ARCHITECTURAL ACCOUSTICS

Science, study and application of acoustic principles as they are implemented inside a building or structure.

SOUND
NOT Tangible.

Sound is a vibration that propagates as a typically audible mechanical wave of pressure and displacement,
through a transmission medium such as air or water.

Audible Sound
As an object vibrates, it pushes the neighboring air molecules out of its way. The molecules don't
really move much, they squeeze together to create a small area of higher and lower air pressure.
On the opposite side of the pushing motion, the corresponding "pull" causes the air pressure to
decompress a little, effectively lowering the nearby pressure.
The stronger, or more violent, the oscillating motion, the greater the pressure. This results in a
louder version of the vibration or sound.

A vibrating object > a chain reaction of air molecules pushing toward, and pulling away from
one another > one or more sympatheticallyvibrating eardrums > signal sent to brain as
audible sound
Humans can hear sound waves with frequencies between about 20 Hz and 20 kHz. Sound above 20 kHz
is ultrasound below 20 Hz is infrasound.
There must be some type of compressible medium for sound to exist. Presence of molecules that can be
pushed around, or stimulated into distinct patterns of greater and lesser pressure
Sound waves can travel through any media - air,
water, wood, masonry or metal. Depending on the
media through which it travels, sound is either
airborne or structureborne.

Airborne Sound
Airborne sound radiates from a source directly into
and travels through air. Eg. Sound of music or
voices from the next room all travel to our ears as
airborne sound.

Structureborne Sound
Structureborne sound travels through solid
materials usually in direct mechanical contact with
the sound source or from an impact on that material.
Eg. Footsteps or objects falling on the upper floor.
All structureborne sound must eventually become
airborne for us to be able to hear. We can only feel
structureborne sound as vibrations in a material.

Direct Sound and Indirect Sound.

Structure-borne sound will travel great distances within a rigid or
Direct sound is sound that travels straight from a monolithic structure. As the structure vibrates, it generates airborne
source eg. speakers, etc. to the ear without being noise far removed from where the noise was generated.
affected by obstacles.
Indirect sound, on the other hand, reaches the
ear after reflecting off surfaces such as ceilings or
walls.

Acoustic shadow

An acoustic shadow is an area through which sound

waves fail to propagate, due to topographical obstructions
or disruption of the waves via phenomena such as
wind currents, buildings, or sound barriers. Eg. when a
massive column obstructs the direct sound path between
source and listener, it creates Acoustic Shadow.
Sound Propagation
Sound propagates, or travels through air, in waves

Wavelength / tone :: Distance between

identical points on a wave

Amplitude / loudness:: unit is Decibels /dB ::

Sound pressure level :: decreases over distance

Frequency or Pitch:: unit is Hertz / Hz ::

Vibration Cycles per Second (Hz) :: Audible
Sound 20Hz to 20kHz

Velocity = Frequency X Wavelength ::

1,130 feet per second (344 mps) in air.

Three ways to control noise.

a) Replace the sound with a quieter one.
b) Block the sound with a solid, heavy material
that resists the transmission of sound waves.
c) Absorb the sound with a light, porous material
that soaks up sound waves.

A source of sound, such as a vibrating tuning

fork, alternately compresses and rarifies the
air. These compressions and rarefactions
move away from the source as a longitudinal
wave. However, the air molecules just oscillate
forward and backward and essentially remain
in the same place. The compressions that are
above normal air pressure and the rarefactions
that are below normal air pressure can be
graphed as a conventional wave.
Sound moves out from a source as concentric
waves. In a section of the spherical wave, the
solid circles represent maximum compression,
while the dashed circles represent maximum
rarefaction.
Tuning forks are unusual in that they create sounds
at one frequency (wavelength) and an almost
constant amplitude that only slowly declines with time.
Most sounds are complex with both frequency
(wavelength) and amplitude changing constantly.
Tuning fork A has a high frequency and, therefore, a short wavelength,
while tuning fork B has a low frequency and, therefore, a long
wavelength. Thus, frequency and wavelength are inverse to each other,
meaning that when one increases the other one decreases.
LOW-FREQUENCY WAVES VS. HIGH-FREQUENCY RAYS
There is an extremely important distinction between low- and high-frequency
sounds. That distinction is based on the physical size of the various wavelengths.
Even though audible sound is stated as 20 Hz to 20 kHz, when discussing
architectural acoustics we design for optimum performance in the range of
frequencies from 40 Hz to 16 kHz.
To put things into perspective
1.A 40 Hz the wave is roughly 28' in length.
2.A 8 kHz wavelength is a little more than 1-5/8 inches long.
3.A 16 kHz wavelength is a little less than 7/8 of one inch in length.
Sounds that are at or below 375 Hz will be categorized as LF waves
(low-frequency waves). Mid- and high-frequency waves, those above 375 Hz,
will be recognized as HF rays (high-frequency rays).
Because of the size and propagation differences between LF waves and HF rays, any discussion related to architectural acoustics must include
and embrace the appropriate treatments that each requires.

Understanding the size of various frequencies is very important, because sound interacts and behaves differently based on the physical
structures and materials it comes in contact with. Sound frequencies are further divided into Octaves for usage reference.
When the wavelength of a sound is very small compared to the
size of the material surface with which it interacts, it can be visualized
and described as a ray. This property is used by softwares to
understand acoustic qualities of a given space using Raytrace
diagrams or methods.
A wave can interact with solid materials in several ways: reflection,
diffraction, refraction, absorption, transmission or diffusion.
The specific interaction is not only a function of the size, surface
features, and composition of a material but also a function of the
frequency or wavelength of the wave.
Reflection, Diffraction, Refraction, Absorption,
Transmission, Diffusion
When a sound reaches the edge of a wall, the sound waves will
diffract, or bend. The amount of diffraction is a function of the
wavelength. Long-wavelength (low-frequency) sounds will diffract
more than high-frequency sounds.
The above figure shows how sounds with different frequencies are
refracted by a window.
Sound also diffracts after passing through a small hole or slit.
The opening acts as if it were a source of sound but of lower
intensity than the original source.

Reflection, Diffraction, Refraction, Absorption,

Transmission, Diffusion

Because the window opening is

large compared to the short
wavelength of high-frequency
sounds, there is little bending of
those waves.

Small openings act as a source

Sound waves can be treated as rays when their wavelength is smaller of a whole new spreading wave.
or about the same size as the object on which they impinge. Thus, Examples of small openings
for room surfaces or large surfaces the angle of incidence equals the include: cracks around doors,
angle of reflection for most sound frequencies. However, for small keyholes, and penetrations through
surfaces, the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection only for walls or floors for pipes, conduits,
short wavelength (high-frequency) sounds. and ducts.
Reflection, Diffraction, Refraction, Absorption,
Transmission, Diffusion
Diffusion occurs when acoustic energy is scattered in many directions
by a complex surface. Diffusion is an excellent complement to sound
absorption in performance spaces and sound studios because it
won't remove sound energy from the room, but will reduce standing
waves and echo caused by direct reflections.
Diffusion :: Scattering of
sound.
Refraction :: bending of sound waves
through a medium.
Reflection, Diffraction, Refraction,
Absorption, Transmission, Diffusion
The bending of a wave as it passes from one medium to another
is called refraction. The best known example is light passing through
a prism. Sound refraction is rarely a problem in buildings, but it
can happen outdoors when sound passes from cooler denser air
to warm less dense air or vice versa. Outdoors over long distances,
sound can be either bent down to the ground or bent up away from
the ground depending on the temperature of different air masses.
Reflection, Diffraction, Refraction, Absorption,
Transmission, Diffusion
Measured in Sabines (S)
As sound passes through a material, some of its energy is converted
into heat as a result of friction in two ways. In the first case, as sound
passes through a porous material, sound energy is lost because of air
friction as air is pushed through the material's small pores and
passageways. In the second case, the sound causes the material to
flex, which again converts some of the sound energy into heat.
For example, sounds makes a gypsum board wall flex like the
membrane of a drum.
Materials are called absorptive
if most of the sound energy is
converted into heat within the
material. However, some sound
will be reflected and some
transmitted.
SAC :: Sound Absorption Coefficient :: 0 to 1
where zero equals no sound absorption and 1
equals complete sound absorption.
NRC :: Noise Reduction Coefficient :: 0 to 1,
NRC is the average SAC for frequency bands of
250, 500, 1000 and 2000 Hz. Zero equals no
sound absorption and 1 equals complete sound absorption.
Thumbrule guides for Sound absorbing materials
:: Most effective for high-frequency sounds.
:: Thicker materials will absorb more sound, including more low- frequency
sound.
::Since many sound-absorbing materials are soft and fragile, they are
better used on ceilings than walls.
::The decorative and protective covers of sound-absorbing materials
must be very thin and open (e.g., open-weave fabric or perforated films
and sheets).
::For a given area of sound-absorbing material, it is better to distribute
it than to concentrate it in one location.

APPLICATION OF SOUND-ABSORBING MATERIALS
Sound-absorbing materials can be used to:
a. Reduce noise
Although sound-absorbing materials are very useful in reducing noise,
at best the materials can reduce the noise level by half (i.e. 10 dB).
Thus, reducing or eliminating the source of sound has the most potential
and should always come first. Furthermore, sound-absorbing materials
help little near the source of sound where the direct sound and not the
reflected sounds predominate.
For noise reduction, use the recommended noise reduction coefficient
(NRC) appropriate for most common types of spaces.
b. Reduce reverberation time
Since reverberation time is a result of sounds reflecting back and
forth between reflective room surfaces, sound-absorbing materials
will reduce the reflections and thereby the reverberation time.
Sound-absorbing materials on the ceiling and floor may not be
sufficient if the walls' surfaces are large, as in rooms with high
ceilings. In such cases, some sound-absorbing material should also
be placed on the walls.
c. Reduce or eliminate echoes
As mentioned before, if the reflected sound path is 70 ft. (21 m) or
longer than the direct sound path, a distinctly separate sound will
be heard and an echo will result . By covering the offending reflective
surfaces with sound-absorbing materials, the echo can be eliminated.
d. Prevent sound from being focused
Since concave surfaces focus sound, they should be avoided as
much as possible in both section and plan. When concave surfaces
are necessary, they should be covered with a sound-absorbing
material. The amount of sound absorption depends not only on the
type of material but also on its thickness and mounting method.
Since surface mounting is least effective, for a given thickness of
sound-absorbing material an air space should be created behind the
material. However, filling that air space with more sound-absorbing
material is even better.
Concave surfaces are problematic
because they focus sound. If the
quality of sound is important in the
space, then the concave surfaces
should be covered with sound
-absorbing material.
 Materials that transmit sound
also reflect and absorb a small
portion of the incident sound.

.
Sound Transmission Loss (STL)
Sound Transmission Class (STC)

Rules for Minimizing Noise Transmission

Thicker sound-absorbing materials are always best, but with thin panels 1. Design airtight construction (use acoustical sealant at all edges
an air space behind the material is better than direct mounting. and joints).
To control the noise in a room, the first step is always to try to eliminate 2. Require high-quality construction.
or reduce the source of the noise. The second step, is to absorb as 3. Use high-mass materials.
much of the sound as possible. When the sound comes from outside 4. Use limp (not stiff) materials (e.g., a curtain of thick fabric).
the space in question, then the sound transmission through the walls, 5. Use damping materials on the rear of thin stiff materials (e.g.,
ceiling, floor, doors, and windows must be reduced. mastic on sheet metal).
6. Use double walls instead of single walls.
7. When using a double leaf wall such as a stud wall:
a. Decouple layers with springlike resilient clips or special rubber
spacers.
If the ceiling and floor are not
b. Maximize the cavity size.
of sufficient area or are not
c. Fill the cavity with sound-absorbing material (insulation).
available, the upper walls can
d. Use dissimilar leaves (e.g., one layer of gypsum board on one
be used for mounting sound
side and a double layer on the other side).
-absorbing materials.
e. Use special acoustical gypsum board.
8. Avoid the outflanking of a wall (e.g., use full-height partitions
instead of partitions reaching only the suspended ceiling.
9. Avoid weak points (e.g., back-to-back electrical outlets).
Reflection, Diffraction, Refraction, Absorption,
Transmission, Diffusion The sound in the
source room makes
Whatever sound is not reflected or absorbed is transmitted through the wall vibrate,
a material. As the previous three figures show, in real materials all which in turn makes
of the interactions between sound and matter occur simultaneously. the air in the
We label the different materials according to the type of interaction receiving room
that is strongest. vibrate.
DESIGN FOR LOW SOUND TRANSMISSION
The effectiveness of a wall or floor in reducing sound transmission
(noise) is quantified by the sound transmission loss (STL), a rating
system measured in dBs. Thus, STL is a good way to deal with a
problem where the noise consists of a specific frequency. However,
since the most common problem is the transmission of speech and/or
music over a wide range of frequencies, the concept of sound
transmission class (STC) was developed. The sound reduction of a wall
or floor over a range of frequencies is described by its sound
transmission class (STC) rating, which is a weighted average of the STL Walls
at certain frequencies.
The greater the mass of a wall or floor, the greater is the reduction
Thus, if the noise in the source room of Fig. 5.10a were mostly speech
in sound transmission. However, the sound reduction is even greater
and music, the wall could be described as having an STC of 30
if the mass is used in layers. For example, 8 in. (20 cm) of masonry
(100-70=30). Table 5.10A shows how various STC levels are perceived.
will have a sound transmission class (STC) that is 15 units higher if
As mentioned before, to minimize sound transmission, as much mass
used as two 4 in. (10 cm) layers separated by an air space than a
as possible should be used. However, since mass is expensive, very
single wall 8 in. (20 cm) thick.
thick mass walls or floors should be used only if they provide other
benefits such a structural support. Instead of great thickness of mass,
use a moderate amount of mass divided into two layers separated by
an air space.

Fig. 5.10a If the noise level in the source room is 100 dB and in the
receiving room 70 dB, then the sound transmission loss (STL) of the
partition is 30 dB.
The sound transmission class (STC) of various wall types is shown.
Note that high-mass walls are better at reducing sound transmission
than low-mass walls. The hollow walls would be improved if sound-
absorbing material were added. This is especially true if the studs are
prevented from easily transmitting the sound.

Because doors are potential weak areas in preventing sound

transmission through a wall, they have to be carefully designed,
specified, and constructed.

The STC ratings for these windows and doors can be compared with
the STC ratings of walls . Because the composite value of a whole
wall with windows and doors will be much closer to the lower STC
component, the specified window and door STC ratings should be
close to the wall STC.
 When partitions only reach the suspended ceiling as shown in
(a), noise short-circuiting will occur. If the partition cannot extend to
the structural slab as shown in (b), then a large amount of sound-
absorbing material is required (c).

The STC ratings for common floor systems are shown.

REVERBERATION AND ECHO

Reverberation (reverb) is highly-diffused sound energy that has

reflected off of several surfaces or structural boundaries. It is also
defined as the persistence of audible sound after the source has
stopped to emit sound.

Echo is non-diffused, reflected sound energy, which exceeds our

ear/brain "integration time". When a reflected sound of sufficient intensity
arrives at the ears more than about 60 milliseconds after the direct
sound, it is perceived as a distinct second sound or echo. Since sound
travels 1130 fps (344 mps) it will travel about 70 ft. (21 m) in
60 milliseconds. Thus, if the path of a reflected sound is about
The sound level within a space from a point source at first decreases
70 ft. (21 m) longer than the direct sound, a clear echo will be heard
with the square of the distance. However, close to the walls, the
reflected sounds reinforce each other so that the sound level is
A repetitive echo is sometimes called "flutter" echo
fairly constant. This zone of a space is called the reverberant field.
Reverberation Time

Besides affecting sound levels, reflections also determine how long a

sound exists. The time it takes in a particular space for a sound to
drop 60 decibels, a measure of loudness, is called the reverberation
time of that space. The reverberation time is directly proportional to the
volume of a space and inversely proportional to the absorption of the
surfaces.

Thus T = V / S
where:
T = reverberation time in seconds
V = volume of space
S = absorption of surfaces given in sabins

Reverb time is measured in seconds, and represents the amount of

time it takes a test stimulus signal to drop 60 dB below the initial
SPL of the stimulus.
The unit of measurement is commonly referred to as T60 / RT60

Consequently, large rooms with reflecting surfaces have very long

reverberation times. On the other hand, small rooms with much
absorbing material like living rooms have very short reverberation times.
Inverse square law
A. Every time the physical distance between you and the sound
source doubles in distance, the sound will be 6 dB lower (softer).
B. The opposite holds true too. As the distance is cut in half, the
sound will get louder by 6 dB.
inner side of the eardrums. Clogged Eustachian tubes will impair
hearing and can cause pain. Fortunately, they can often be opened
by either swallowing or chewing gum. Not related to hearing but
part of the ear are the semicircular canals that help us maintain
balance.

Outdoors in an open field, the sound pressure level from a point

source decreases with the square of the distance. Thus, when the
distance is doubled the sound pressure level will be only
one-quarter as great.

Hearing is accomplished by the combined action of the ears and

brain. The eardrum converts airborne sound to structure-borne
THE BIOLOGY OF SOUNDS sound. Three small bones then transfer the sound to the liquid-filled
cochlea in which hairlike structures convert vibrations into electrical
Our ability to hear is the result of the nature of both the ears and the signals.
brain. The ears convert sound pressure changes in the air into
electrical signals, while the brain makes meaning out of those signals.
The outer ear collects and channels sound to the eardrum, which then
vibrates (Fig. 5.4a). This vibration is then transferred by three small
bones to the cochlea, where small hairlike structures bathed in liquid
respond to vibrations and create electrical signals that are then sent
to the brain through the auditory nerve. Since the ambient air pressure
changes with weather and altitude, it is important that both sides of
the eardrum have equal access to atmospheric pressure. The
Eustachian tubes bring atmospheric pressure from the throat to the
The Phenomenon of Dead and Live Spaces
Spaces with a long reverberation time are called “live” spaces. They
are good for augmenting the richness and loudness of musical
sounds. On the other hand, spaces with a short reverberation time
are called “dead” spaces and are good for speech, because the
sounds in them are more distinct.
NOISE
Sound is what we hear. Noise is unwanted sound. The difference
between sound and noise depends upon the listener and the
circumstances. Rock music can be pleasurable sound to one person
and an annoying noise to another. In either case, it can be hazardous
to a person's hearing if the sound is loud and if he or she is exposed
long and often enough.
In most situations, it is not only difficult and expensive to achieve very
low noise levels, but sometimes not even desirable. For example,
reducing the noise from mechanical equipment may not be desirable
because in some spaces, such as those with an open-office plan, the
background mechanical noise can make more distracting noise less
noticeable. The background noise can effectively “mask” the distracting
sounds of nearby workers, since noise with information content (speech)
is much more distracting than non-information-content noise (e.g.
constant uniform machine noise).
Thus, the common practice in many buildings is to not create the lowest
noise level possible, but rather to create the appropriate noise level.
Noise criteria (NC) values are one way to define an appropriate noise
level in decibels for different types of spaces.
Examples of common structural and environmental noises are:
A. HVAC hum, vibration and wind-velocity noise.
B. Electrical transformers, and lighting buzzes and hums.
C. People talking, coughing, sneezing, clapping, crying or being
generally restless.
D. A noisy sound system or electronic instrument.
E. Water features, fountains and pumps. Especially water that splashes.
F. Elevators
G. Outside road, rail, airplane, or other environmental noise
H. Neighboring or adjoining rooms that transmit loud or noisy activities.
ROOM MODES AND RATIOS
1. The wavelength of each resonant frequency is directly related to
one or more of the room's primary, dimensional boundaries.
2. Most significant modal activity is found below 300 Hz.
In a rectangular room, modes are calculated based on three
possible geometric pathways of sound reflection.
Those pathways are called: axial, tangential and oblique.
1. These words define the reflective pathways traveled by LF waves,
depending on whether they bounce between two, four or six walls.
a. A two-surface bounce is defined as an axial mode.
b. A four-surface bounce is defined as a tangential mode.
c. A six-surface bounce is defined as an oblique mode.
Room ratios:
A. Primary room dimensions are expressed in terms of height,
width, and depth (HWD).
A room with dimensions of 8' x 20' x 30' has this set of ratios
– 1.0:2.5:3.75.
ROOM GEOMETRY - THE GOOD, BAD AND UGLY
Sphere - The inside of a sphere is generally the worst acoustical
shape.
Cube - This is the worst of the realistically-usable room shapes.
The problem is that all three dimensions are equal, and that each
of the three dimensions are parallel.
Cylinder - A round room with a flat floor and ceiling. This is a
difficult shape for any sound-related activity.
Dome These shapes have all the same issues as the sphere and
cylinder, Without the addition of specific acoustic treatments, these
shapes are nearly unusable for most public activities
Rectangle (2D floor plan) - This is probably the most common shape
for commercial venues Hopefully, the height, width and depth
dimensions will be different, and be designed around a good set of ratios.
Triangle (2D floor plan) - A true triangle is not a common building
shape, but it does present one nice feature; the side walls are about
as far from parallel as possible. Flutter echo shouldn't be a problem,
unless it occurs between the floor and ceiling.
Quarter-round and half-round (2D floor plan) - In recent years these
shapes have become popular for performing arts and house of worship
venues. While these shapes can be quite good when considering
sightlines, and a need to put the audience as close to the stage as
possible, they can present acoustical challenges too.
Trapezoid (2D floor plan) - Like the quarter-round shape, the
trapezoid room has one notable advantage: at least one set of walls is
not parallel. This will help break up flutter echoes, and create more
complex modal behavior in the LF wave region.
CEILING
Ceiling symmetry is just as important as floor plan and wall
symmetry.
If a room is to have a single, interior ceiling slope, it's extremely
helpful to have the highest point in the room located above the
stage or platform, with the downward slope moving away from the
stage.
The slope ratio should be in the range of 1:12 to 3:12.
If a room design calls for an A-frame ridgeline, please, please,
please DO NOT set the peak to run perpendicular to the center
line of the stage
HEIGHT
More usable ceiling height.

Pentagon (2D floor plan) - The pentagon shape is very good
because it's the shape that offers a large seating area, good sight lines,
and no major, parallel or curved walls.
Hexagon (2D floor plan) - More facets is not necessarily better. The
hexagon plan falls back into the rectangular group of shapes because
it has multiple, parallel walls. All the same precautions must be taken
related to flutter echoes and room modes.
The larger the room, the more ceiling height that's needed.
1. If good results are desired and/or expected, a 20' unobstructed
ceiling should be considered a minimum guideline for a 5,000
square foot room that is being designed for presentation or
performance.

Concave plane curves: Almost all concave planes are acoustically

challenging, especially if they are finished with hard, reflective materials.

Convex plane curves: Convex planes bring the exact opposite results,
and are generally encouraged, where and whenever possible.

Symmetry - Very useful If the purpose of a room is to support live

performances or the presentation of other useful, audible information,
it helps tremendously to design a symmetrical interior shell.
Intensity of sound is directly proportional to
a) the square of the frequency of the sound
wave.
b) the square of the amplitude of the sound
wave.
c) density of the medium
d) velocity of sound in that medium.
THEATERS, CLASSROOMS AND AUDITORIUMS
Before electronic amplification, the main challenge for large classroom,
auditorium, and theater designers was creating sufficient loudness for
the audience in the rear of the space. Although electronic amplification
is very common today, it is still desirable to hear some types of music
acoustically. Consequently, it is still necessary to design some types of
spaces so that sufficient sound energy reaches the audience in the rear
of the space without amplification. Many of the strategies used by the
ancient Greeks and Romans still hold. Raked (sloped) seating creates
not only good sight lines but also good hearing lines. A hard reflecting
surface behind the performers is very helpful, and unlike the ancient
theatre, a modern theatre also has a ceiling which provides another
reflecting surface. Since the surfaces in a theatre are large, most sound
frequencies can be described as rays. Consequently, ray diagrams can
be used to design and demonstrate how a maximum of sound energy
is transmitted to the audience at the rear of a space and how the sound
is diffused throughout the whole space. Since many theatres and most
auditoriums are multipurpose, they require a large stage and stage
house for the scenery. When live acoustical music is performed in such
theatres, movable reflectors are often placed on stage. Although the
ceiling must often be interrupted to create access for spotlights, the
ceiling can still act as a good reflector.
Music requires a longer reverberation time than speech. Since for a
given volume of the space the reverberation time is a function of the
amount of sound absorption, the designer needs to add or remove
absorbing material to adjust the reverberation time. Because the back
wall needs to be covered with absorbing material to prevent echoes,
because the absorption of the people who are present and the empty
seats is only partially under the designer's control, and because the
ceiling is needed to reflect sound to the rear of the audience, the walls
are the prime surface available to modify the total sound absorption of
the space. Furthermore, only the rear of the side walls are usually As a room gets larger, not only is a given amount of sound energy
available because the front of the side walls are also useful for reflecting spread over more people but also the people in the rear are further
sound toward the rear. away (a and b). Thus, it is a challenge to supply enough sound to
In multipurpose theatres and auditoriums the sound absorption can be the rear of the audience. Stepping or sloping the floor not only
designed to give a reverberation time somewhere between what is improves the sight lines but also increases the exposure angle (c).
needed for speech and music. A more sophisticated solution is to have In larger rooms, hard surfaces can be used to reflect more sound
the wall's absorptivity be adjustable by such techniques as heavy to the rear of the audience (d). To prevent echoes, the rear wall,
movable drapes in front of a reflective wall, where open drapes and in very large rooms, the rear ceiling should be covered with
increases the reflectivity, while closed drapes increase the absorptivity. sound absorbing material.
The sound of speech and music can be represented as rays. To get
enough sound energy to the rear of the theater, the ceiling and side walls
need to be oriented in such a way that sound waves are reflected to the
rear (i.e., angle of incidence equals angle of reflection). A graphical
analysis using rays to represent sound waves can be used in the design
process.

To prevent echoes, the rear wall must be covered with absorbent

material. Since the side walls near the stage are useful for
reflecting sound to the rear of the audience, only the back portions
of the side walls are available for sound-absorbing material to
adjust the reverberation time.

Multipurpose theaters, with their large stages, often use movable

reflectors because the stage wall is too far back to help when acoustic
music is performed on stage. The ceiling design also gets more
complicated because of the need for spotlights.
 Outdoor Noise

Cars and trucks are the main sources of noise outdoors, and that
noise is generated in four different ways: engine/exhaust, tires, air
motion, and horns. Laws and ordinances can reduce noise
significantly by the following measures: requiring good mufflers,
limiting speeds in quiet neighborhoods, and limiting the use of the
horn. For example, the City of Vienna, Austria forbids the use of a
car horn except in a real emergency. When these measures are not
enough, the following strategies can be used: Locate the building
as far as possible from a highway or busy street. Minimize the
windows facing the source of noise. Avoid operable windows or
facades facing the noise source. Avoid reflecting the noise into the
windows as is common when buildings with balconies border a
noisy street . In that case, cover the underside of the balconies with
sound absorbing material, and use concrete or glass parapets
instead of open railings. If these measures are not available or
relevant, create a sound barrier either close to the sound or to the
receiver.

In multipurpose theaters and auditoriums the sound absorption can

be designed to give a reverberation time somewhere between what
is needed for speech and music. A more sophisticated solution is to
have the wall's absorptivity be adjustable by such techniques as heavy
movable drapes in front of a reflective wall, where open drapes
increases the reflectivity, while closed drapes increase the absorptivity.

Balconies both block and reflect noise into windows. Solid parapets
and the addition of sound-absorbing material on the underside of
the balconies are very helpful.
 MODERN MATERIALS

Many new acoustical products have been introduced in recent

years.
In most cases, these products were specifically developed to
encourage their use in architectural settings.
Most are direct application, acoustical tools. Some require a
backing layer to complete their acoustical usefulness.

An overview of these products includes:

A. "3D" absorption panels, with complex geometric shapes,
patterns, and colors
B. Acoustical diffusers that also serve as clear, lighting diffusers
C. Acoustically-absorbent plaster
D. Bendable, semi-rigid fiberglass paneling, with fabric wrap
E. Clear, translucent and artistically-printed films and foils
F. Clear, translucent, and multi-color, diffuser block
G. CMU diffusion block, with a structural rating
H. Unique, complex, and customized, perforated metals and plastics
I. Diffusion panels, with options for many geometric patterns, colors,
and materials
J. Digital print media on acoustical fabrics
K. Dimensional metal surfaces
L. Micro-perf, absorptive, translucent, window covers
M. Perforated sheetrock, with multiple hole-pattern options
N. Sprayable absorption materials, with color and thickness options
O. Translucent art diffusers for lighting panels
P. Very high-impact, fiberglass wall panels
Q. Woven wire mesh, with multiple shape and color options

Sound barriers along highways are becoming common in densely

populated areas. The barrier is usually close to the source but could
also be close to the receiver. When room permits, an earth berm is
very effective. Trees can only be used in less populated areas,
because it takes at least 100 ft. (30 m) to reduce the sound by one half.
SPEECH INTELLIGIBILITY
Simply put, the phrase ‘speech intelligibility’ references the average*
person's ability to understand what is being said when another person
is speaking their native language.
Loudness vs. clarity:
Three Simple Tests: There are three easy tests that can be used to
quickly judge the basic acoustical merits of a room. We'll call these tests,
"the two talker", "the hand clap", and "the room mode analyzer".
A. The two talker test - This assessment requires two people, and is
used to evaluate speech intelligibility and clarity, room noise, D/R ratio,
and even the need for amplified sound reinforcement.
B. The hand clap test - This activity can be done solo. It is used to
evaluate the presence of problematic echoes, and give a rough idea
of the room's T60.
Architectural Acoustics(AA) priorities. All are equally important.
A. More clear, usable ceiling height.
B. Mirror image symmetry.
C. Concise AA goals, and if necessary, a budgetary line item for
acoustic treatments.
1. This line item should be above and beyond the cost of the audio
system and all standard finish materials.
D. Once approved during the design phases, acoustical treatments
should never be minimized or eliminated for budgetary reasons.
E. Very low background noise.
F. No large concave or domed surfaces.
G. Negotiable opportunities to manage T60
H. If specialized treatment is unacceptable or unavailable, design
major surfaces to be non-parallel.

C. The room mode test - This exercise requires a sound system and
a sine wave generator. It's used to uncloak and reveal a room's modal
characteristics.

Signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio: As the name implies, this is the ratio of

direct, desired program material (signal) to the total, aggregate noise
package (noise).
A. S/N ratio is most often expressed using dB as the unit of
measurement. If the program material averages 85 dB SPL, and the
noise measures 75 dB, then it is said that the S/N ratio is 10 dB.

B. General industry guidelines suggest that a S/N of 10 dB is the

absolute minimum allowable for any speech comprehension. This is
not meant to imply that 10 dB is remotely acceptable, but more, it has
been shown to be the minimum value that would result in some
minimal speech intelligibility, under the most extreme emergency
conditions.

C. Most acousticians and audio system designers are looking for a

minimum S/N ratio of 50 dB, or more, when possible.

D. Coherent early reflections and reverberation are not noise.