What is Research: Definition

Defined as a careful consideration of study regarding a particular concern or a problem using scientific methods.

Research is a systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict and control the observed phenomenon. Research
involves inductive and deductive methods.”

What are the types of Research?

1. Basic Research
conducted to enhance knowledge. main motivation of this research is knowledge expansion. For
example, an experiment is a good example of basic research.
2. Applied Research:
focuses on analyzing and solving real-life problems. helps solve practical problems using scientific
methods. For example, finding a specific cure for a disease.
3. Problem Oriented Research:
conducted to understand the exact nature of the problem to find out relevant solutions. For e.g Revenue
of a car company has decreased by 12% in the last year. The following could be the probable causes:
There is no optimum production, poor quality of a product, no advertising, economic conditions etc.
4. Problem Solving Research:
conducted by companies to understand and resolve their own problems. The problem-solving research
uses applied research to find solutions to the existing problems.
5. Qualitative Research:
process that is about inquiry, that helps in-depth understanding of the problems or issues in their natural
settings. This is a non- statistical research method.

Sampling

process of selecting a part of the population. A population is a group people that is studied in a research.
Difficult for a researcher to study the whole population due to limited resources ex: time, cost and energy.

Terminologies in sampling:

1. Sample : selected part of the population is known as a sample.

2. Sample size : the number of people in the selected sample is known as sample size.
3. Sampling frame : list of individual or people included in the same. For making a sampling frame,
researcher has to make a list of names and details of all the items of the sample.
4. Sampling Technique : technique or procedure used to select the members of the sample.

Types of sampling

two major types of sampling: Probability and non-probability sampling.

Probability sampling :

1. Simple Random Sampling

The members of the sample are selected randomly and purely by chance. Every member has an equal chance of
being selected in the sample, random selection of members does not affect the quality of the sample.

2. Stratified Random Sampling

The population is divided into sub-groups(known as strata) on the basis of similar characteristics eg: sex, age,
profession, religion. then members from each group are selected randomly. This technique is adopted when the
population is not highly homogenous.

3. Systematic sampling

A member occurring after a fixed interval is selected. Ex: if a research wants to select member occurring after
every ten members, the Kth element become 10th element. Sample = ( 10, 20, 30, 40, 50)
 4. Cluster sampling

Various segments of a population are treated as clusters and members from each cluster are selected randomly.
Though it seems similar to stratified sampling but there’s a difference in both. Stratified(look up). On the other
hand, cluster sampling, does not divide the population into sub-groups or cluster but randomly select from
already existing or naturally occurring subgroups(clusters) eg: families within a society, towns within a district.

5. Multi-stage Sampling

Complex form of cluster sampling. Each cluster of the sample is further divided into smaller clusters and
members are selected from each smaller cluster randomly. It is called a multi-stage sampling as it involves many
stages.

Inquiry Based-Learning

approach to learning that emphasizes the student’s role in the learning process. Rather than the teacher telling
students what they need to know, students are encouraged to explore the material, ask questions, and share
ideas.

Inquiry-based learning uses different approaches to learning, including small-group discussion and guided
learning. Instead of memorizing facts and material, students learn by doing. This allows them to build
knowledge through exploration, experience, and discussion.

ETHICS IN RESEARCH

1. Minimizing the risk of harm

 Research should not harm participants. There are a number of types of harm that participants can be
subjected to as physical harm to participants, Psychological distress and discomfort ,social advantages and
financial status.

2. Obtaining informed consent

 Informed consent means that participants should understand that (a) they are taking part in research
and (b) what the research requires of them.Another component of informed consent is the principle that
participants should be volunteers, taking part without having been deceived.

3. Protecting anonymity and confidentiality

 Protecting the anonymity and confidentiality of research participants is another practical component of
research ethics. Avoid publishing private information , if the researcher agrees to hold such information in
confidence.An alternative is to remove identifiers as names and geographical cues when writing up.

4. Providing the right to withdraw

 Research participants should always have the right to withdraw from the research process. Furthermore,
participants should have the right to withdraw at any stage in the research process. When a participant
chooses to withdraw from the research process, they should not be pressured or coerced in any way to try
and stop them from withdrawing.

5. Honesty

 Honestly report data, results, methods and procedures, and publication status. Do not fabricate, falsify, or
misrepresent data.
WHAT IS LITERATURE REVIEW?
 Definition :A literature review is an account of what has been published on a topic by scholars and
researchers. Literature reviews are designed to provide an overview of sources you have explored while
researching a particular topic and to demonstrate to your readers how your research fits within a larger
field of study.
Characteristics of Well Written Literature Reviews
1. Organization -the review should flow from general to specific. the writer presents information that is only
generally related to the topic and then progress to reseacrh questions. Writing the review in the form of general
to specific focuses on the topic of the study and helps direct the reader's attention to the importance of the
questions.
2. Relevance - This is a simple and easy to understand characteristic, but one that is often overlooked by writers.
Anything cited in the literature review should be relevant to the study.
3. Omissions - writer should take care to provide all points of view on a given topic. This does not mean that a
writer must include in the review every study conducted on a given topic; rather, this means that one makes an
honest attempt not to conceal points of view on a topic that may not support the writer's position.
4. Citations - Citations are the references a writer uses in the text.A few characteristics to be considered :
Primary vs. secondary citations (the author(s) are the ones who collected and analyzed the data),Empirical
research based citations (the authors collected data to address a question) and Recency of citations (ensure that
citations cover a wide range of time periods)
5. Summary - to help the reader see the connection between the literature review and the research questions or
hypotheses

Week 13 - GRU (DR NAPISAH)

-RESEARCH DESIGN:-

*the basic plan for research

*includes main ideas:-

(a)strategy (methods)

(b)conceptual framework *procedure to conduct our research”-

(c)who or what will be studied 1. MINISTRY OF EDUCATION

2. JABATAN PENDIDIKAN NEGERI(JPN)

3. PEJABAT PENDIDIKAN DAERAH(PPD)

3. SCHOOL (PRINCIPAL)

*instruments are used to measure (questionnaire). Anything that can’t be measured should be called as “A
TOOL”.

(d) the tools and procedure for collecting and analysing empirical materials

*participants can be samples (STUDENTS)

-SAMPLE vs POPULATION:-

sample population

-is drawn from the population (smaller) -bigger group

-will take part in the study

-QUANTITATIVE:-

* manipulate or organises the research design

* varies for extremely interventionist to no interventionist

-LOGIC OF QUANTITATIVE DESIGN:-

*comparing groups

*relating variables

-3 MAIN TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE DESIGN:-

*experimental

*quasi- experiment

*correlational surveys

-VARIABLES:-

*independent variable (cause)

*dependent variable (effect)

*control variable variables that may influence the independent and dependent variables)

example:-

~ Effectiveness of collaborative writing on enhancing the fourth grade writing skills

independent variable dependent variable

participant
-EXPERIMENT:-

* comparison btw groups

* experimental group- administer a treatment or manipulate a variable

*control group- do something or nothing at all

*compare the groups on outcome/dependent variable

*inference - differences in the dependent variable are due/caused by the treatment/independent variable

* assumption- the groups are alike in all other respects

-TRUE EXPERIMENT IF:-

*manipulation of one or more independent variables for the purposes of research

*the random assignment of participants to comparison groups

-EXAMPLES:-

* Pre-test - post-test control group design

Group A R------0---------X-----------0

Group B R-----0-----------------------X

*Post-test-only control-group design

Group A R--------------X-------------0

Group B R----------------------------0

*Solomon four-group design

Group A R-----0-----X--------0

Group B R------0--------------0

Group C R--------------X------0

Group D R----------------------0

* A-BA single - subject design

Baseline A Treatment B Baseline B

0-0-0-0-0-------------X-X-X-X-X---------------0-0-0-0-0

-QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN:-

*naturally occurring treatment groups

*fairly clear-out but not set out for research purposes

*comparison groups
-EXAMPLES:-

*Non-equivalent (pre-test and post-test) Control-Group Design

Group A 0--------------X-----------0

Group B 0---------------------------0

*Single-Group Interrupted Time-Series Design

Group A 0---0---0----0----X-----0-----0-----0----0

*Control -Group Interrupted Time-Series Design

Group A 0---0---0----0----X-----0-----0-----0----0

Group B 0---0---0----0----0-----0-----0-----0----0

-EXAMPLES(TITLES):-

* Effects of class size on students achievement

* Effects of extensive reading on vocabulary learning

-SURVEY DESIGN:-

*sample of a population

*provides quantitative or numeric description of trends, attitudes, or opinions of a population

*from the sample results, the researcher generalizes or makes claims about the population

WEEK 14: QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN

1. Qualitative:-

*Generally non-interventionist- frequency

*Naturalistic- not controlled in a lab or changed

2. Types of Qualitative Design:-

* Case Study:-

~ study of a particular unit or sets of units ( eg:- individuals, institutions, programmes, events, etc)

~ to provide detailed (rich) description (in depth)

~ intrinsic or instrumental

~any qualitative methods- multiple sources of information (in-depth interviews, observation (naturalistic), etc)

~ Examples:- a single teacher or group of students - exploring how the relationship develops as the latter settle
into a new language school.
*Ethnography:-

~ seeks to describe and understand the behaviour of particular social or cultural group.

~ researcher tries to see things from the perspective of members of the group ( joins the group that is being
tested , in order to learn and observe the group/community closely)

~requires extended exposure to the field (takes a longer time period )

~method- fieldwork, researcher as participant observer - observation, interviews - field notes, documents

~ Analysis - key themes, perspectives, events

~ Examples:- study of a group of teachers in their institutional setting over a term or a year focusing on their
relationships with students

*Grounded Theory:-

~ research process works from data to theory

~ aim of the process- to generate a theory

~ the theory(s) derived from or discovered through analysis of data

~ methods -observation and interviews , documents, diaries, photographs, etc( open to a wide range)

~ analysis- coding procedures to identify categories, write theoretical memos on the emergent theorising - uses
this to inform further data gathering which is the basis for further coding, theorising, and data collection-
process of refinement to articulate a core explanatory theory

~ Examples:- a study of the experience of the first few weeks at a new language school from the learner’s point
of view.

*Action Research:-

~ to understand better some aspect of professional practice as a means of bringing about improvement.

~ individual or institutional practice

~ improvement of practice, understanding of the practice by its practitioners, the situation in which the
practice takes place.

~ methods - cycle of planning - action and observing - reflecting - planning - interviews, observations,
documents , journals

# not allowed for masters/ phd students as are being trained to become researcher

# allowed / encouraged undergrad’s - for their project papers

*Conversational Analysis:-

~ how speakers jointly construct conversation and their shared understanding of what is happening in it.

~ methods- focuses on the sequential development of the conversation - everything interpreted in terms of the
participant’s own understanding of it as revealed in their talk

~ Four methodological rules - use naturally occurring data, move from observation to hypothesis, rule nothing
out, and focus on consequences.
~ Examples:- an aspect of classroom interaction such as the way in which certain talk is oriented to by the class.

Tools or instrument

Survey- method

 Questionnaire –instrument

Interview – method

 Semi-structured, Structured

Observation – method

 Observation checklist- instrument

Data Analysis

Data analysis is how researchers go from a mass of data to meaningful insights. There are many different data
analysis methods, depending on the type of research.

Quantitative Data Analysis Methods

The two most commonly used quantitative data analysis methods are descriptive statistics and inferential
statistics.

Descriptive Statistics
first level of analysis. It helps researchers summarize the data and find patterns.used for analysing single
variables. A few commonly used descriptive statistics are:

 Mean: numerical average of a set of values.

 Median: midpoint of a set of numerical values.
 Mode: most common value among a set of values.
 Percentage: used to express how a value or group of respondents within the data relates to a larger
group of respondents.
 Frequency: the number of times a value is found.
 Range: the highest and lowest value in a set of values.

For example, a percentage is a good way to show the gender distribution of respondents. For example, if you
are comparing the percentage of children vaccinated in two different villages, then descriptive statistics is
enough.

Inferential Statistics
These complex analyses show the relationship between multiple variables to generalize results and make
predictions.

A few types of inferential analysis are:

Correlation : relationship between two variables. If a correlation is found, it means that there is a relationship
among the variables. For example, taller people tend to have a higher weight. Hence, height and weight are
correlated with each other. However, this doesn’t necessarily mean that one variable causes the other (e.g.
gaining weight doesn’t cause people to grow taller).

Regression : shows the relationship between two variables. For example, regression can help us guess
someone’s weight based on their height.
Analysis of variance: used to test the degree to which two or more groups vary or differ in an experiment.

Qualitative Data Analysis

Content Analysis

used to analyze documented information in the form of texts, media, or even physical items. Content analysis is
usually used to analyze responses from interviewees.

Narrative Analysis

used to analyze content from various sources, such as interviews of respondents, observations from the field, or
surveys. It focuses on using the stories and experiences shared by people to answer the research questions.

Discourse analysis:

Like narrative analysis, discourse analysis is used to analyze interactions with people. Discourse analysis also
looks at the respondent’s day-to-day environment and uses that information during analysis.

Grounded Theory

explain why a certain phenomenon happened. It does this by studying a variety of similar cases in different
settings and using the data to derive causal explanations. Researchers may alter the explanations or create new
ones as they study more cases until they arrive at an explanation that fits all cases.

WHAT ARE INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT VARIABLES?

Question: What's a variable?

Answer: A variable is an object, event, idea, feeling, time period, or any other type of category you are trying to
measure. There are two types of variables-independent and dependent

Question: What's an independent variable?

The independent variable (sometimes known as the manipulated variable) is the variable whose change isn’t
affected by any other variable in the experiment. Either the scientist has to change the independent variable
herself or it changes on its own; nothing else in the experiment affects or changes it. Two examples of common
independent variables are age and time. There’s nothing you or anything else can do to speed up or slow
down time or increase or decrease age. They’re independent of everything else.

Question:What is dependent variable ?

The dependent variable (sometimes known as the responding variable) is what is being studied and
measured in the experiment. It’s what changes as a result of the changes to the independent variable. An
example of a dependent variable is how tall you are at different ages. The dependent variable (height) depends
on the independent variable (age).

An easy way to think of independent and dependent variables is, when you’re conducting an experiment, the
independent variable is what you change, and the dependent variable is what changes because of
that. You can also think of the independent variable as the cause and the dependent variable as the effect.

Action Research

Action research can be defined as “an approach in which the action researcher and a client collaborate in the
diagnosis of the problem and in the development of a solution based on the diagnosis”
 In other words, one of the main characteristic traits of action research relates to collaboration between researcher
and member of organisation in order to solve organizational problems.

Action researches can be divided into three categories:

Positivist approach to action research, also known as ‘classical action research’ perceives research as a social
experiment. Accordingly, action research is accepted as a method to test hypotheses in a real world
environment.

Interpretive action research, also known as ‘contemporary action research’ perceives business reality as
socially constructed and focuses on specifications of local and organisational factors when conducting the action
research.

Critical action research is a specific type of action research that adopts critical approach towards business
processes and aims for improvements.
The following features of action research need to be taken into account when considering its suitability for any
given study:
 It is applied in order to improve specific practices. Action research is based on action, evaluation and
critical analysis of practices based on collected data in order to introduce improvements in relevant practices.
 This type of research is facilitated by participation and collaboration of number of individuals with a
common purpose
 Such a research focuses on specific situations and their context

Action Research Spiral

Action study is a participatory study consisting of spiral of following self-reflective cycles:
1. Planning in order to initiate change
2. Implementing the change (acting) and observing the process of implementation and consequences
3. Reflecting on processes of change and re-planning
4. Acting and observing
5. Reflecting

Action Research Spiral

Kemmis and McTaggart (2000) do acknowledge that individual stages specified in Action Research Spiral
model may overlap, and initial plan developed for the research may become obselete in short duration of time
due to a range of factors.
The main advantage of Action Research Spiral model relates to the opportunity of analysing the phenomenon in
a greater depth each time, consequently resulting in grater level of understanding of the problem.
Disadvantages of Action Research Spiral model include its assumption each process takes long time to be
completed which may not always be the case.

Survey research designs are procedures in quantitative research in which investigators administer a survey to a
sample or to the entire population of people to describe the attitudes, opinions, behaviors, or characteristics of
the population.

In this procedure, survey researchers collect quantitative, numbered data using questionnaires (e.g., mailed
questionnaires) or interviews (e.g., one-on-one interviews) and statistically analyze the data to describe trends
about responses to questions and to test research questions or hypotheses.

When Do You Use Survey Research?

To describe trends such as community interests in school bond issues or state or national trends about mandatory
student uniform policies.
To determine individual opinions about policy issues, such as whether students need a choice of schools to
attend.

Surveys help identify important beliefs and attitudes of individuals, such as college students’ beliefs about what
constitutes abusive behaviors in dating relationships.
To follow up analysis. They may be used to follow up with graduates 5, 10, or 15 years after college to learn
about their present careers.
Surveys provide useful information to evaluate programs in schools, such as the success of a robotics program
in science education.

WHAT ARE THE TYPES OF SURVEY DESIGNS?

Cross-Sectional Survey Designs
In a cross-sectional survey design, the researcher collects data at one point in time. A cross-sectional study can
examine current attitudes, beliefs, opinions, or practices. Attitudes, beliefs, and opinions are ways in which
individuals think about issues, whereas practices are their actual behaviors. Some cross-sectional designs
evaluate a program, such as a survey that provides useful information to decision makers

Longitudinal Survey Designs

An alternative to using a cross-sectional design is to collect data over time using a longitudinal survey design. A
longitudinal survey design involves the survey procedure of collecting data about trends with the same
population, changes in a cohort group or subpopulation, or changes in a panel group of the same individuals
over time. Thus, in longitudinal designs, the participants may be different or the same people.

Trend Studies
In some surveys, researchers aim to study changes within some general population over a period of time
(Babbie, 1998). Trend studies are longitudinal survey designs that involve identifying a population and
examining changes within that population over time.

Cohort Studies
A cohort study is a longitudinal survey design in which a researcher identifies a subpopulation based on some
specific characteristic and then studies that sub population over time.

Panel Studies
A panel study is a longitudinal survey design in which the researcher examines the same people over time. The
advantage to this type of study, however, is that the individuals studied will be the same each time, allowing the
researcher to determine actual changes in specific individuals.

Questionnaires and Interviews

A questionnaire is a form used in a survey design that participants in a study complete and return to the
researcher. The participant chooses answers to questions and supplies basic personal or demographic
information.
An interview survey, however, is a form on which the researcher records answers supplied by the participant in
the study. The researcher asks a question from an interview guide, listens for answers or observes behavior, and
records responses on the survey.

Mailed Questionnaires
A mailed questionnaire is a form of data collection in survey research in which the investigator mails a
questionnaire to members of the sample. A mailed questionnaire is economical because it involves only
duplication and mailing expenses.

Web-Based Surveys or Questionnaires

A Web-based questionnaire is a survey instrument for collecting data that is available on the computer. Several
software programs are available for designing, gathering, and analyzing survey data with sample questions and
forms.

One-on-One Interviews
In one-on-one interviewing in survey research, investigators conduct an interview with an individual in the
sample and record responses to closed-ended questions. In one-on-one interviewing in survey research,
investigators conduct an interview with an individual in the sample and record responses to closed-ended
questions.

Focus Group Interviews

In quantitative focus group interviews in survey research, the researcher locates or develops a survey instrument,
convenes a small group of people (typically a group of 4 to 6) who can answer the questions, and records their
comments on the instrument. For example, telephone interview surveys

Instrument Design
Designing good survey instruments is a challenging and complex process. When survey researchers design an
instrument for data collection, they typically perform the following steps:
1. They write different types of questions. These include personal, attitudinal, and behavioral questions;
sensitive questions; and closed- and open-ended questions.
2. They use strategies for good question construction. This includes using clear language, making sure the
answer options do not overlap, and posing questions that are applicable to all participants.
3. They perform a pilot test of the questions. This consists of administering the instrument to a small number of
individuals and making changes based on their feedback

Personal, Attitudinal, and Behavioral Questions

Background questions or demographic questions assess the personal characteristics of individuals in your
sample. These questions can be easy (i.e., gender) or difficult to answer (i.e., level of income).

Sensitive Questions
Some surveys contain sensitive questions that must be developed and used with care.

Open- and Closed-Ended Questions

In closed-ended questions in surveys, the researcher poses a question and provides preset response options for
the participant

Open-ended questions in a survey

Questions for which researchers do not provide the response options; the participants provide their own
responses to questions. In an open-ended question, the participant supplies an answer.

Semi-closed-ended questions in a survey

This type of question has all the advantages of open and closed-ended questions. The technique is to ask a
closed-ended question and then ask for additional responses in an open-ended question. For example: There are
many reasons why adults wish to further their education.

Question Construction
Using good questions helps participants feel that they understand the question and can provide meaningful
answers. Good questions are clear and unambiguous, and they do not confuse the participants. They also show
respect for the participant by being sensitive to gender, class, and cultural needs of participants. When you
construct questions for a survey questionnaire or interview, fit the questions to answers, include suitable
response options, and do not overlap

Pilot Testing the Questions

A pilot test of a questionnaire or interview survey is a procedure in which a researcher makes changes in an
instrument based on feedback from a small number of individuals who complete and evaluate the instrument.

The purpose of a problem statement is to:

1. Introduce the reader to the importance of the topic being studied. The reader is oriented to the
significance of the study and the research questions or hypotheses to follow.
2. Places the problem into a particular context that defines the parameters of what is to be investigated.
3. Provides the framework for reporting the results and indicates what is probably necessary to
conduct the study and explain how the findings will present this information.

Key takeaways:

A statement of the problem is used in research work as a claim that outlines the problem addressed by a study.

A good research problem should address an existing gap in knowledge in the field and lead to further research.

To write a persuasive problem statement, you need to describe (a) the ideal, (b), the reality, and (c) the
consequences.

What are the goals of a statement of the problem?

The ultimate goal of a statement of the problem is to transform a generalized problem into a targeted, well-
defined problem; one that can be resolved through focused research and careful decision-making.

Writing a statement of the problem should help you clearly identify the purpose of the research project you will
propose. Often, the statement of the problem will also serve as the basis for the introductory section of your final
proposal, directing your reader’s attention quickly to the issues that your proposed project will address and
providing the reader with a concise statement of the proposed project itself.

A statement of problem need not be long and elaborate: one page is more than enough for a good statement of
problem.

What are the key characteristics of a statement of the problem?

A good research problem should have the following characteristics:
1. It should address a gap in knowledge.
2. It should be significant enough to contribute to the existing body of research
3. It should lead to further research
4. The problem should render itself to investigation through collection of data
5. It should be of interest to the researcher and suit his/her skills, time, and resources
6. The approach towards solving the problem should be ethical
Ways on collecting data

Technique Key Facts

 Interviews can be conducted in person or over the telephone
 Interviews can be done formally (structured), semi-structured, or
informally
Interviews  Questions should be focused, clear, and encourage open-ended responses
 Interviews are mainly qualitative in nature

 Responses can be analyzed with quantitative methods by assigning

numerical values to Likert-type scales
Questionnaires and  Results are generally easier (than qualitative techniques) to analyze
Surveys
 Pretest/Posttest can be compared and analyzed

 Good source for providing additional information about a particular group,

can use video to provide documentation
Observations  Can produce qualitative (e.g., narrative data) and quantitative data (e.g.,
frequency counts, mean length of interactions, and instructional time)

 A facilitated group interview with individuals that have something in

common
Focus Groups  Gathers information about combined perspectives and opinions
 Responses are often coded into categories and analyzed thematically

 Involves studying a single phenomenon

 Examines people in their natural settings
Ethnographies, Oral
 Uses a combination of techniques such as observation, interviews, and
History, and Case
surveys
Studies
 Ethnography is a more holistic approach to evaluation

 Consists of examining existing data in the form of databases, meeting

minutes, reports, attendance logs, financial records, newsletters, etc.
Documents and
 This can be an inexpensive way to gather information but may be an
Records incomplete data source