot be driven 450
mm, the number of blows per each 150-
mm increment and per each partial
increment is recorded on the boring
log.
▪ It is important to point out that several factors contribute to the variation of the
standard penetration number N at a given depth for similar soil profiles. Among
these factors are the SPT hammer efficiency, borehole diameter, sampling method,
and rod length. The standard practice now in the U.S. is to express the N-value to an
average energy ratio of 60%.

▪ Advantages and disadvantages of SPT.

Correlations for N60 in Cohesive Soil Correlations between Angle of Friction
and Standard Penetration Number (N

Note
Please see DAS, Principles of
Foundation Engineering for more
correlations of N60 with
engineering parameters.
VANE SHEAR TEST (VST)
▪ Used to evaluate the inplace
undrained shear strength (suv) of
soft to stiff clays & silts at regular
depth intervals of 1 meter (3.28
feet).
▪ The test consists of inserting a
four-bladed vane into the clay and
rotating the device about a
vertical axis, per ASTM D 2573
guidelines.
▪ The standard vane has a
rectangular geometry with a
blade diameter D = 65 mm, height
H = 130 mm (H/D =2), and blade
thickness e = 2 mm.
▪ The test is best performed when
the vane is pushed beneath the
bottom of an pre-drilled borehole.
▪ For a borehole of diameter B, the
top of the vane should pushed to a
depth of insertion of at least df =
4B. Within 5 minutes after
insertion, rotation should be made
at a constant rate of 6°/minute
(0.1°/s) with measurements of
torque taken frequently
FLAT PLATE DILATOMETER
TEST (DMT)
▪ The flat dilatometer test (DMT)
uses pressure readings from an
inserted plate to obtain
stratigraphy and estimates of at-
rest lateral stresses, elastic
modulus, and shear strength of
sands, silts, and clays.
▪ The device consists of a tapered
stainless steel blade with 18°
wedge tip that is pushed vertically
into the ground at 200 mm depth
intervals (or alternative 300-mm
intevals) at a rate of 20 mm/s.
▪ The blade (approximately 240 mm
long, 95 mm wide, and 15 mm
thick) is connected to a readout
pressure gauge at the ground
surface via a special wire-tubing
through drill rods or cone rods.
▪ A 60-mm diameter flexible steel
membrane located on one side of
the blade is inflated pneumatically
to give two pressures for readings.
CONE PENETRATION TESTING
(CPT)
▪ It is fast, economical, and
provides continuous profiling of
geostratigraphy and soil
properties evaluation. The test is
performed according to ASTM D-
3441 (mechanical systems) and
ASTM D 5778 (electric and
electronic systems)
▪ Consists of pushing a cylindrical
steel probe into the ground at a
constant rate of 20 mm/s and
measuring the resistance to
penetration.
▪ The standard penetrometer has a
conical tip with 60° angle apex,
35.7-mm diameter body and 150-
cm2 friction sleeve. The measured
point or tip resistance is
designated qc and the measured
side or sleeve resistance is fs.
▪ The CPT can be used in very soft
clays to dense sands, yet is not
particularly appropriate for
gravels or rocky terrain.
PRESSUREMETER TEST (PMT)
▪ Consists of a long cylindrical probe
that is expanded radially into the
surrounding ground. By tracking the
amount of volume of fluid and
pressure used in inflating the probe,
the data can be interpreted to give a
complete stress-strain-strength
curve. In soils, the fluid medium is
usually water (or gas), while in
weathered and fractured rocks,
hydraulic oil is used.
Several types of geophysical exploration techniques permit a rapid evaluation of subsoil
characteristics. These methods also allow rapid coverage of large areas and are less
expensive than conventional exploration by drilling. However, in many cases, definitive
interpretation of the results is difficult. For that reason, such techniques should be used for
preliminary work only.
▪ SEISMIC REFRACTION SURVEY
Generally used for determining the depth to very hard layers, such as bedrock. The
seismic refraction method involves a mapping of Vp arrivals using a linear array of
geophones across the site.
In fact, a single geophone system can be used by moving the geophone position and
repeating the source event.
An impact on a metal plate serves as a source rich in P-wave energy. Initially, the P- waves
travel solely through the soil to arrive at geophones located away from the source.
At some critical distance from the source, the P-wave can actually travel through soil-
underlying rock-soil to arrive at the geophone and make a mark on the oscilloscope.
▪ CROSSHOLE SEISMIC SURVEY

The velocity of shear waves created as the result of an impact to a given layer of soil
can be effectively determined by the cross-hole seismic survey.
The principle of this technique uses two holes drilled into the ground a distance L
apart. A vertical impulse is created at the bottom of one borehole by means of an
impulse rod. The shear waves thus generated are recorded by a vertically sensitive
transducer.
RESISTIVITY METHOD
▪ The unit of resistivity is the ohm-centimeter or ohm-meter.
▪ The resistivity of various soils depends primarily on their moisture content and
also on the concentration of dissolved ions in them.
▪ Saturated clays have a very low resistivity; dry soil and rocks have a high resistivity.
The range of resistivity generally encountered in various soils and rocksare as;
▪ The most common procedure for measuring the electrical resistivity of a soil
profile makes use of four electrodes driven into the ground and spaced equally
along a straight line.
▪ The procedure is generally referred to as the Wenner method. The two outside
electrodes are used to send an electrical current I (usually a dc current with
nonpolarizing potential electrodes) into the ground.
▪ The current is typically in the range of 50-100 milliamperes. The voltage drop, V, is
measured between the two inside electrodes. If the soil profile is homogeneous, its
electrical resistivity is :
1. General information
The essential information which needs to be recorded on the log is as follows:
a. Borehole number:
This should be unique to the site and kept as simple as possible without extraneous
ciphers.
b. Location:
(i) Site, including project name, town country or state name where necessary
(ii) Grid Reference which should always be stated to at least 1 Om accuracy.
Appropriate local co-ordinate systems should be applied
(iii) Elevation relative to C.O. for the ground level at the borehole site to an accuracy of
0.05m.
(iv) Orientation of the borehole given as an angle to the horizontal (-ve upwards, +ve
downwards) and azimuth (0° to 360° clockwise relative to Grid North).
c. Drilling technique:
(i) The following should be stated
(ii) The method of penetration and flush system
(iii) The make of machine with the model number
(iv) The type of core barrel and bit

d. Contract details:
(i) The following should be noted (with the agreement of the client)
(ii) Name of site investigation contractor
(iii) Name of client or authority
(iv) Job reference number
(v) Name and profession of logger

e. Miscellaneous:
There should be an opportunity for relevant miscellaneous information to be included in the log.
2. Drilling progress
The following data need to be recorded:-
a. Rate of drilling:
The depth of the borehole at the completion of each day or shift and the limits of each run of the core barrel should be recorded.
The actual penetration rate for each run or part of a run should be measured. Core diameter and changes of core size (recorded
by reference to B.S. 4019 or as metric dimension).
b. Casing:
It is essential that the progress of installation of the casing be recorded relative to the depth of the borehole; the diameter of the
casing need not be recorded except where relevant to interpretation of the data.
c. Flush returns:
The character and proportion of the circulation medium returning to the surface should be recorded.
d. Standing water level:
This should be recorded before and possibly after each drilling shift.

3.Descriptive geology
The following factors have to be incorporated in a log for adequate engineering geological description: -
(i) systematic description
(ii) alteration weathering state
(iii) structure and discontinuities
(iv) assessment of rock material strength
(v) other features, including stratigraphy
▪ Example of a borelog