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Department of Mathematics
INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY, VNU-HCM
1.1 MATRICES
For example,
√
3
b11 b12 b13 b14
2 2 7 b21 b22 b23 b24
0 1.2 π
b31 b32 b33 b34
e −2x ex
0
1 9 4
sin 3x cos 5x −2
Equality
Definition 1.3 Two matrices are said to be equal if they
have the same size and the corresponding entries in the two
matrices are equal.
Addition of Matrices
Since A and B are the same size (2 × 3), their sum is defined. We
have
3 + 5 0 + (−3) (−2) + 6 8 −3 4
A+B= = .
2 + 1 (−1) + 2 4 + (−5) 3 1 −1
Multiplication of Matrices
Example 1.3 If
3 0 −2
A=
2 −1 4
then
6 0 −4 −3 0 2
2A = and (−1)A = .
4 −2 8 −2 1 −4
1. k(A + B) = kA + kA
2. (k1 + k2 )A = k1 A + k2 A
3. k1 (k2 A) = (k1 k2 )A
4. 1A = A
5. 0A = O
6. kO = O
or
Ax = b
where A is the coefficient matrix of the system,
a11 a12 · · · a1n x1 b1
a21 a22 · · · a2n x2 b2
A= . , x= .. and b = .
. .
. ..
. . . .
am1 am2 · · · amn xn bm
Transpose are important in their own right, and following are a few
of their important properties.
1. (AT )T = A.
2. (A + B)T = AT + BT
3. (AB)T = BT AT
Symmetric Matrices
is symmetric.
Triangular Matrices
Example 1.8
0 2 −4
a b 0 1 10
and
0 c
0 0 7
a1 x1 + a2 x2 + · · · + an xn = b
a1 s1 + a2 s2 + · · · + an sn = b.
2x1 − x2 − 3x3 = −1
−2x1 + 2x2 + 5x3 = 3
and
x1 b1
x2 b2
x= and b=
.. ..
. .
xn bm
are column vectors. Note that x has n components, whereas b has
m components.
The matrix
a11 a12 ··· a1n b1
a21 a22 ··· a2n b2
A=
e .. ..
. .
am1 am2 ··· amn bm
is called the augmented matrix for the system (2) and usually
denoted as [A|b]. The augmented matrix A e = [A|b] determines
the system (2) completely because it contains all the given
numbers appearing in (2).
Elementary Operations
Theorem 2.1
If one of the following elementary operations is applied to a
system of linear equations, then the resulting system is
equivalent:
1. Interchange two equations.
2. Multiply an equation by a nonzero constant.
3. Add a multiple of one equation to another.
Dr. Nguyen Ngoc Hai LINEAR ALGEBRA
1.2 INTRODUCTION TO
SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS
1.2.3 GAUSSIAN ELIMINATION
Example 2.2
Linear system Associated augmented matrix
3y + 2z =7 0 3 2 7
x + 4y − 4z =3 1 4 −4 3
3x + 3y + 8z =1 3 3 8 1
Echelon Form
Since a linear system is completely determined by its augmented
matrix, Gauss elimination can be done by merely considering the
matrices.
x + y − 2z = 3z − y + 3
3z + 4 = 4y
2x − y + 2z = 1
Theorem 2.2
Let A be the reduced coefficient matrix of a homogeneous
system of linear equations in n unknowns. If A has exactly k
nonzero rows, then k ≤ n. Moreover,
1. if k < n, then the system has infinitely many solutions, and
2. if k = n, the system has a unique solution (the trivial
solution).
Corollary 2.1
A homogeneous system of linear equations with fewer
equations than unknowns has infinitely many solutions.
Example 3.1 Determine the minor matrices M11 , M23 , and M32
for the matrix A given by
2 −1 3
A = −1 −2 5 .
4 −6 2
Also, calculate the cofactors A11 , A23 , and A32 .
Dr. Nguyen Ngoc Hai LINEAR ALGEBRA
1.3 DETERMINANTS
1.3.1 DEFINITION OF DETERMINANTS
Theorem 3.1
If A = [aij ] is a lower-triangular matrix, then
Theorem 3.2
If A is a square matrix then
det(AT ) = det A
Corollary 3.1
If A = [aij ] is an n × n upper or lower triangular matrix, then
det A is the product of the entries on the main diagonal:
Theorem 3.3
Let A = [aij ] be an n × n matrix. Then
Theorem 3.4
If B is obtained from A by interchanging two rows (or two
columns), then det B = − det A.
Theorem 3.5
If B is obtained from A by multiplying a row (or column) of A
by a scalar k, then det B = k det A.
Corollary 3.2
If a square matrix contains a row of all zeros, then its
determinant is zero.
Corollary 3.3
Let A = [aij ] be an n × n matrix. Then
det(kA) = k n det A
Theorem 3.6
If A, B, and C are n × n matrices that are equal except that
the sth row of A is equal to the sum of the sth rows of B and
C, then det A = det B + det C.
Theorem 3.7
If B is obtained from A by adding a multiple of one row of A
to another row, then det B = det A.
Corollary 3.4
(a) If a square matrix has two proportional rows, its determinant
is zero.
(b) If two rows of a square matrix are the same, then its
determinant is zero.
AI = A and IB = B
That is,
If A has an inverse, the inverse is unique.
A−1 A = AA−1 = I
CAUTION A−1 6= 1
A
Dr. Nguyen Ngoc Hai LINEAR ALGEBRA
1.3 DETERMINANTS
1.3.3 MATRIX INVERSES
Theorem 3.8
If A is an invertible n × n matrix, then for each n × 1 matrix
b, the system of linear equations Ax = b has exactly one
solution, namely, x = A−1 b.
Theorem 3.9
If A is an n × n matrix, then the following statements are
equivalent.
(a) A is invertible.
(b) The system Ax = 0 has only the trivial solution.
(c) The system Ax = b has a unique solution for every n × 1
matrix b.
A is invertible ⇐⇒ A is nonsingular.
Theorem 3.10
If A and B are square matrices of the same size, then
Theorem 3.11
A square matrix A is invertible if and only if
det A 6= 0.
Corollary 3.5
If A is invertible, then
1
det A−1 = .
det A
Corollary 3.6
Suppose that A and B are square matrices of the same size. If
either AB = I or BA = I, then B = A−1 .
Corollary 3.7
Let A, B, C be n × n matrices. Then
(a) If A is nonsingular and AB = AC, then A = C.
(b) If A is nonsingular and AB = O, then B = O.
(c) If A is singular, so are AB and BA.
Dr. Nguyen Ngoc Hai LINEAR ALGEBRA
1.3 DETERMINANTS
1.3.6 ADJOINT MATRIX AND INVERSE
Theorem 3.12
If A is an square matrix, then
3x + 2y + 3z = 4
−2x − 4y + 2z = −12
2x + 3z = 0.
u1 = v1 , u2 = v2 , ..., un = vn .
u + v = (u1 + v1 , u2 + v2 , ..., un + vn ).
Theorem 4.1
If u = (u1 , u2 , ..., un ), v = (v1 , v2 , ..., vn ), and
w = (w1 , w2 , ..., wn ) are vectors in IR n and k and l are scalars,
then
(a) u + v = v + u
(b) u + (v + w) = (u + v) + w
(c) u + 0 = 0 + u = u
(d) u + (−u) = 0, that is, u − u = 0
(e) k(lu) = (kl)u
(f) k(u + v) = ku + kv
(g) (k + l)u = ku + lu
(h) 1u = u
u · v = u1 v1 + u2 v2 + · · · + un vn .
Theorem 4.2
If u, v, and w are vectors in IR n and k is any scalar, then
(a) u · v = v · u;
(b) (u + v) · w = u · w + v · w;
(c) (ku) · v = ku · v = u · (kv);
(d) u · u ≥ 0. Further, u · u = 0 if and only if u = 0.
√ √
Example 4.2 Let u = (1, 2 2, 4) and v = (3, 2, 5). Compute
(a) kuk and kvk (b) d(u, v).
Dr. Nguyen Ngoc Hai LINEAR ALGEBRA
1.4 VECTOR SPACES
1.4.1 EUCLIDEAN n -SPACE
Definition 4.7
Example 4.4 Verify that the set of all 2 × 3 matrices with real
entries is a real vector space.
In general for any m and n the set of all m × n matrices with real
entries, together with the operations of matrix addition and scalar
multiplication, is a real vector space.
hu, vi = u1 v1 + u2 v2 + · · · + un vn
More generally, if
µ1 , µ2 , ..., µn
are positive real numbers, and if u = (u1 , u2 , ..., un ) and
v = (v1 , v2 , ..., vn ) are vectors in IR n , then it can be shown that the
formula
hu, vi = µ1 u1 v1 + µ2 u2 v2 + · · · + µn un vn
defines an inner product on IR n ; it is called the weighted
Euclidean inner product with weights µ1 , µ2 , ..., µn .
Dr. Nguyen Ngoc Hai LINEAR ALGEBRA
1.4 VECTOR SPACES
1.4.2 GENERAL VECTOR SPACES
d(u − v) = ku − vk.
Linear Transformations
If V and W are any vector spaces and F is a function that
associates a unique vector in W with each vector in V , we say F
maps V into W , and write F : V → W . Further, if F associates
the vector w in W with the vector v in V , we write w = F (v ) and
say that w is the image of v under F . F is called a mapping (or
transformation or operator) of V into W .
Theorem 4.5
Let W be a nonempty subset of a vector space V . Then W is a
subspace of V if and only if the following conditions are met.
(a) If u and v are vectors in W , then u + v is in W .
(b) If k is any scalar and u is any vector in W , then ku is in W .
w = k1 v1 + k2 v2 + · · · + kp vp ,
Theorem 4.6
If v1 , v2 , ..., vr are vectors in in a vector space V , then the set
of all linear combinations of v1 , v2 , ..., vr is a subspace of V .
Theorem 4.7
If A is an m × n matrix, then the range of A is a subspace of
IR m . More precisely,
The rows of A,
Theorem 4.8
Let A be an m × n matrix, and suppose that A is row
equivalent to the m × n matrix B. Then A and B have the
same row space.
Linear Independence
Theorem 4.9
n vectors v1 = (v11 , v12 , ..., v1n ), ..., vn = (vn1 , vn2 , ..., vnn ) in
IR n are linearly independent if and only if
v11 v12 ... v1n
v21 v22 ... vnn
.. 6= 0.
.. ..
. . .
vn1 vn2 ... vnn
Basis
x = k1 v1 + k2 v2 + · · · + kp vp .
Theorem 4.10
If the nonzero matrix A is row equivalent to the matrix B in
echelon form, then the nonzero rows of B form a basis for the
row space of A.
Dimension
Theorem 4.11
If S = {v1 , v2 , ..., vp } is a basis for a vector space V , then
every set with more than p vectors is linearly dependent.
Corollary 4.1
Let S be a set of p vectors in IR n . If p > n, then S is linearly
dependent.
Theorem 4.12
Any two bases for a finite-dimensional vector space have the
same number of vectors.
Theorem 4.13
If A is any matrix, then the row space and the column space
of A have the same dimension.
Corollary 4.2
rank(A) = rank(AT )
Theorem 4.14
A system of linear equations Ax = b is consistent if and only
if the rank of the coefficient matrix is the same as the rank of
the augmented matrix.
Theorem 4.15
An n × n matrix A is nonsingular if and only if the rank of A
is n.