Introduction

Mechanics is a branch of the physical sciences that is concerned with the

state of rest or motion of bodies subjected to the action of forces.

Dynamics includes study of motion of bodies and the forces that

accompany or cause these motions.

The subject of dynamics is presented in two parts:

(i) Kinematics, which treats only the geometric aspects of the

motion, and
(ii) Kinetics, which is the analysis of the forces causing the motion.

Kinematics is the branch of dynamics which describes the motion of

bodies without reference to the forces which either cause the motion or
are generated as a result of the motion.

Engineering Applications of Kinematics include design of cams, gear, and

other machine elements to produce certain desired motions and flight
trajectories of aircrafts, rockets, and spacecraft.

A particle has a mass but negligible size and shape. The objects that
have dimensions having no consequence in the analysis of the motion
can be considered as a particle.

The term particle is used in broader sense and for some purposes a
vehicle, airplane even can be considered as a particle.

In this case, locations of different material points of any object needs not
to be distinguished.
Finite-sized bodies such as rockets, airplanes, or vehicles can be
assumed as a particle, as long as the motion is characterized by the
motion of its mass center and any rotation of the body is neglected.

A particle is thus an object whose physical dimensions are small

compared to radius of curvature of its path.

Key elements of kinematics of a point or a particle are velocity, position

and acceleration vectors.

The definitions of these quantities do not require any coordinate system.

However for any particular problem such coordinate system is required.

Kinematics of a particle that moves along a straight-line path is first

discussed. The straight-line motion is termed as Rectilinear kinematics.

Position

The straight-line path of a particle is defined using a single coordinate

axis s.

The origin O on the path is a fixed point, and from this point the position
coordinate s is used to specify the location of the particle at any given
instant.

The vector from O to the point (e.g. P) is position vector.

The displacement of the particle is defined as the change in its position.

For example, if the particle moves from one point to another, the
displacement is

In this case Δs is positive since the particle’s final position is to the right
of its initial position, i.e., s’ > s. Likewise, if the final position were to the
left of its initial position, Δs would be negative.

If the particle moves through a displacement Δs during the time interval

Δt, the average velocity of the particle during this time interval is

If we take smaller and smaller values of Δt, the magnitude of Δs becomes

smaller and smaller. Consequently, the instantaneous velocity is a vector
defined as

dt is always positive but ds (and v) are not.

If the particle is moving to the right, the velocity is positive; whereas if it is

moving to the left, the velocity is negative.
Average speed is always a positive scalar and is defined as the total
distance traveled by a particle, sT, divided by the elapsed time Δt i.e.,

The average acceleration of the particle during the time interval Δt is

defined as:

Here Δv represents the difference in the velocity during the time interval
Δt.

The instantaneous acceleration at time t is a vector that is found by

taking smaller and smaller values of Δt and corresponding smaller and
smaller values of Δv, so that
Both the average and instantaneous acceleration can be either positive or
negative.

When the particle is slowing down, or its speed is decreasing, the particle
is said to be decelerating. In this case, v’ is less than v, and so Δv = v’ - v
will be negative.

Consequently, a will also be negative, and therefore it will act to the left,
in the opposite sense to v.

An important differential relation involving the displacement, velocity, and

acceleration along the path may be obtained by eliminating the time
differential dt
When the acceleration is constant, each of the three kinematic equations
ac = dv/dt, v = ds/dt, and ac ds = v dv can be integrated to obtain
simplified formulas

Rectilinear Kinematics: Irregular Motion

When a particle has erratic or changing motion then its position, velocity,
and acceleration cannot be described by a single continuous
mathematical function along the entire path.

Instead, a series of functions will be required to specify the motion at

different intervals.

For this reason, it is convenient to represent the motion as a graph.

To construct the v-t graph given the s-t graph, the equation v = ds/dt
should be used,
The a–t graph can be constructed from the v-t graph in a similar
manner

If the a-t graph is given, the v-t graph may be constructed using a = dv/dt,
written as
To construct the v-t graph, we begin with the particle’s initial velocity v0
and then add to this small increments of area (Δv) determined
from the a–t graph.

Similarly, if the v-t graph is given, - it is possible to determine the s-t

graph using v = ds/dt, written as

If the a–s graph can be constructed, then points on the v-s graph can be
determined by using v dv = a ds.

Integrating this equation between the limits v = v0 at s = s0 and v = v1

at s = s1, we have
Therefore, if the red area in Figure is determined, and the initial
velocity v0 at s0 = 0 is known, then

If the v-s graph is known, the acceleration a at any position s can be

determined using a ds = v dv
General Curvilinear Motion

Curvilinear motion occurs when a particle moves along a curved path.

Consider a particle located at a point on a space curve defined by the
path function s(t).

The position of the particle, measured from a fixed point O, will be

designated by the position vector r = r(t).

Both the magnitude and direction of this vector can change as the particle
moves along the curve.
Displacement

Suppose that during a small time interval Δt the particle moves a distance
Δs along the curve to a new position, defined by

The displacement Δr represents the change in the particle’s position and

is determined by vector subtraction; i.e.

Velocity During the time t, the average velocity of the particle is

The instantaneous velocity is determined from this equation by letting

Δt → 0, and consequently the direction of Δr approaches the tangent to
the curve.

Since dr will be tangent to the curve, the direction of v is also tangent to

the curve.
The magnitude of v, which can be termed speed, is obtained by realizing
that the length of the straight line segment Δr in Figure approaches the
arc length Δs as t →0,

Acceleration If the particle has a velocity v at time t and a velocity

v’ = v + Δv at t + Δt, then the average acceleration of the particle during
the time interval Δt is
To study this time rate of change, the two velocity vectors v’ and v are
plotted such that their tails are located at the fixed point O and their
arrowheads make a curve.

This curve is called a hodograph, and when constructed, it describes

the locus of points for the arrowhead of the velocity vector in the same
manner as the path s describes the locus of points for the arrowhead of
the position vector,

To obtain the instantaneous acceleration, let Δt→ 0 in the above

equation. In the limit Δv will approach the tangent to the hodograph, and

By definition of the derivative, a acts tangent to the hodograph,

and, in general it is not tangent to the path of motion,
Curvilinear Motion: Rectangular Components

The motion of a particle often can best be described along a path that can
be expressed in terms of its x, y, z coordinates.

If the particle is at point (x, y, z) on the curved path s shown in Figure,

then its location is defined by the position vector

A vector is formulated by the addition of its x, y, z components with i, j, k

are Cartesian unit vectors that define the directions of the positive x, y, z
axes.

When the particle moves, the x, y, z components of r will be functions of

time; i.e., x = x(t), y = y(t), z = z(t), so that r = r(t).
At any instant the magnitude of r is defined as

The direction of r is specified by the unit vector ur = r/r.

Velocity The first time derivative of r yields the velocity of the particle.
When taking this derivative, it is necessary to account for changes in both
the magnitude and direction of each of the vector’s components. For
example, the derivative of the i component of r is

The second term on the right side is zero, provided the x, y, z reference

frame is fixed, and therefore the direction (and the magnitude) of i does
not change with time.

Differentiation of the j and k components may be carried out in a similar

manner, which yields the final result
The “dot” notation represents the first time derivatives of x = x(t), y = y(t),
z = z(t), respectively.
The velocity has a magnitude that is found from

and a direction that is specified by the unit vector uv = v/v. velocity

direction is always tangent to the path.

Acceleration The acceleration of the particle is obtained by taking

the first time derivative of velocity (or the second time derivative of
position vector). We have

The acceleration has a magnitude

The direction is specified by the unit vector ua = a/a.

Motion of a Projectile

A projectile is any object that once projected or dropped continues in

motion by its own inertia and is influenced by the downward force of
gravity.
Projectile motion is due to typically along a curved path and under the
action of gravity only. The effects of air resistance are assumed to be
negligible.

The horizontal motion of the projectile is the result of the tendency of any
object in motion to remain in motion at constant velocity.

The free-flight motion of a projectile is often studied in terms of its

rectangular components.

Consider a projectile launched at point (x0, y0), with an initial velocity of v0,
having components (v0)x and (v0)y. Since ax = 0, application of the
constant acceleration equations gives
The first and last equations indicate that the horizontal component of
velocity always remains constant during the motion.

Since the positive y axis is directed upward, then ay = -g

Once vx and vy are obtained, the resultant velocity v can be determined

which is always tangent to the path

From above relations following results can be derived for total time of
flight (to reach same elevation), Maximum range, and height.

It can be shown that trajectory of projectile is parabolic and is given by:

Curvilinear Motion: Normal and Tangential Components

When the path along which a particle travels is known, then it is often
convenient to describe the motion using n and t coordinate axes which
act normal and tangent to the path,

Consider the particle shown which moves in a plane along a fixed curve,
such that at a given instant it is at position s, measured from point O.
Now consider a coordinate system that has its origin on the curve, and at
the instant considered this origin happens to coincide with the location of
the particle.

The t axis is tangent to the curve at the point and is positive in the
direction of increasing s. This positive direction is designated with the unit
vector ut.

Geometrically the curve is constructed from a series of differential arc

segments ds.

Each segment ds is formed from the arc of an associated circle having a

radius of curvature r (rho / ρ) and center of curvature O.

The normal axis n is perpendicular to the t axis with its positive sense
directed toward the center of curvature O’.

This positive direction, which is always on the concave side of the curve,
will be designated by the unit vector un.

Since the particle moves, s is a function of time.

The particle’s velocity v has a direction that is always tangent to the path,
and a magnitude is determined by taking the time derivative of the path
function s = s(t), i.e., v = ds/dt.

Mathematically

The acceleration of the particle is the time rate of change of the velocity.
Thus

(A)

In order to determine the time derivative ̇ , note that as the particle

moves along the arc ds in time dt, ut preserves its magnitude of unity;
however, its direction changes, and becomes ut’. This means

dut stretches between the arrowheads of ut and ut’, which lie on an

infinitesimal arc of radius ut = 1. dut thus has a magnitude of
and its direction is defined by un. Consequently dut and its time derivative
become

(1)

The arc length ds in terms of angle dθ and its time derivative are

(2)

From (1) and (2)

Substitute ̇ in equation (A) gives

̇ ( ) (B)

The general relation for acceleration vector is given by

(C)
Comparing (B) with (C) results in

(Since v = ds/dt and at = dv/dt)

Two special cases of motion are:

(i) If the particle moves along a straight line, then ρ → ∞ and from
previous equation an = 0. Thus a = at = ̇ ,

Thus tangential component of acceleration represents the time rate of

change in the magnitude of the velocity.

(ii) If the particle moves along a curve with a constant speed, then

at = ̇ and an = v2/ρ
Therefore, the normal component of acceleration represents the time rate
of change in the direction of the velocity.

Curvilinear Motion: Cylindrical Components

Sometimes the motion of the particle follows a path that is best described
using cylindrical coordinates.

The location of the particle is shown in Figure using

(i) a radial coordinate r, which extends outward from the fixed origin O to
the particle, and

(ii) a transverse coordinate θ, which is the counterclockwise angle

between a fixed reference line and the r axis.
The positive directions of the r and θ coordinates are defined by the unit

vectors ur and uθ, respectively.

Here ur is unit vector in the direction of increasing r when θ is held fixed,

and uθ is in a direction of increasing θ when r is held fixed.

Position At any instant the position of the particle is defined by the

position vector

The instantaneous velocity v is obtained by taking the time derivative of r.

(D)

To evaluate ̇ , notice that ur only changes its direction with respect to

time, since by definition the magnitude of this vector is always one unit.

During the time Δt, a change Δr will not cause a change in the direction of
ur. However, a change Δθ will cause ur to become ur’, where

For small angles Δθ this vector Δur has a magnitude

and acts in the uθ direction. Therefore

(E)

The velocity vector becomes

̇ ( ̇ ) (F)

The general form of velocity in component form is

(G)

By comparing (F) and (G)

The radial component vr is a measure of the rate of increase or decrease

in the length of the radial coordinate, i.e., ̇ ; whereas

The transverse component vθ can be interpreted as the rate of motion

along the circumference of a circle having a radius r.

In particular, the term ̇ = dθ/dt is called the angular velocity, since it

indicates the time rate of change of the angle θ.

Since vr and vθ are mutually perpendicular, the magnitude of velocity

or speed is simply the positive value
The direction of v is, as shown previously, tangent to the path.

The time derivative of (D) is particle’s instantaneous acceleration

(H)

To evaluate rate of change of uθ it is necessary only to find the change in

the direction of uθ since its magnitude is always unity.

During the time Δt, a change Δr will not change the direction of uθ,
however, a change Δθ will cause uθ to become uθ’ i.e.

For small angles this vector has a magnitude

Δuθ acts in the -ur direction. In vector form, Δuθ and its time derivative are
 (I)

Substituting ̇ and ̇ from (E) and (I) in equation (H)

Comparing with general relation

The term ̈ given below is called the angular acceleration

It measures the change made in the angular velocity during an instant of

time. Units for this measurement are rad/s2.
Since ar and aθ are always perpendicular, the magnitude of acceleration
is simply the positive value of

Analysis of Two Particles - Dependent Motion

In some types of problems the motion of one particle will depend on the
corresponding motion of another particle.
This dependency commonly occurs if the particles (here represented by
blocks) are interconnected by inextensible cords which are wrapped
around pulleys.

The location of the blocks is specified using position coordinates sA and

sB. The coordinate axes are along the cord and distance / position is
measured from a fixed point (O).

If the total cord length is lT, the two position coordinates are related by the
equation

Here lCD is the length of the cord passing over arc CD. Taking the time
derivative of this expression, realizing that lCD and lT remain constant,
while, we have

The negative sign indicates that when block A has a velocity downward,
i.e., in the direction of positive sA , it causes a corresponding upward
velocity of block B; i.e., B moves in the negative sB direction.
Similarly after differentiating the velocities again with time we get

A more complicated example is shown below.

The position coordinates are chosen which (1) have their origin at fixed
points (ii) positive to the right for sA and positive downward for sB.

During the motion, the length of the red colored segments of the cord
remains constant.

If l represents the total length of cord minus these segments, then the
position coordinates can be related by the equation
Since l and h are constant, the two time derivatives yield

Hence, when B moves downward (+sB), A moves to the left (-sA) with
twice the motion.

Relative-Motion of Two Particles

In previous topics, the absolute motion of a particle was described using a

single fixed reference frame.

There are many cases, however, where the path of motion for a particle is
complicated, so that it may be easier to analyze the motion in parts by
using two or more frames of reference.

For example, the motion of a particle located at the tip of an airplane

propeller, while the plane is in flight, is more easily described in relative
sense.

In this case, one can observe first the motion of the airplane from a fixed
reference and then superimpose (vectorially) the circular motion of the
particle measured from a reference attached to the airplane.

The motion of moving coordinate system is specified with respect to fixed

coordinate system. This primary system is assumed to have no motion in
space.

For most earthbound engineering problems it is sufficiently precise to

consider the fixed reference system as a set of axes attached to earth
and neglect the earth motion.

The relative motion terms can be expressed in any convenient coordinate

system rectangular, normal-tangential, or polar.
In the present topic moving reference system is considered which
translates but does not rotate.

Position Consider particles A and B, which move along the arbitrary paths
shown in Figure.

The absolute position of each particle, rA and rB, is measured from the
common origin O of the fixed x, y, z reference frame.

The origin of a second frame of reference x’, y’, z’ is attached to and

moves with particle A.

The position of B measured relative to A is denoted by the relative-

position vector rB/A.

Using vector addition, the three vectors can be related by the equation
An equation that relates the velocities of the particles is determined by
taking the time derivative of the above equation

Here vB = drB/dt and vA = drA/dt refer to absolute velocities, since they are
observed from the fixed frame; whereas the relative velocity vB/A = drB/A/dt
is observed from the translating frame.

The above equation therefore states that the velocity of B is equal to the
velocity of A plus (vectorially) the velocity of “B with respect to A,” as
measured by the translating observer fixed in the x, y, z reference frame.

The unit vectors have zero derivatives because their magnitude and
directions remains same due to translation.

For rotating axes the derivatives of unit vectors are non-zero.

Similar relation for acceleration can be obtained.

From above equation it can be inferred that acceleration of a particle as

observed in translating system will be the same as that observed in the
fixed system if the moving system has constant velocity.
The selection of point A for attaching a reference coordinate system is
arbitrary. If a coordinate system is attached to particle B. In this case the
three equations for position, velocity and acceleration will be written as: